Chemistry

 Periodic Table

o 3 Types of Particles

▪ Proton (P)  nucleus

 Positive charge

▪ Neutron (n)  nucleus

 Neutral charge

▪ Electron (ē)  shells

 Negative charge

o Reading the periodic table

▪ Atomic Number

 Number of protons and electrons

▪ Atomic mass

 Protons + Neutrons

▪ Number of Neutrons

 Atomic Mass – Atomic Number

 Bohr- Rutherford Diagram

o 2 areas

▪ Nucleus  protons & neutrons

▪ Shells  electrons

o Drawing

1. Place number of protons/neutrons in the middle

2. Electrons circle in nucleus

 2 in first shell

 8 in rest

 Lewis-Dot Diagram

o Drawing

1. Core of atom  represented by element symbol

2. Determine number of valence electrons  4 sides

 One dot clockwise  double

 Compounds

o 3 Ionic Compounds

▪ Monovalent Compounds

 Definition

o Compound containing metal and non-mental  one charge

 Naming

o Chemical Formula

▪ Write down element symbols

▪ Write down charges

▪ Criss-cross  reduce

o Chemical Name

▪ Write down metal and non-metal

▪ Change ending of non-metal  -ide

▪ Multivalent Compounds

 Definition

o Compound containing a metal and a non metal

▪ Two or more charges

  Naming

o Chemical Formula

▪ Write down element symbols

▪ Write down charges

▪ Criss-cross  reduce

o Chemical Name

▪ Write metal  roman numeral

 Corresponding to charge

▪ Write down non metal  ends in –ide

▪ Polyatomic Compounds

 Definition

o Compounds containing metal and polyatomic ions

 Naming

o Chemical Formula

▪ Write down element symbols

▪ Write down charges

▪ Criss-cross  reduce

o Chemical Name

▪ Write metal and polyatomic ion

o 1 Covalent Bond

▪ Molecular Compounds

 Definition

o Compound containing

▪ Non-metal and metalloid

▪ Non-metal and non-metal

 Naming

o Chemical Formula

▪ Write down element symbol

▪ Write down amount of atoms

 Do not reduce
 o Chemical Name

▪ Write Element

▪ Use prefixes  according to amount

 Balancing Chemical Equations

o 7 Steps

1. All diatomic molecules  subscript of 2

 HOFBrINCl

2. Balance metal atoms  coefficients

 Add a coefficient

o Adjust number of atoms  other elements

3. Balance non-metals  not oxygen

 Add a coefficient

o Adjust number of atoms  other elements

4. Balance Oxygen

 Check for subscripts  share GCF

5. Balance Hydrogen

6. Coefficients  reduced

7. Coefficient  halves

 Double

 Chemical Reactions

o Follow law of conservation of mass

 Mass of reactants = Mass of Products

o Evidence of a chemical change

 Gas (bubbles)  Colour

 Heat  Odour
o Types of Reaction

 Synthesis Reactions

 Two substances (elements)  combine

o Form a compound

o A + B  AB
 Decomposition Reaction

 Compounds  break apart

o Form smaller compounds/elements

o AB  A+ B

 Exceptions

o Carbonates

▪ Decompose to Carbon Dioxide + metal oxide

o Chlorates

▪ Decompose to oxygen gas + metal chloride

o Hydroxides

▪ Decompose to metal oxide + water

 Single Displacement

 One element replaces another – compound

o Metal replaces metal

o Non-metal replaces non-metal

o A + BC  AC + B

▪ A=Metal

o A + BC  BA + C

▪ A= Non – Metal

 Double Displacement

 Metal replaces metal

 Non-metal replaces non metal

o AB + CD  AD + CB

 Combustion

 Fuel burns  reacts with oxygen quickly

o Products  oxide and energy

 2 Types

o Hydrocarbons (CxHy)

▪ Only contains carbon + hydrogen

 Complete combustion (oxygen)

o Carbon dioxide

o Water

o Energy
  Incomplete combustion (oxygen)

o Carbon monoxide

o Carbon

o Carbon dioxide

o Water

o Energy

o Neutralization Reaction

▪ Acid-base neutralization

 Double displacement

▪ Acid + Base  Water and Salt

 Salt isn’t always NaCl

o Combination of inside elements

 Acid and Bases

o Acids

 Characteristics

 Molecular compounds

 Dissolve in water

 Reacts with metal/carbonates

 Conduct electricity

 Neutralize bases

 Names and Formulas

 Binary Acids (Hydrogen +Single Element)

o General formula  HX

o General Name  hydro ic acid

 Oxyacids (Hydrogen + Polyatomic)

o General formula  HXY

o General name

▪ Polyatomic ends in –ate

  ic acid

▪ Polyatomic ends in –ite

   ous acid

o Base

 Characteristics

 Ionic compounds  made up of OH (hydroxide)

 Dissolve in water easily

 React with cations

 Conduct electricity

 Neutralize acids

 Names and Formulas

 Hydroxide

o General formula  XOH

o General name  metal hydroxide

o Acid – Base Indications

 Indicate

 Chemical  turns different colour

o Comes in contact with acid/base

  Chemical Indications

 Blue Litmus Paper

o Acid  turns red o Base  nothing

 Red Litmus Paper

o Acid  nothing o Base  turns

blue

 Phenolphthalein

o Acid  nothing o Base  turns

pink

Biology
 Types of Cells
o Two Major Types
 Prokaryotic Cells
 Simple Cells
o Don’t contain nucleus & other membrane-bound organelles
o Bacteria
 Eukaryotic Cells
 Complex Cells
o Contains nucleus & other organelles
o Protists and Amoeba
o Plants and Animals
 Importance of Cell Division
o Allows organisms to reproduce
 Pass on genetic information to offspring
 Two types
 Asexual Reproduction
o Parent cell divides  makes a copy of itself
▪ Genetically identical
 Sexual Reproduction
o Males create sperm
o Females create eggs
▪ Sperm and Eggs fuse  genetic information from each parent
o Grow
 Divide  instead of growing too big
 Important chemicals/water can move
 Divide build on one another
 Form the tissues/organs  make up an organism
o Repair damaged areas
 Continuously replacing cells  due to damage
 Cause by cuts and breaks
 Allows for damaged cells to be replaced  organism can continue to function properly
 The Cell Cycle
o Three stages
 Interphase
  Longest stage  not a resting stage
 Carrying out all life activities  growth, respiration, and specialized functions
 Cell prepares for division
o DNA replicated  two identical strands
o Organelles replicated
o Cell increases in size
 Mitosis
 Definition
o Process of cell division  result in parent cell divided
▪ Two new daughter cells
 Identical to each other  original parent cell
 4 Stages
o Prophase
▪ Cell prepares for nuclear division
 Packages DNA into chromosomes
 Nuclear membrane is dissolved
o Metaphase
▪ Cell prepares chromosomes for division
 Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell
 Spindle fibres attach from daughter cells
o Chromosomes at the centromere
o Anaphase
▪ Spindle fibers pull chromosomes apart (centromere splits)
 ½ of each chromosome (chromotid)
o moves to each daughter cell
o Telophase
▪ DNA spreads out
▪ 2 nuclei form
▪ New cell wall forms  between two daughter cells
 Cytokinesis
 Cytoplasm divides  produces two genetically identical daughter cells
 Cell Specialization
o Specialized Cells
 Not all identical
 Created to perform specific functions
o Different physical and chemical differences
▪ Allow each type to perform specific job
 Animal Cells
 Red Blood Cells
o Contain hemoglobin  carries oxygen in the blood
▪ Smooth  easily pass through blood vessels
 Skin Cells
o Fit together tightly  cover the outside
▪ Protect cells inside
 Reduce water loss
 Bone Cells
o Collect calcium from food  allow growth and repair
▪ Build up bone around themselves  create body’s skeleton
 Muscle Cells
o Arranged in bundles  muscle fibres
o Can contact  makes fibres shorter
▪ Causes bones to move
 White Blood Cells
o Movie like an amoeba  engulf/fight infections
  Sperm Cells
o Able to move independently
▪ Carry DNA from male parent  join with egg from female parent
 Fat Cells
o Large vacuoles  store fat molecules
▪ Cell stores chemical energy
 Nerve Cells
o Long, thin with numerous branches
▪ Conduct electrical impulses  coordinate body activity
 Photocyte Cell
o Help animals emit light
▪ Active at night/live in deep ocean
 Plant Cells
 Xylem Cells
o Transport water/ dissolved minerals  throughout plant
 Storage Cells
o Contain special structures  store starch
▪ Source of energy
 Photosynthesis Cells
o Contain chloroplasts  collect energy from sunlight
▪ Make sugar for plant
 Phloem Cells
o Transport dissolved sugars around the plant
 Epidermal
o On young roots  absorb water from soil
 Guard
o Surface of the leaves  controls water loss
 Levels of Organization
o Least Complex to Most Complex
 Cell
 Basic unit of life
 Tissue
 Collection of similar cells  perform specific functions
o Animal Tissues
▪ 4 types
 Connective Tissue
o Various types of cells/fibers
▪ Held together by a matrix (liquid, solid or gel)
o Joins/supports structures
 Epithelial tissue
o Made of a thin sheet of cells
▪ Tightly packed together  form a protective
barrier
 Muscle Tissue
o Contains proteins  contract/enable body to move
▪ skeletal muscles  helps you move
▪ smooth and cardiac muscles  help organs
move
  Nervous Tissue
o Responds to stimuli
o Sends electrical signals throughout the body
o Plant Tissues
▪ 4 Types
 Vascular Tissue
o Transports water and nutrients
▪ Xylem  moves water and minerals
▪ Phloem  moves dissolved sugar
(photosynthesized)
 Epidermal Tissue
o Protective outer covering
▪ Allows the exchange of materials  CO2 and O2
 Ground Tissue
o Provides support
▪ Stores water/nutrients
o Photosynthesis occurs
 Meristematic Tissue
o Growth occurs
 Organ
 Structure composed of different tissues  perform a complex body function
o Work in one system  play a role in many
 Organ System
 System of one or more organs  working to together
o Perform a vital body function
 Allow organism to accomplish basic functions
o Obtain oxygen o Sense/respond to
o Obtain nutrients environment
o Eliminate waste o Reproduce
 Organism
 Stem Cells
o Process
 Unspecialised cells  become other specialized types of cells
 Exposed to special environmental conditions
o Cellular Differentiation
▪ Process that produces specialized cells  directed by genetic
information
o Types
 Embryonic
 Become any type of cell
 Multipotent
 Differentiate into certain types of cells  exist within specialized tissues
o Regeneration
 Body part is re-grown  mitosis
 Limited ability
o Able to regenerate adult fingertips
o Re-grow parts of organs
▪ Take cells  grow in labs  transplant back into patients
o Future Treatment
 Help body fight cancers
 Recover from degenerative diseases
 Parkinson’s
 Alzheimer’s
 Circulatory System
o Function
 Transport of nutrients
 Digestive system  body cells
 Transports oxygen
 From lungs  body cells
 Transport of wastes
 Away from body cells  lungs and kidneys
 Regulates body temperature
 Transports white blood cells  immune system
o 3 Parts
 Blood
 Connective tissue
 Made up of
o Red Blood Cells
▪ Carry oxygen, waste and nutrients
o White Blood Cells
▪ Fight infections
o Plasma
▪ Water portion of blood
o Platelets
▪ Used to form scabs  heal wounds
 Heart
 Made up of
o Cardiac Muscle
o Nerve Tissues
o Connective Tissue
 Pumps blood around body
 Regular beat  change in response to events
 Process
o De-oxygenated blood
▪ Superior/Inferior Vena Cava Right Atrium Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Artery
o Oxygenated Blood
▪ Pulmonary Vein  Left Atrium  Left Ventricle  Aorta
 Vessels
 Arteries
o Carry blood away from heart
 Veins
o Carry blood towards heart
 Capillaries
o Tiny blood vessels  one cell thick
o Allow substance to diffuse  blood and body tissue
 Respiratory System
o Functions
 Provide oxygen to the body
 Remove carbon dioxide from the body
o Map
 Nasal Cavity  Pharynx Trachea  Bronchi Lungs  Alveoli  Blood Stream Cell
  Digestive System
o Digestive Tract
 Series of hollow organs
 Connect mouth to anus
 Other organs
 Produce/store organs  break down/absorb food
 Map
 Mouth
o Digestion begins
o Saliva  produced by salivary glands
▪ Breaks down carbohydrates  known as starches
 Peristalsis
o Involuntary muscle contractions
▪ Triggered by the nervous system
 Stomach
o Passes through the esophagus sphincter  lets food into the stomach
o Glands produce stomach acid  break down proteins
▪ Thick layer of mucus  protects stomach from its own acid
o Muscle action  mixes food with digestive juices
▪ Emptied into small intestines  pyloric sphincter
 Intestines
o Small Intestines
▪ First Part
 Duodenum
o Chemicals produced by other organs  enter digestive
process
o Bile produced by liver  dissolves fat
▪ Folded into finger-like projections  villi
 Increases surface area
 Food molecules  absorbed into the bloodstream
o Obtains energy and nutrients
o Large Intestines (Colon)
▪ Doesn’t break down food  Absorbs Water
 Other Organs
o Liver
▪ Produces bile  Stored in the Gall Bladder
o Pancreas
▪ Produces insulin
o Body Defences
 Vomiting
 Forcibly remove contents  middle of small intestines and up
 Liver
 Filter the body
 Musculoskeletal System
o Three Parts
 Bones
 Hard and dense
 Made up of bone cells
 o Matrix of minerals (calcium and phosphorus)
 Nerve tissues/blood vessels  pass through canals in bones
 Ligaments
 Lough and elastic
 Hold bones together  at the joints
 Made up of long collagen fibres
 Cartilage
 Cells  matrix of collagen
 Strong and flexible support
 Found in nose, ears and esophagus  disks between vertebrae and joints
o Muscles
 Made up of long cells  muscle fibres
 Contain protein  allow contractions and releases
 Three types
 Skeletal  voluntary
 Smooth  involuntary
 Cardiac  heart
o Functions
 Structure/Support
 Locomotion
 Protection
 Mineral Storage
 Blood Cells  bone marrow
o Osteoporosis
 Definition
 Bones become brittle/fragile  loss of bone tissue
 At risk
 Older adult, postmenopausal women, steroid users
 Preventive Measures
 High calcium, vitamin D, exercise, limit smoking/alcohol
 Nervous System
o Made up of
 Brain
 Spinal Cord
 Peripheral Nerves
o Function
 Senses the environment  co-ordinated appropriate responses
o Organization
 Two major divisions
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
o Brain and spinal cord
o Coordinates all body’s activities
o Relays messages  process information  analyzes responses
o Shielded by bones
▪ Skull  Brain
▪ Spine  Spinal Cord
  Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
o Nerve  bundle of axons
▪ Contain sensory and motor neurons
o Contains all nerves  not part of CNS
o 3 groups
1. Control voluntary muscles
2. Carry sensory information to the brain
3. Regulate involuntary functions
o Structure
 Neurons
 Specialized nerve cells  combined to form tissue
o Help you gather information about your environment
▪ Interpret the information  react
 Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves
 Consist of three main regions
o Dendrites
▪ Pass signals they receive  onto the cell body
o Cell body
o Axon
▪ Passes those impulses onto other neurons/muscles
 Sensory Receptors
 Receive input from the external environment
 Sensory Neurons
o Send impulses from receptors in skin and sense organs
▪ To the brain and spinal cord
 Motor Neurons
o Carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord
▪ To a gland or muscles  resulting in secretion/movement
 Nerve impulse
o Completes a reflex arc/nerve pathway
▪ Don’t involve conscious thought
 Immune System
o Layered Defence System  protects organs from infection
 3 Stages
 Surface Barriers  prevent pathogen from entering
o Skin
▪ Dead skin cells  prevent invasion by micro-organisms
▪ Bacteria lives on skin
 Produces acids  kill many pathogens
o Body Fluids
▪ Saliva, tears and nasal mucous  contain enzyme lysozyme
 Break down bacterial cell walls  kills pathogens
▪ Mucus  protective barrier
 Blocks bacteria  sticking to inner epithelial cells
  Non-Specific Immunity
o Cellular Defence
▪ Phagocytosis
 Phagocytic cells  surround and internalize the foreign
microorganism
o Release digestive enzymes/other harmful chemicals
▪ Destroys microorganism
o Inflammatory Response
▪ Increased blood flow to infected area  blood vessels become
penetrable
 Allows white blood cells to escape into infected areas
o Kill infections causing microorganisms
 Specific Immunity
o Active Immunity
▪ Immunity got/ developed in your life
 Developed by taking a vaccine  expose to the
bacteria/virus
o Immunization
 Deliberate exposure of your body to a germ 
 Primary response/immune memory cells will develop
o Natural Immunity
 Immunity you are born with
 Natural defence against disease
o Immune System Failure
 Diseases can affect immune systems effectiveness
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome  AIDS
 HIV infect immune cells
 Become HIV factories  produces new viruses
o Number of healthy immune cells in a infected person decreases
 Organ Transplantation
o General information
 Organs
 Heart  Pancreas  Livers
 Liver  Intestines  Kidneys
 Tissues
 Cornea  Bone  Blood Vessels
 Skin  Tendons  Bone Marrow
o Benefits
 Normal life
 Donor  satisfaction
 Developing research in the area
o Risks
 Organ and tissue  rejected by immune system
 Take drugs to prevent  suppress immune system
o Ability to fight infections reduced
 Associated with surgery
 Donors back up organs could fail
 o Living Donor Organs
 Lung  requires two living donors
 Each provide one lobe
 Kidney  one donor
 Liver  regenerate
 One lobe of liver
 Family members  increased chance of genetic match
o Deceased Donor Organs
 Family members  give consent on behalf
 Sign a donor card
 Organs are checked  damaged/unhealthy
 Recipient searched for
o Factors taken into account
▪ Blood/tissue types
▪ Age/location of donor and recipient
▪ Length of time
o Xeno transplantation
 Xeno=foreign
 Transplanting body parts from one to another
 Pigs provide heart valves
 Cells have been killed  no longer considered living tissue
 Tumour
o Definition
 Caused by uncontrolled cell division of mutated cells
o Types
 Benign Tumour (Cancer)
 Cell division is unchecked  proceeds as a moderate rate
 Doesn’t invade surrounding cells  pushes
 Doesn’t spread
o Harmless  unless found in the brain
 Malignant Tumour (Cancer)
 Cell division is unchecked  occurs rapidly
o Spend little time in Interphase
 Damage and destroy surrounding cells  invades them
 Can spread
o Interfere with the function of other cells  results in death
▪ Tumour is not destroyed/removed
Physics
 Light
o Properties

▪ Form of energy

▪ Travels in straight lines

▪ Can be reflected  bounced in a new path

▪ Can be refracted  bend in a new path

▪ Causes shadows
▪ Travels at high speed

 Nothing Travels faster

 300 000 000 m/s  3.00 x 108

▪ Electromagnetic

 Wave
o Made from electricity and magnetism travelling together

▪ Travel at the speed of light

o Travel through a vacuum empty space of matter

▪ Ex. Space

o Doesn’t require a medium  physical substance

 Spectrum
o The Electromagnetic Spectrum

 Radio
o AM Radio

 Microwave
o Microwave Oven

 Infrared
o Night Vision Goggles

 Visible
o

 Ultraviolet
o Suntans

 X-Ray
o Medical X-Rays

 Gamma Ray
o Pet Imaging
o The Visible Spectrum

▪ Red ▪ Orange
 ▪ Yellow ▪ Indigo

▪ Green ▪ Violet

▪ Blue
o How is it
produced?
▪ 7 Types

 Incandescence
o What

▪ Producing light due to high temperature

 Object gets hotter causes colour to change

o Example

▪ Incandescent light bulbs

 Electric Discharge
o What

▪ Electric current passes through a gas

 Reacts to produce a spark  light

o Example

▪ Neon light, lightning

 Phosphorescence
o What

▪ Glow in the Dark

 Special material absorbs UV light  releases visible light

o Period of time
o Example

▪ Glow in the dark stickers

 Fluorescence
o What

▪ Emission of light  from a substance that has absorbed light (UV)

 Absorbs UV light  immediately release visible light

o Example

▪ Fluorescent Light

 Chemiluminescence
o What

▪ Substance produces heat

 Chemical Reactions
o Example

▪ Light Stick

 Bioluminescence
o What

▪ Organism realises light

 Chemical reactions in body takes place

o Emits light
o Example

▪ Firefly

 Triboluminescence
o What

▪ Substance gives off light

  Being scratched, crushed or rubbed
o Example

▪ Duct tape

 Lasers
o Definition

▪ Stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

o Compared to Light Bulbs

▪ Laser

 Consists of electromagnetic waves  same energy levels

 Pure in colour  intense/concentrated

o Travel great distances  without spreading out

▪ Light Bulb

 Emits different electromagnetic waves  different energy levels

 Not concentrated/intense
o Uses

▪ Medical
▪ Astronomy
▪ Industrial
▪ Aesthetics
o Laser Eye Surgery (LASIK)

▪ Definition
 Vision correction
o People who are near/far sighted or stigmatism

▪ Reshaped cornea  sharpen vision

 With ultraviolet laser

 Mirrors

o Light behaves when striking a mirror  incident ray

▪ Reflected, transmitted or absorbed

 Transparent  transmit all incident light

 Translucent  transmit some incident light

 Opaque  transmit no incident light

▪ Light Rays
 Illustrate path of light  hitting an object
o Laws of Reflection

▪ Angle of incidence = Angle of Reflection

▪ Incident ray, Reflection ray and normal  all on same plane/side
o Surfaces
 ▪ Specular Reflection  reflection off smooth/shiny surface

▪ Diffuse Reflection  reflection off irregular/dull surface

o Plane Mirrors

▪ Two Ways

 Light Rays  how we see images

o

 Equal Perpendicular Lines  how images appear

o Measure distance from object to mirror  do same on other side

▪ Redraw
o Curved Mirrors

▪ Types
 Concave  converging
o

 Convex  diverging
o

▪ Applications

 Satellite dishes
o Parabolic reflectors (concave mirrors)

 Search light

 Solar ovens
o Box cookers
o Curved concentrators
o Panel cookers

 Periscope

 Makeup Mirror  concave

 Security Mirror  convex

 Index of Refraction
 o Snell’s Law

▪ n1sinΘ1 = n2sinΘ2

 Value of n

o Air  1.00

o Pure Water  1.33

o Definition

▪ Ratio of speed of light in a vacuum/speed of light in a medium

 Equation
o n=c/v
c
▪ n = index of refraction
m/s n v
▪ c= speed of light in a vacuum  3.00 x 108

▪ v= speed of light in a given medium

o n=sin∠I /sin∠R

▪ ∠I = Angle of incidence

▪ ∠R = angle of refraction

▪ n = index of refraction
 Refraction
o Definition

▪ Change in direction  light

 Passes at an angle  one medium to another

o Some light will reflect  rest will refract

o Terms

▪ Angle of incidence
 Angle between incident ray  normal

▪ Angle of refraction

 Angle between refracted ray  normal

o Facts

▪ Ray of light  passes into slower/more optically dense medium

 Bends towards normal

▪ Ray of light  passes into faster/less optically dense medium

 Bends away from normal

▪ Angle of incidence = 0
 No refraction

o No change in direction  yes change in speed

 o Rules for Refraction

▪ Three

 Incident ray, refracted ray and normal  all lie on same plane

 Light bends towards normal  travels more slowly in second medium than first

 Light bends away from normal  travels faster in second medium than first

 Total Internal Reflection

o Recall

▪ Light slows down  enters a new medium (less dense to dense)

 Bends towards normal

o Angle of refraction < angle of incidence

▪ Light speeds up  enters a new medium (dense to less dense)

 Bends away from normal

o Angle of refraction > angle of incidence
o Critical Angle

▪ Angle of incidence  results in an angle of refraction of 90o

o Definition

▪ Increase angle of incidence past critical angle  refracted ray will no longer exit
medium
 Reflect into the median

o Refracted ray disappears  only reflected ray is visible

o Conditions

▪ Light is traveling more slowly in the first medium than the second

▪ Angle of incidence  large enough that no refraction occurs in second medium

o Examples

▪ Diamonds
 Sparkle  cut of the diamond face combined with high index of refraction
o Results in total internal refraction
o Small critical angle

▪ Great deal of incident light  undergoes total internal reflection

 Light rays bounce around  before exiting diamond

▪ Fiber Optics

 Use light to transmit information  glass cables

o Communications industry & medicine

▪ Phones, computer and TVs

▪ Endoscope

o Light cannot escape  must have a small critical angle

 ▪ Angle of incidence> critical angle

▪ Optical Fiber

 Used to transmit light to instrument panel in cars

o Rapidly replacing copper wire  three reasons

▪ Signals aren’t affected  electrical storms

▪ Carry many more signals over long distances

▪ Smaller/lighter
▪ Triangular Prism

 More useful than mirrors  reflect almost 100% of light internals

o Used in periscope/binoculars

▪ Retro-Reflectors

 Optical device that returns an incident light  same direction

 Built into road sign and bikes
 Optical Phenomenon
o Mirage

▪ Virtual image  forms as a result of refraction/total internal reflection

 Light travels from cool to warmer air

o Bends away from normal  air temperature increases

▪ Total internal Reflection

 Occurs in lowest (hottest) air

o Light ray travels up from the hottest layer  cooler later

▪ Gradually refracted towards the normal temperature decreases

o Looming

▪ Wind brings warm air over a very cold ocean

 Light from an object  travels upwards

o Curves and starts back down  reaches warmer air

▪ Light that reaches observes  come from beyond the horizon

o Shimmering

▪ Image of moon on water’s surface

 Light is refracted  passes through air/different temperatures

o Air above lake  much warmer than air father away from water’s surface

▪ Coldest layer  light travels more slowly (bends towards normal)

▪ Warmest layer  light travels faster (bends away from normal)

o Total internal reflection occurs

▪ Multiple virtual images of moon on surface

o Rainbow

▪ Dispersion
 Separation of white light  into spectrum by a prism

o Each color of visible light  travels at slight different speeds

▪ Goes through glass prism

 Violet slows down  red speeds up
o ROYGBIV

▪ Refraction  light enters drop

 Partial internal reflection  light hits back of rain drop

o Refraction  light exits raindrop

o Sundogs
o Apparent Depth
o Flattened Sun
 Lenses

o Converging Lenses  convex

▪ Thicker in center

 Parallel light rays  converge in point after lenses

o Diverging Lenses  concave

▪ Thicker on edges

 Parallel light rays  disperse after lenses

 Human Eye
o Parts of the Eye

▪ Cornea

 Clear white covering  outside of the eye

o Help eye focus like lens on camera
 ▪ Iris

 Part of eye that has colour

o Get bigger and smaller  let more/less light in

▪ Pupil
 Black opening in middle of eye
o Light comes through this opening

▪ Lens
 Bends light
o See close up and far away

▪ Vitreous Humor
 Clear water like substance  back of your eye

▪ Retina
 Has nerve cells  rods and cones
o Process light

▪ Rods
 Black, white and shades of grey

▪ Cones

 Colours
o Three types

▪ Red

▪ Green

▪ Blue

▪ Optic Nerve
 Carries electrical signals

o Retina  brain
o How the Eye Works

▪ Process
 Light bounces off objects  into your eyes

o Enter eye  cornea (thick/transparent protective layer on surface of eye)

▪ Pass through pupil  into lens

 Shines through vitreous humour  back of the eye

o Hits retina  takes light & changes into nerve

impulses

▪ Sent to brain  optic nerve

▪ Flipped Image
  Seeing images  inverted/flipped upside down on retina
o Imperfect Eyesight

▪ Nearsightedness

 Can see objects up close  not far away

o Myopia

▪ Light is focused on point in front of retina

 Uses diverging/negative meniscus lens

▪ Farsightedness

 Can see objects far away  not close

o Hyperopia

▪ Light is focused on point behind retina

 Uses converging/positive meniscus lens