YEAR 11 CHEMISTRY ATAR REVISIONaaaa aaaaa aaa

atoms and the periodic table (recap of year 10)

● 5 scientists were involved in developing the structure of the atom (John Dalton, JJ
Thompson, Ernest Rutherofrd, Schrodinger, and Chadwick.
● Atoms are the smallest unit of matter, and everything in the universe is made of them.
They are made of:

1. Protons (in nucleus)

2. Neutrons (in nucleus)
3. Electrons (in electron cloud)

sub-atomic location relative relative

particle charge mass

proton nucleus +1 1

neutron nucleus 0 1

electron rapidly moving -1 1/1836

around nucleus

How to work out the no. of protons,

neutrons and electrons in an atom:

1. Look at the atomic number for the

number of protons.
2. The amount of protons always equals
the amount of electrons.
3. Subtract the atomic number from the
mass number to find the amount of
neutrons.

Electron Configuration: First ring always has 2

electrons. The next rings have up to 8 - if there
are more, you move onto the next ring.

isotopes

● An isotope is an alternative form of an element with a different number of neutrons,

ultimately affecting the mass number, but not the atomic number.
ionic and covalent bonding

ionic covalent

● metal + non-metal ● only non-metals (except group 18)

● metal loses e-, non-metal gains e- ● share e-, instead of gain/loss
● forms cation and anion ● molecule (a substance that contains
● e.g. magnesium chloride (MgCl2) two or more non-metals) is formed
● e.g. ammonia (NH3)

diatomic elements

● Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine.

● Exhibit covalent bonding.
ionic formulas

● An ionic substance contains a cation (+ve ion) and an anion (-ve ion).
● Salts are considered as ionic substances. The name of a salt will consist of a metal and
non-metal component. The metal always comes first, followed by the non-metal. The
suffix on the non-metal tells us if the ion is polyatomic or not.
● If the salt ends in ‘ide’ (e.g. sodium chloride), it contains only 2 elements (refer to P.T.).
Only exception is the hydroxide ion (OH-).
● If the salt ends in ‘ate’ or ‘ite’ it contains a polyatomic ion (e.g. sodium nitrate/ite).
● If there is more than one ion, brackets are required. e.g. barium hydroxide is Ba(OH)2.

covalent formulas

● Covalent atoms do not have a

prefix no. of atoms
valency due to the fact that they
share e-. In order to determine the mono 1
no. of atoms, identify any prefix.
● No prefix? Assume there is one. di 2

tri 3

tetra 4

penta 5

hexa 6

types of reactions

● Acid metal reaction: Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

e.g. hydrochloric acid + zinc → zinc chloride + hydrogen

● Acid base reaction: Acid + base → salt + water

e.g. hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium chloride + water

● Acid carbonate reaction: Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

e.g. hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate → sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide.

● Precipitation reaction: Two ionic aqueous solutions mix and form a solid.
○ Solute (s) + solvent (l) → aqueous solution
○ A solid may be formed. Refer to the solubility table!
○ Swap ions ! (e.g. AB + CD → AD + CB)
○ All nitrates, ethanoates, potassium, and sodium ions are soluble (aq). If the
molecule does not contain any of these, refer to the solubility table.
naming ionic and covalent bonds

Ionic Covalent

● Metal/non-metal ● Only non-metals (exclude group 18)

● Metal loses e-, non-metal gains e- ● Share e- instead of losing/gaining
● Forms cations (+), and anions (-) ● Molecule (a substance that contains
more than two non-metals) is formed

writing formula for ionic and covalent bonds

Ionic Covalent

● An ionic substance contains a cation ● Covalent atoms do not have a valency

(+ ion) and an anion (- ion). because they share electrons.
● Salts are ionic substances. Names of ● Identify prefixes to determine the
salts consist of a metal and non-metal number of atoms.
component. ● No prefix? Assume there is 1.
● Metal comes before non-metal.
● Suffix on non-metal tells us if ion is
Prefix No. of atoms
polyatomic or not.
● If the salt ends in ‘ide’ (e.g. sodium mono- 1
chloride), it contains only 2 elements.
Exception is hydroxide (OH-) di- 2
● If salt ends in ‘ate’/’ite’ it contains a
polyatomic ion (e.g. sodium nitrate) tri- 3
● If there is more than one ion, brackets
are required. E.g. Barium hydroxide tetra- 4
→ Ba(OH)2
penta- 5

hexa- 6

writing observations, and balancing equations

● Use the data sheet.

● All acids are colourless.
● Generally, all colourless ions produce a white solid.
● Most gases and liquids are colourless, most metals are silvery or grey.

1. Count the atoms on each side of the equation.

2. Remember that we can only change the coefficients, and not the subscripts.
3. Change the coefficients only.
4. Count polyatomic ions (they contain more than one element) as one item.
5. Recount the atoms and make sure everything is equal.
basic compounds (need to know)

Formula Name
reactions

NH3 Ammonia combustion:

● Combustion (fuel) reaction: Fuel + oxygen →
NH4+ Ammonium
water + carbon dioxide
CH3COO- Acetate/ethanoate e.g. methane + oxygen → water + carbon dioxide
● Combustion (metal) reaction: Metal + oxygen
CH3COOH Acetic/ethanoic acid
→ metal oxide
CO32- Carbonate e.g. zinc + oxygen → zinc oxide

Cr2O72- Chromate new reactions:

PO4 3-
Phosphate ● Acid + metal sulphite → salt + water + sulphur
dioxide (SO2)
OH- Hydroxide ● Ammonium salt (NH4+) + base → salt + water +
ammonia(g) (NH3)
MnO4- Permanganate
Both sulphur dioxide and ammonia are pungent gases
NO3- Nitrate (NOT odourless).

SO42- Sulphate

alkanes, alkenes, benzene

● They are the most simple organic

compounds, containing only carbon (C)
and hydrogen (H).

alkanes alkenes

● Saturated ● Unsaturated
● Only contain single C-C (carbon to ● At least one C-C double bond.
carbon) bonds. ● Formula: CnH2n
● Formula: CnH(2n+2) ● Suffix: ‘ene’
● Suffix: ‘ane’

E.g. C5H12 (pentane) E.g C5H10 (pent-1-ene)

Pent = 5 carbons, ‘ane’ = single bonds Pent = 5 carbons, ‘1-ene’ double bond on the
FIRST carbon.
 ● Benzene can be drawn in three ways:

naming and drawing hydrocarbons (IUPAC nomenclature)

● Alkane:
1. Find the longest chain
2. Write the name, amount, position, alphabetical order if multiple of alkyl halides
3. Write the name, amount, position, alphabetical order if multiple alkyl groups and
name
4. Write the main amount name e.g pentane, propane, methane

● Alkene: Same as alkane, but change ‘ane’ to ‘ene’.

● Cyclo: Same as alkane and alkenes, but add ‘cyclo’ before alkane/alkene.
○ Cyclos are drawn in shapes that correspond to the numerical value. E.g.
pentane/pentene will form a pentagon.
differentiating between ‘ane’ and ‘ene’
● Adding bromine water (aq). This solution is orange.
● Alkanes will stay orange (no colour change, no reaction)
● Alkenes will turn clear/colourless (decolourisation - reaction with unsaturated
hydrocarbon).

alkyl groups:
● Methyl - CH3
● Ethyl - CH3CH2
● Propyl - CH3CH2CH2

alkyl halides:
● When a hydrogen is replaced by a halogen (group 17) atom.
● E.g. CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) e.g. dichlorofluoromethane (Freon-12)
● Naming: Bromo, Chloro, Fluoro, Iodo (must be alphabetical)

hydrocarbon reactions (combustion)

● Combustion: fuel + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
● E.g. CH4 + 202 → CO2 +2H2O

1. Alkanes are saturated. Use a substitution reaction.

2. Alkenes are unsaturated. Use an addition reaction that breaks the double bond.

These apply to
cycloalkanes and
cycloalkenes as well!
trends in the periodic table

Trend Description

Atomic Radius: Down Group:

● Increases - another electron shell added means valence
Size of atom electrons further from nucleus

Across Period:
● Decreases - more electrons and protons means electrostatic
attraction is greater and pulls valence shell closer

Electronegativity: Down Group:

● Decreases - outer shell further from nucleus so electrostatic
Ability to attract attraction is decreased. Therefore, electrons are less strongly
electron in attracted to chemical bonds.
chemical bond
Across Period:
● Increases - outer shell closer to nucleus due to increased
number of protons and electrons. This increases the
electrostatic attraction meaning electrons more tightly
attracted in chemical bonds.

1st Ionisation Down Group:

energy: ● Decreases - Greater number of electron shells means
outermost electron is further from electrostatic attraction of
Energy required protons so less energy is needed to remove it.
to remove an
electron Across Period:
● Increases - Greater number of protons and electrons means a
greater electrostatic attraction so more energy is required to
remove an electron.

Successive The ionisation energy increases successively because each electron

Ionisation energy is being removed from an increasingly positive ion. The closer to the
shell, from which the electrons are being removed, the greater the
ionisation energy. There is a large jump in ionisation energy when
electrons are removed from a new (closer to nucleus) shell.

E.g. Magnesium
● Mg → Mg+ + e- (IE = 0.744 mol-1)
● Mg → Mg2+ + e- (IE = 1.46 mol-1)
● Mg → Mg3+ + e- (IE = 7.74 mol-1)

Largest increase is between 2nd and 3rd ionisation energy so there

must be 2 e- in the outer shell, so Mg is in group 2.

Electron Affinity The ability of an atom in gaseous state to accept an electron and form
a positive ion. The difference from electronegativity is that it involves
the full addition of an electron, not just the ability to attract electrons.
metallic bonding

● Only metals.
● It is the electrostatic attraction between the positive cation and the sea of delocalised
electrons. The outermost (valence) electrons are removed (delocalised) from the metal
cations and move freely within a 3D arrangement of the cations. This is due to
decreasing ionisation energy and the decreasing electronegativity of metals. This forms
a sea of electrons.

property explanation

Conducts heat & electricity Mobility of delocalised electrons allows heat and electricity to
move along the piece of metal.

Hardness Strong electrostatic attraction between cations and electrons,

making it hard to separate from each other.

Malleability & ductility Layers of positive ions slide/slip past each other, while keeping
metallic bonds intact. This is due to non-directional bonds.

High M.P and B.P Strong electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and
negative electrons.
Lustre (shine) Light is reflected by mobile electrons causing shine.

Insoluble

ionic bonding

● Occurs between metals and nonmetals.

● It is the electrostatic attraction between the cation and anion in a 3D lattice.

property explanation

Hardness and brittle Hard due to the strong attraction of ions. Brittle due to the
orderly arrangement of ions, meaning that if layers are forced to
slide past each other, the like ions are pushed together,
increasing repulsive forces, and therefore shattering.

High M.P and B.P Force of attraction between ions is so strong that it requires
large amounts of heat to disrupt it.

Electrical conductivity Solid does not conduct because the ions have fixed positions -
they are not free to move and carry the charge. Liquid/aqueous
solution can conduct because the ions are free to move and can
carry the charge.

Range from insoluble to Check the solubility table on the data sheet.
soluble
covalent network bonding

● Diamond (compressed carbon) and graphite - are both allotropes of carbon.

● Silicon dioxide (SiO2) - common name: silica. This is present in sand.
● Silicon carbide
● Boron nitride

property explanation

Very high M.P and B.P Covalent bonds must be broken.

Non-conductors of All electrons are involved in bonding. Except in graphite where

electricity in solid/liquid there is one delocalised electron per atom.
state (except graphite)

Extremely hard and brittle Very strong covalent bonds but when disturbed, the like forces
lineup.

Insoluble

covalent molecular bonding

● Substances fall under this category if they are not one of the 5 covalent network
substances above.

property explanation

Low M.P and B.P Attractive forces between the molecules are weak. Note that
even in the boiling of substances, it is the forces between
molecules that are disrupted (intermolecular forces), not the
covalent bonds that are broken.

Soft and malleable Little force is required to push the molecules past each other
due to weak forces between them (solids only).

Non-conductivity Electricity conduction requires mobile charged particles to carry

the charge, but in molecules there are no ions (molecules are
neutral), and all electrons are used in bonding.

Solubility Generally insoluble in water, but are soluble in non-polar

substances. If the substance is not water (polar) assume the
substance is non-polar.
 nanotechnology basics

diamond graphite

● Diamond is a solid form of the ● Graphite is a soft, black, lustrous

element carbon with its atoms
arranged in a crystal structure called
diamond cubic.
● The 3D lattice (tetrahedron) has 4
covalent bonds.
● Intramolecular bonds.
● High strength (due to intramolecular
bonds)
● No conductivity (all electrons are used
in bonding)
mineral composed of carbon in a
hexagonal crystalline structure.
● Sheets/layers (called graphene)
● 3 covalent bonds.
● Intramolecular bonds.
● Intermolecular forces between layers
are easily disrupted.
● Soft/slippery.
● Conducts electricity (has free
delocalised electrons)

carbon nanotubes zinc oxides titanium oxides buckyballs (C60)

structure Stacks of graphene ZnO exists in two TiO2 exists in three 60 carbon atoms
sheets loosely bonded common crystalline crystalline forms: covalently bonded
together. forms: hexagonal (cubic) brookite, into a cage consisting
wurtzite and cubic anatase, and rutile. of 12 pentagons and
zincblende. 20 hexagons,
resembles a soccer
ball shape.

properties Depending on Absorbs ultraviolet White noncombustible High tensile strength

dimensions and light. Insoluble in and odourless powder. and elasticity.
symmetry, they can be water but soluble in It has an extremely Extremely stable.
conductors/semi-conduct dilute acids and high melting and Can withstand high
ors of electricity and bases. boiling point so occurs temperatures and
heat. Very elastic. Highly naturally as a solid is pressures. Insoluble
flexible. insoluble in water. Also in water. Good
an insulator. electron acceptors

uses To create nano-sized Used in diverse Used in solar cells, Good lubricants
transistors, diodes, and industries such as optical waveguides, because of their
computers. rubber, ceramics, interference filters, spherical shape.
medicine, food, capacitors, and Their hollow structure
pigments, and sensors. could make them
coatings useful for delivering
medicine in the
future. Used in
increasing the
efficiency of solar
cells in transforming
sunlight into
electricity.
determining the shape of covalent molecular substances

● VSEPR theory states that non-bonding electrons repel more than bonding electrons,
determining the shape of a molecule.
● To find the shape of a molecule, we have to be able to draw it first.
● To draw a molecule, refer to the periodic table and use the “have-want” table!

Let’s try:
CO2
● Refer to the periodic table to find the amount of
valence electrons the atom has and how many it wants.
● If there are multiple atoms, times the amount of
atoms by the amount of electrons it has/wants.
● To calculate the number or fonds, subtract e-have
from e-want (24-16=8). Then divide by 2. = 4

So… There are four bonds!

The single atom usually goes in the centre:

Na2SO4
● This is an ionic substance, however, when you separate the sodium from the sulphate,
we can see that the sulphate anion (SO4) is formed by covalent bonding (between
sulphur and oxygen).

2 electrons are added because SO4 has a charge of 2-.

Bonds: 40 - 32 = 8 / 2 = 4
So… There are four bonds!

2Na+ +

Now that we can draw the atoms and molecules, let’s move on to determining their shapes!
There are 5 different shapes:

1. Linear
2. V-shaped/Bent
3. Trigonal Planar
4. Pyramidal
5. Tetrahedral

shape diagram number of lone pairs around examples

Atoms the central atom?

Linear 2 or 3 No CO2, HCN, O2-

V-shaped/bent 3 Yes H2O, SO2

Trigonal 4 No BF3, SO3, CO32-

planar

Pyramidal 4 Yes NF3, NH3

Tetrahedral 5 No CH4,CH3Cl, SO42-

determining the polarity of covalent molecular substances

● A polar bond is a bond formed between atoms of differing electronegativity.

To determine the polarity of a molecule, ask yourself these questions:

polar vs nonpolar?

characteristic polar nonpolar

Bond polarity Maybe Maybe

Lone pair Maybe No

Symmetric No Yes

Net dipole Yes No

● Nonpolar substances include all alkanes and alkenes.

what intermolecular forces do these contain?

polar nonpolar

● Dispersion forces ● Dispersion forces

● Dipole-dipole
● Hydrogen bonding
what are intermolecular forces?

● Forces that occur between molecules that are covalent molecular compounds. There are
3 types: Dispersion, Dipole-Dipole and hydrogen forces.

Dispersion forces:
Weak forces which exist between all covalent molecular substances.
● Weakest intermolecular force
● Increases with molecular
mass (greater number of
electrons) and size
● Shape also affects strength -
the greater the surface
contact between molecules,
the greater the strength of
dispersion forces
E.g. Oxygen, Nitrogen, Methane,
Carbon dioxide

Dipole-dipole forces:
Weak attractive forces that occur
between two polar molecules.
● Negatively charged part of molecule can be slightly attractive to positively charged part
of molecule = attractive forces
● The more polar, the stronger the dipole-dipole force
E.g. Dichloromethane, Sulphur dioxide, Phosphorus trichloride

Hydrogen forces:
Dipole-dipole force between molecules that contain Fluorine, Oxygen or Nitrogen bonded to
Hydrogen. Remember to Have FON!
● Very polar molecule
● 10x stronger than dipole-dipole forces
E.g. Ammonia, Hydrogen fluoride, Ethanol
solutions

● Solute: The dissolved component of a solution.

● Solvent: A substance (usually a liquid) able to dissolve another substance (the solute).
Water is the universal solvent.
● Solute + solvent = solution.
● Solution: homogenous mixture. Formed by solute and solvent.

unsaturated A solution in which more pure solute can be dissolved into a given mass of a
solution solvent at specified temperature and pressure.

saturated A solution in which no more pure solute can be dissolved into a given mass of
solution solvent at a specified temperature and pressure.

supersaturated More solute has been added that can be dissolved in a given mass of solvent at a
solution particular temperature and pressure.

● Ionisation: Process whereby a molecular substance interacts with water producing ions.
● Dissociation: Process whereby an ionic substance dissolves in water producing separate
ions.

calculations of solutions

WHAT TO DO:
1. Write a balanced equation.
2. Find moles of known.
3. Find moles of unknown.
4. Find the wanted quantity.
(ATFQ!)
acids and bases

acids

properties uses

● Tastes sour. ● Acetic acid = vinegar

● Conducts electricity.
● Corrosive - they break down certain
substances. Many acids corrode
fabric, skin and paper.
● Some acids react strongly with metals.
● Turns blue litmus paper red.
● Citric acid = lemons, limes and
oranges. In many sour candies.
● Ascorbic acid = vitamin C (body
needs this to function)
● Sulfuric acid used in production of
fertilisers, steel, paints, plastics.
● Car batteries.

bases

properties uses

● Feels slippery. ● Bases give soaps, ammonia, and

● Tastes bitter. other cleaning products useful
● Corrosive. properties.
● Can conduct electricity (e.g. alkaline ● E.g. chalk and oven cleaner.
batteries). ● Blood is a basic solution.
● Does not react with metals.
● Turns red litmus paper blue.

arrhenius definitions

+ +
● Arrhenius acid is a substance that produces 𝐻 (H3𝑂 ) in water.
−
● Arrhenius base is a substance that produces 𝑂𝐻 in water.

bronsted-lowry definitions

● Acid = proton donor

● Base = proton acceptor
● A proton is really just a hydrogen atom that has lost its electron.
acid base theories

● The Bronsted-Lowry definition means that NH3 is a base in water, and water is an acid.

amphoteric substances

● Can act as an acid or as a base.

● Can gain or lose protons (e.g.
water).

HX (acid) X- (base)

HCl Cl-

H2SO4 HSO4-

HNO3 NO3-

H3O+ H2O

HSO4- SO42-

CH3COOH CH3COO-

NH4+ NH3-

H2O OH-
strong/weak acids and bases
acids
strong acids
Properties ● Completely ionises in water.
● Conducts electricity.
● Strong electrolytes.
● E.g. nitric acid, sulfuric acid,
hydrochloric acid, bromic acid.
Writing ● Show the reaction with water
Equations to form hydronium ions. One
way arrow. e.g.
HNO3 + H2O → NO3- + H3O+
Nitric acid gives 1H to water, forming
nitrate and hydronium ions.
bases
strong bases
Properties ● Completely dissociates in
water.
● Conducts electricity.
● Strong electrolytes.
● E.g. group 1 & 2 hydroxides &
oxides.
Writing ● No reaction with water, just the
Equations breakdown of the compound.
One way arrow. E.g.
+ -
NaOH → Na (aq) + OH (aq)
weak acids
● Only partially ionises in water.
● Conducts little/no electricity.
● Weak electrolytes.
● E.g. Acetic acid, hydrofluoric
acid, phosphoric acid, carbonic
acid.
● Reaction with water showing
partial ionisation. Two way
arrow. E.g.
CH3COOH + H2O ⇋ CH3COO- + H3O+
weak bases
● Only partially dissociates in
water.
● Conducts little electricity.
● Weak electrolytes.
● E.g. ammonia, group 1 & 2
carbonates and phosphates.
● Reaction with water. Two way
arrow. E.g.
NH3 + H2O ⇋ NH4+ + OH-
polyprotic acids

● Acids such as sulfuric or phosphoric that produce more than 1 hydrogen ion when
dissolved in water.

1. Sulfuric acid is a strong diprotic acid.

H2SO4 + H2O → HSO4- + H3O+
The hydrogen sulphate ion then acts as a weak acid.
HSO4- + H2O ⇋ SO42- + H3O+
_______________________________________________

2. Phosphoric acid is a triprotic acid as it can lose 3 hydrogen ions.

It is a weak acid, and the ions formed get increasingly weaker.
H3PO4 + H2O ⇋ H+ + H2PO4-
H2PO4- + H2O ⇋ H+ + HPO42-
HPO4 2-+ H2O ⇋ H+ + PO43-

pH scale

● pH is a measure of how acidic/basic a solution is.

● pH scale ranges 0-14.
● Acidic solutions have pH below 7.
● pH of 0 = very acidic.
● Pure water has a pH of 7.
● Basic solutions have pH above 7.
● pH of 14 = very basic.

pH indicators

● Used to tell whether a solution is acidic or basic.

● A chemical that changes to a different colour when added to a solution of an acid
compared to when added to a solution of a base.

methyl orange Used for slightly acidic solutions. Red = more acidic.
Yellow = less acidic.

litmus paper Determines if a solution is acidic or basic. Red = acid.

Blue = base.

universal indicator Determines if a solution is acidic or basic. Closer to red = acidic.

Green = neutral.
Closer to blue = basic.

bromothymol blue Determines if a solution is acidic or basic. Yellow = acid.

Blue = base.

phenolphthalein Used for slightly basic solutions. Colourless = less basic.

Pink = more basic.
electrolytes

non-electrolytes ● When dissolved in water, it does not produce any ions.

● Does not conduct electricity.
● Any substance that does not fit into the other categories
● E.g. sugar, (glucose, sucrose, etc).

weak electrolytes ● When dissolved in water, it only partly dissociates/ionises,

meaning it is partially present in ions.
● Only conducts a small amount of electricity.
● Indicated by a two arrow (⇋).
● Includes weak acids and weak bases.

strong electrolytes ● When dissolved in water, it completely dissociates/ionises,

meaning it is entirely present as ions.
● Indicated by a one way arrow (→)
● Includes strong acids, strong bases, and ionic compounds.

moles

● Defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope.

● Number of particles in one mole is 6.022 x 1023 (avogadro's constant).

WHAT TO DO:
1. Find no. of moles in
given mass (n=m/Mr)
2. Find no. of moles of
product (stoich. ratio)
3. Find mass of product
(m=nxM)
4. ATFQ!
properties of water

Water has a number of unique properties

that make it a key substance in a range of Density is one of the fundamental physical properties.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
chemical systems including: Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
, or 𝑑 =
𝑣
.
● Density
The density of water is given as 1.0gmL-1.
● Surface tension 1g of water has a volume of 1mL.
● Ability to act as a solvent
● Boiling point

changing states

● For most substances, as you cool them, they shrink, occupying a smaller volume, so
becoming more dense.
● Most will reach the maximum density at their freezing point. This increase in density also
happens in water, but only until the temperature drops to 4. At this temperature, water
reaches its maximum density.
● As the temperature drops lower, the volume increases so it becomes less dense again.
● Ice floats on the surface of liquid water as it is less dense than liquid water.

● The low density of ice between 4 and 0 is due to the changes in the hydrogen bonds
between the water molecules. As water turns to ice, its molecules move less and the
bonds are more stable. The arrangement of the molecules takes up more volume, so ice
is less dense than water.

surface tension

surface Refers to the forces acting on the surface of liquids and it is a measure of the
tension resistance of a liquid to any increase in its surface area. The surface tension of
water is due to the water molecules being attracted to each other.

cohesive The interaction/attraction of similar molecules to each other. In water, this is due
force to intermolecular hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

adhesion Water is also attracted to other surfaces.

kinetic theory

Bases on the following assumptions:

● Gases consist of tiny particles moving in rapid, random, straight-line motion until they collide with one another or the walls
of the container.
● The size of the particles is negligible compared to the size of the container in which they are moving. The particles have
mass, but no volume.
● Any attractive/repulsive forces between particles in the gas phase are negligible (intermolecular forces).
● The average kinetic energy of the particles increases as the temperature rises.

heat and
temperature ● Heat is energy. It is the total energy (both kinetic and potential) stored
by the molecules in a place of matter. Heat is measured in joules.
● Temperature is not energy. It relates to the average (kinetic) energy of
the particles. Measured in Kelvin (K) or Celsius (C).
● When a substance is heated, either of the things can happen:
○ The temperature of the substance can rise, or,
○ The state of the substance can change.

gas pressure
● Gas particles are far apart, in constant random motion, collide, and
exert pressure. Gas pressure is a measure of the force per unit area.

pressure
● All gases exert a pressure. As the particles move around a container,
they collide with the walls of the container. These forces over the given
area represent the pressure of the gas. The velocities of the gas
particles and the frequency that the particles hit the walls determines
the pressure.
changes
● If the velocity of the particles is
increased (temperature increased)
or the number of particles is
decreased (concentration
decreased), then the pressure is
increased.

kinetic and ● The particles in all solids, liquids, and gases have both kinetic and
potential potential energy.
energy ○ Kinetic: due to motion of particles.
○ Potential: due to position.

considering ● Kinetic theory states that temperature is a measure of average kinetic

temperature energy. At a given temperature, molecules of all gases, no matter what
size, shape, or mass, have the same average kinetic energy: 1/2mv2
● In which m = mass, v = speed.
physical properties of gases

1. Gases exert pressure: because the particles move rapidly and collide with the surface of
any container or object.
2. Gases rapidly diffuse and mix: because gas particles have rapid, random motion, and a
lot of empty space between them so they quickly spread and mix.
3. Gases are easily compressed: because there is a lot of empty space between particles.
4. Gases have a low density because: there is a lot of empty space between particles.
5. Gases occupy their container: because there are negligible forces between particles.

calculations of gases

No. of moles at STP

(standard temperature and
pressure).
N = V/22.71
n = no. of moles
V = volume (L)
22.71 = gas constant
STP = 0.0°C & 100 KPa.

NOT at STP:
pV = nRT
p = pressure
V = volume
n = no. of moles
R = universal gas constant (8.314)
T = temperature.
percentage composition

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
% mass =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
× 100

limiting reagent

● Limiting reagent: reactant that runs out first and is completely used up
● Excess reagent: reactant that is left over

E.g. What volume of carbon dioxide gas is produced at STP when 3.45g of sodium carbonate
reacts with 350.0mL of a 0.123 molL-1 hydrochloric acid solution?

Na2Co3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

n(Na2Co3) = m/Mr = 3.45/105.99 = 0.032550 mol

n(HCl) = cv = 0.123 x 0.350 = 0.04305 mol
n(Na2Co3) required = n(HCl)/2 x1 = 0.04305/2 = 0.021525 mol
As n(Na2Co3) required is less than n(Na2Co3) present, Na2Co3 is in excess and HCl is the
limiting reagent

n(CO2) = n(HCl)/2 x1= 0.04305/2 = 0.021525 mol

v(CO2) = nx22.71 = 0.021525 x 22.71 = 0.489L

WHAT TO DO:
1. Write a balanced equation.
2. Find moles of both reactants.
3. Use stoich. ratios to find the LR.
4. Use the LR in finding the final value (ATFQ!)
exothermic reactions

1. Release energy to the surroundings.

2. Temperature of the surrounding increases.
3. Energy released from forming new bonds is
greater than the energy needed to break old
bonds.
4. Total energy of products is less than the total
energy of reactants.
5. △H (change in enthalpy) is negative.

endothermic reactions

1. Take in heat from surroundings.

2. Temperature of the surrounding decreases.
3. Energy needed to break old bonds is greater
than energy released from forming new
bonds.
4. Total energy of products is greater than the
total energy of reactants
5. △H (change in enthalpy) is positive

law of conservation of mass

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only transferred.

thermochemical equations:

The heat lost or gained can be shown in the equation as a reactant or product or written as a
△H at the end of the equation. For example:
● CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 359 kJ
● 6CO2 + 6H2O + 4957 kJ → C6H12O6 + 6O2
● CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O △H = -359 kJ mol-1
fuels

Organic compounds that burn in oxygen producing carbon dioxide and water.
● Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) are non-renewable, finite sources of energy
● Biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel) are renewable sources from living organisms
● Heat value is calculated to compare the efficiency of different fuels

fuel calculations

energy released (joules) energy released (joules per energy released (joules per
gram) mole)

Q = mC△T H = Q/m H/Mr

C = 4.18 and m = mass of water M = mass of fuel

rates of reactions

Collision theory: the requirements that must be met before a chemical reaction will occur
● The reactant particles need to collide
● Needs to have a certain amount energy (activation)
● Reactants need to collide with a particular orientation so correct bonds are
broken/created
Activation energy: minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
● Need to collide with kinetic energy equal to or greater than activation energy

Successful collisions need sufficient energy and correct orientation. An unsuccessful collision
will have insufficient energy or incorrect orientation.

finding rates of reactions

● Rate of reaction = change in mass/change in time

● To find rate, measure the change in reactants and products
(mass/volume/concentration), pH of solution and colour.
collision theory

● the requirements that must be met before a chemical reaction will occur are:
○ the reacting particles must collide
○ they must collide with a specific minimum amount of energy, called the activation
energy
○ the particles must collide with a favourable/correct orientation to allow the
breaking of bonds and the forming of new ones
● the more successful collisions there are in a given time = faster the rate of reaction,
because more reactants are forming products

successful ● has sufficient energy and an appropriate orientation to allow old bonds to
collision be broken and new bonds to be formed
● leads to the formation of products

unsuccessful ● the energy and/or orientation are not satisfactory

collision ● this does not lead to the formation of products

factors of rate of reactions:

factor description

surface area ● Greater SA allows more reactants to collide which increases the
frequency of collisions.
● This results in a higher number of successful collision per unit time,
● Increased reaction rate.

concentration ● Increased concentration will increase frequency of collisions of

reactants.
● Increases the number of successful collisions
● Increased reaction rate.

pressure ● If pressure is increased, the frequency of collisions is increased.

● This increases the number of successful collisions and reaction rate.

temperature ● Increased temperature allows particles to move with increased speed

causing greater frequency of collisions.
● This results in a greater percentage of particles with kinetic energy
greater than the activation energy.
● This causes an increased % of the existing collisions to be successful
per unit time and hence reaction rate .

catalyst ● Alternate reaction pathway with lower activation energy.

● Greater proportion of reactants will have sufficient energy to
overcome the reduced activation energy.
● This increases the chances of successful collisions, which increases
the number of successful collisions per unit time, hence, increased
reaction rate.
energy profile diagrams:
● Show pathway of enthalpy
throughout the reaction.
● It must include:
○ Energy of reactants and
products
○ Change in enthalpy
○ Activation energy
○ Transition state (or activated
complex)

maxwell boltzmann graph

● as temperature increases, more particles have energy equal to or greater than the
activation energy, resulting in higher probability of a successful collision and increased
reaction rate
● heating a system increases the energy of particles, causing an upward shift in the entire
graph and a higher number of particles to have energy equal to or greater than the
activation energy
● at the given temperature, particles will have different amounts of kinetic energy, with the
average kinetic energy determining the temperature
● only those with the activation energy, or greater, will have enough energy to break the
bonds of the reactants and have a successful collision
separating techniques

● Pure substance: having a definite composition throughout

● Element: contains only one type of atom
● Compound: contains more than one type of atom chemically combined, which can only
be separated through chemical means
● Mixture: two or more element and/or compounds physically combined, which can be
separated by physical means
○ Homogeneous mixture - same composition
○ Heterogenous mixture - variable composition

method typical mixture property used

electrostatic attraction Mixture of electrostatic and Difference in electrical charge

non-electrostatic materials

filtration Mixture of insoluble solid and Difference in state and particle

liquid size

fractional distillation Mixture of liquids Significant but small difference in

boiling point

magnetic separation Mixture of magnetic and Difference in attraction to

nonmagnetic material magnetic field

separating funnel Mixture of immiscible Difference in densities

(undissolved) liquids

sieving Mixture of solids or solids and Difference in particle size

liquids

simple distillation Mixture of liquids or liquids and Big Difference in boiling points
solids

vaporisation Solution containing dissolved Liquid has much lower boiling

solids point that dissolved solid
chromatography

stationary vs mobile phase

stationary phase mobile phase

● paper ● always a liquid

● thin layer chromatography paper

● property to separate: solubility.

paper/tlc diagram

● the mobile phase moves up the paper/plate through capillary action.

● if the stationary phase is polar, then the mobile phase will be non-polar.
● if the stationary phase is non-polar, then the mobile phase will be polar.

● use a ruler to measure:

1. distance of the centre of solutes and origin line.
2. distance of solvent line and origin

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (1.)

Rf value:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (2.)

● if two or more solutes have the same distance from the origin line, it is highly likely they
are the same ingredient/component, meaning they also have the same solubility.
advantages and disadvantages of paper and tlc

paper
advantages disadvantages

● cheap ● not as accurate

● fast ● complex substances cannot be separated
● materials easily available ● corrosive agents can’t be used
● limited samples capacity
● low resolution

tlc
advantages disadvantages

● versatile ● qualitative not quantitative

● higher resolution
● better separation of less polar compounds
● environment/environmental factors can
affect results
● inaccurate Rf values due to uneven
spreading, plate errors
● requires expert interpretation

purpose of chromatography

● analytical: determine the chemical composition of a sample.

● preparative: collect and purify components of a sample.

the fluid used to carry the

mobile
phase components of a mixture up or
along the stationary phase so
they can separate.
stationary the immobile surface that
phase different components of a
mixture can adhere to when
carried along it by the mobile
phase.
retardation the distance travelled along the
factor stationary phase by a particular
component of a mixture relative
to the distance travelled by the
solvent (paper/tlc).
retention how long a particular component
time of a mixture takes to exit the
column (gc/hplc)
● as the mixture is swept along with the
mobile phase, some of its components are
absorbed more strongly to the surface of the
stationary phase than others.
● they will eventually desorb and move on.
● this process of differential adsorption and
desorption leads to the components travelling at
different speeds to separate out.
● this is related to the interactions between
the stationary/immobile phases and the
component properties.
● the analytes interacting most strongly
with the stationary phase will take longer to pass
through the system that those with weaker
interactions.
gas chromatography

● the substance to be analysed is either a gas mixture or a substance that can be

vaporised.
● suitable for molecular substances with
a Mr less than 300 and can be
vaporised without damaging their
molecules.
● 3 main sections:
1. preheated injector
2. chromatographic column inside
an oven that the temperature is
carefully controlled.
3. a detector, usually connected to
a chart recorder.

● the mobile phase does not interact with the substances, it is an inert (chemically inactive)
gas that simply sweeps the gas mixture along and does not react or attract it. this gas is
called the carrier gas.
● the stationary phase is interchangeable columns of looped metal or glass tubing ranging
in length from .5 to 50m. they are coated with a thin film of either a solid or liquid.

looking at the gc data…

● no. of peaks = no. of

individual components in the
mixture.
● retention time tells us what the
component is, but it depends
on things such as the length
of the column, flow rate of the
carrier gas, and the
composition of the stationary
phase, so a larger data bank
is often needed to identify
components.
● the relative areas under the peaks can be used to determine the relative proportion of
each substance.
● to find the actual concentration of the component, standards need to be prepared, and a
calibration curve made.
high performance liquid chromatography

● similar to gc except the analysed mixture remains as a liquid and is moved through the
instrument through liquid instead of a
gas carrier.
● used for substances with a Mr over
300 and substances that decompose
when heated.
● can be used to separate and purify
substances.
● as with gc, the no. of peaks = no. of
components in the mixture, once
standards are put through, but a
calibration curve needs to be done to
determine the concentration.

chromatography uses

paper/tlc ● RNA fingerprinting

● separating amino acids

gc ● detection of drugs or explosives in airline baggage

● air monitoring in polluted environments
● urine testing for athletes
● horses and greyhounds for illegal drugs

hplc ● food contamination

● purification and analysis of proteins and peptides
● cyanide analysis
● analysis of toxins in seafood
● pharmaceutical analysis
● food analysis during production

adsorption and desorption example

● Component 1 was more strongly attracted to the

more non-polar mobile phase and therefore quickly
desorbed and moved with the mobile phase, therefore it
travelled further up the plate.
● Component 2 was attracted more strongly to the
stationary phase, this component adsorbed more
strongly to the more polar stationary phase. It eventually
desorbed into the mobile phase. however has moved the
least up the plate.
analytical chemistry

● Involves the use of a range of techniques and instruments to obtain information about
chemical substances.​
● Qualitative analysis: the identification of elements or compounds present in a sample.
The techniques used include flame tests and precipitation reactions.​
● Quantitative analysis: the determination of the amounts of elements or compounds
present in a sample. The techniques used include atomic absorption spectroscopy,
ultraviolet, visible and infrared spectroscopy, various chromatography techniques,
nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and
visible-ultraviolet spectroscopy.

movement of electrons

● Remember that in any atom the electrons are arranged around the nucleus in shell.​

● Normally, atoms will be in

their ground state, meaning
that every electron is in the
lowest possible energy level. ​
● If we were to give the atoms
sufficient energy, electrons
will absorb the exact amount
of energy required to jump to
a higher energy level. We
then describe them as being
excited.​
● The excited state of an atom
is the unstable state in which
the electrons of an atom
possess higher energy than
normal. ​
● The excited electrons very
quickly return to their ground
state, releasing the
absorbed energy, in the form
of light.
absorption and emission

absorption spectra​ emission spectra​

● A series of dark lines superimposed on a ● A series of bright lines against a black

continuous spectrum.​ background.​
● The dark lines show the wavelengths of ● The bright lines indicate the wavelengths
light that have been absorbed of light that have been emitted.

● The amount of energy absorbed or emitted

is the same for the same atom but is
specific to that atom and thus allows the
identification of atoms in a sample.

using spectra

absorption ● the unknown has the same

bright lines as strontium.
● we can conclude the unknown
is strontium

● the gaseous nebula contains

bright lines that match up with
hydrogen, helium, sodium and
neon.
● therefore, these elements are
present in the gaseous nebula.
 emission ● the mystery sun contains dark
lines that match up with
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, and sodium.
● therefore, these elements are
present in the mystery sun.

flame tests

● An example of emission spectroscopy.​

● Metals will produce distinctive flame colours when their salts are vaporised in a flame.​
● This is caused by the atom absorbing energy from the flame, causing the electrons to
become excited. The electrons then ‘fall back down’ releasing the energy in the form of
visible light that is seen in the flame.​
● This allows the identification of the substance.

atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS)

● An AAS is used in industry, in research and in monitoring the purity of substances such
as air, water, and food.​
● AAS is a quantitative technique that can be used to measure the concentration of metal
ions in solution at very small concentrations (the trace level) in ppm or ppb.

● Light of a wavelength that will only be absorbed by the metal under analysis is passed
through a vaporised sample. ​
● The higher the concentration of the metal in the sample the greater the absorption.​
● By comparing the intensity of the light that has passed through the sample with that of
the same light after it has passed through a blank, the absorbance is measured.

using AAS

1. Choose the correct lamp (one that gives out the wavelength of the metal under
investigation).​
2. Make up samples of the metal under investigation with accurately known concentrations
– called standards.​
3. Test the standards one at a time with the AAS and record the absorbance.​
4. Draw a calibration curve – concentration against absorbance (gives a straight line) – the
calibration curve.​
5. Test each unknown with the AAS and record the absorbance.​
6. Using the calibration curve determines the concentration.
important parts of the AAS

nebuliser sucks up samples at a controlled rate, creates a fine aerosol spray and
mixes the aerosol and fuel and oxidant thoroughly for introduction into the
flame.

atomiser the separation of particles into individual molecules and breaking

molecules into atoms. This is done by exposing the anolyte to high
temperatures in a flame or graphite furnace.

monochromator used to select the specific wavelength of light with is absorbed by the
sample and exclude other wavelengths.​

detector the light selected by the monochromators is directed onto a detector which
converts the light signal into an electrical signal proportional to the light
intensity.

output this may be in many forms, a printout, on the screen or a metre.

specificity

● The energy from the cathode lamp has energy exactly corresponding to the electron
gaps for the metal under investigation in the unknown sample.​
● The electrons of the ions of other metals in the sample cannot absorb any of the
radiation from the lamp because there is a mismatch of the energy gaps.​
● Consequently the presence of other metal ions in the sample does not affect the
absorbance reading for the unknown.

looking at AAS data…

A fish sample was analysed with an absorbance value of 0.57. Find its concentration.

mercury absorbance
concentration
(ppm)

2.0 0.15

4.0 0.30

6.0 0.46

8.0 0.61

10.0 0.74
mass spectrometry (MS)

● An instrument used to separate particles with different masses and measure the mass
and the relative proportions of these particles in a mixture.​
● The particles studied can be atoms or molecules​
● Can be used to:​
○ Find the composition of mixtures and the relative proportions of their components​
○ Determine the structure of molecules by breaking it up and analysing its
components​
○ Find the isotopic composition of elements and determine atomic mass​
○ To detect impurities​
○ To detect viruses such as flu virus

important parts of the MS

ionisation the atom is ionised by knocking one or more electrons off to give a positive ion.
This is true even for things which you would normally expect to form negative
ions or never form ions at all. Mass spectrometers always work with positive
ions.​

acceleration the ions are accelerated so that they all have the same kinetic energy.

deflection the ions are then deflected by a magnetic field according to their masses. The
lighter they are, the more they are deflected. Also the more the ion is charged,
the more it gets deflected.

detection the beam of ions passing through the machine is detected electrically.
looking at MS data…

● Each peak represents one of the ion streams.​

● The area under the peak represents the % abundance of that component​
● Data banks of the mass spectra of known substances enable analysts to detect their
presence in a sample.

e.g. this spectra shows the abundance of isotopes in bromine

using the data to

calculate Mr​:

Mr(Br) = ((79 x 50) +

(81 x 50))/100​
= 80

that is all guys. i'm out!

love, chloe
༘♡ ⋆｡˚ ❀ .
!!

hi kiki