PRELIMINARY CHEMISTRY NOTES

MODULE 1: Properties and Structure of Matter

Inquiry question: How do the properties of substances help us to classify and
separate them?

Homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures:

● Homogeneous mixture: A mixture in which the components are uniform in the

whole solution, its composition is the same throughout and it appears like a single
substance
● Heterogeneous mixture: A mixture in which the composition is not uniform
throughout the mixture.

Separation techniques based on physical properties:

● Evaporation
- Used to separate components of a mixture with a dissolved solid in a liquid

● Distillation
- When the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized and then condensed
and isolated.
 ● Filtration
- Used to separate an insoluble solid from a pure liquid or a solution.

● Chromatography
- where molecules in a mixture are applied onto the surface or into the solid,
and the fluid stationary phase (stable phase) separates from each other while
moving with the aid of a mobile phase.

Separation Method Property which enables separation

Sieving Particle size

Evaporation Liquid has a lower boiling point than solids

Distillation Relatively large differences in boiling point between two

substances

Fractional Distillation Small differences in boiling points between two substances

usually in the same phase

Separating funnel Components are immiscible and have different densities

Filtration One solid, the other a liquid or solution

Sedimentation Density
Calculating percentage composition:
Formula:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
% composition = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑)
× 100

Nomenclature of inorganic substances:

Naming inorganic (non-carbon-based) compounds:

● Always name the metal(cation) first. It keeps its whole name, e.g. magnesium,
sodium, copper, etc.
● If there is 1 non-metal(anion), its ending is changed to ‘ide’. e.g. chlorine/chloride,
oxygen/oxide, bromine/bromide.
● If there are 2 non-metals with a metal, one of which is oxygen, the other non-metal
gets an ‘ate’ ending, e.g. nitrogen + oxygen = nitrate, carbon + oxygen = carbonate

Name of Substance Molecular Formula

Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4
Carbon dioxide CO2
Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3
Sodium Sulfide Na2S
Potassium nitride K3N
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2
Dinitrogen tetraoxide N2O4
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Strontium phosphate Sr3(PO4)2
Magnesium oxide MgO
Iron(II) fluoride FeF2
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Copper(II) hydroxide Cu(OH)2
Nickel sulfite NiSO3

Naming Compounds:

● Binary compounds - made from two elements

● Ionic compounds - contain cations and anions
● Covalent compounds
Anion Names:
● Nitrogen → nitride
● Sulfur → sulfide
● Chlorine → chloride
● Iodine → iodide
● Oxygen → oxide
● Fluorine → fluoride
● Bromine → bromide

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds:

● Some transition metal cations can exist in more than one different charge state
● In these cases, the charge is shown in Roman numerals as part of the metal name
● The Roman numerals are called the Oxidation State

E.g. copper can be Cu(I) or Cu(II)

Iron can be Fe(II) or Fe(III)

Non-metals have only one oxidation state.

E.g. oxygen as an anion is O2- an oxidation state of -2
 ● Sometimes it is necessary to use the oxidation state of the non-metal to work out the
oxidation state of the metal

Naming Covalent Binary Compounds:

● Use separate words for each element
● Name the element that appears on the left in the periodic table first
● Name the other element as if it were an anion (.....ide)
● If there is more than one atom of the first element, use numerical prefixes (mono, di,
tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca)
● Always use numerical prefixes for the number of atoms of the second element.

● Metal ions (cations): add ion to end

- Example: sodium ion for Na1+
● Non-metal ions (anions): remove end, add –ide
- Example: fluoride for F1-
● Ionic compounds: one cation + one anion
- Example: sodium chloride for NaCl
● Covalent compounds: prefixes where mono is omitted for first element
- Mono, di, tri, buta, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca…..
- Example: carbon dioxide for CO2

Polyatomic ions:
● Positive ions:
- Ammonium – NH4+
- Hydronium – H3O+
● –ate ions:
- Sulfate – SO42-
- Chlorate – ClO32-
- Nitrate – NO3-
 - Phosphate – PO43-
● –ite ions:
- Sulfite – SO32-
- Chlorite – NO2-
- Nitrite – NO2-
- Phosphite – PO33-
● Other:
- Cyanide – CN-

Classifying the elements:

Based on physical properties:

Physical Property Metals Semi-metals Non-metals

Melting Point High High Low

Boiling Point High High Low

Hardness Solid Solid at Room Temp Brittle or Gas

Conductivity High Low

High (Metals have Mid (Non-metals are

Lustre Low
smooth surfaces) normally brittle)

Malleable Yes Yes No

Ductile (the ability of a

material that is solid to stretch under Yes Yes No
breaking point stress)

Density High High Low

Based on chemical properties:

● Periodic table arranged in proton/atomic number order

● Size decreases along a period but increases down a group
● Groups have similar reactivity due to valence electron numbers
- Schrodinger: 2n2electrons per shell
Based on position on the periodic table:
● In the periodic table, the horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns
are called groups.
Metals
● Metallic character increases to the left of the periodic table.
● Group 1 metals have low melting and boiling points relative to other metals, are soft
and have high reactivity.

Non-metals

Metalloids
● Being positioned between metals and non-metals on the periodic table means it has
properties between metals and non-metals.

Physical changes only affect the form of the substance

● Substance changes its physical appearance but not composition
● Changes are reversible
● Involves the breaking of intermolecular forces but not bonds
● Particles stay the same but move differently
● A small amount of heat or energy may be taken in or given out

Chemical changes affect the chemical composition of the substance

● A new substance is formed
● A gas may be given off
● There may be a change in colour
● There may be a change in temperature
● A precipitate may form
● Changes are irreversible

Inquiry question: Why are atoms of elements different from one another?

Basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes:

● Stable isotopes are non-radioactive forms of atoms

● Unstable isotopes are radioactive forms of atoms
● When the atoms of an element have extra neutrons or protons it creates extra energy
in the nucleus and causes the atom to become unbalanced or unstable.
Position in the periodic table:
● Valence electrons equal to group number
● Protons equal to atomic number
● Neutrons equal to (atomic mass – atomic number)
Distribution of electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom
● Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus
- Protons are positively charged
- Neutrons have no charge
● Electrons are found in orbit around the nucleus
- Electrons are negatively charged
● Isotopes have the same number of protons
● An imbalance between protons and electrons determines the atoms charge
● More protons = positive charge
● More electrons = negative charge
● A molecule can be defined as two or more atom bonded together
● An ion is an electrically charged particle produced by either removing electrons from
a neutral atom to give a positive ion or adding electrons to a neutral atom to give a
negative ion.

Representation of the symbol, atomic number and mass number:

● Example: Carbon-12
- C is the atomic symbol
- 12 is the mass number, equal to the number of protons and neutrons
- 6 is the atomic number, equal to the number of protons

Electronic configuration and spdf notation

● Electrons exist in regions called orbitals with a fixed amount of energy

● An orbital is a 3D region around the nucleus where you can find an electron 90% of
the time
● Electrons surround the nucleus in orbits containing fixed energy levels
● They are referred to as energy shells
● As long as electrons stay in their orbit, it does not lose or gain energy
● Electrons are placed into sub-shells which are of varying energy levels
● Example: 1s2 where 1 is the shell number, s is the sub-shell type and 2 is the number
of electrons in the sub-shell
Valence electrons:
● Are the electrons present in the outermost shells of an atom
● Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons
● Valency is the maximum number of direct bonds formable with the element.
● Variable valency may occur when an atom loses or gains more electrons than the
valence shell.

Calculating the relative atomic mass from isotopic composition

(% × 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1 ) + (% × 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2)
Relative atomic mass = 100

Energy levels in atoms and ions

● Energy levels further away from the nucleus have higher energy than energy levels
closer to the nucleus.
● Electrons can change their energy when moving between energy levels by absorbing
or emitting photons
● To move an electron from an energy level further away from the nucleus to an energy
level closer to the nucleus loss of energy must occur
● The energy of a photon is dependent on wavelength
● Excitation involves an electron moving from a lower to higher energy level
● An emission spectrum represents photons emitted when de-excitation occurs
● Absorption and emission spectra are direct opposites of each other meaning the
spectral lines occur at the same frequencies.
Flame testing using different ionic solutions of metals:
● During a flame test the colours observed result from the de-excitation of electrons
orbiting around the metal cations.
● Each metal has its own energy levels, meaning it produces unique colours
● When metal atoms are heated they give off characteristic colours
● This allows unknown samples can be identified
● Examples: Barium Yellow-Green, Lithium Crimson, Strontium Scarlet, Sodium
Yellow, Copper Blue, Potassium Lilac

The Bohr model and introducing the Schrödinger model:

Bohr Model:
● Electrons move between energy levels by absorbing/emitting light energy
● Energy levels per shell/orbit
● As an electron falls to a lower energy shell, it emits light energy
- Equal to energy difference between two shells
- Corresponds to a specific light energy and therefore a specific line in line
spectrum

Schrödinger Model:
● Quantum Mechanical Approach
● Assumed electrons have wave-like properties
● Shells contain separate energy levels of similar energy called subshells
● Order of energy subshells: 1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d….

Properties of unstable isotopes

● Unstable isotopes (which are thus radioactive) are called radioisotopes
● When radioisotopes decay it gives off some of its excess energy as radiation in the
form of gamma rays or fast-moving sub-atomic particles.
Types of radiation:

● Alpha particles are helium nuclei emitted by radioisotopes that have too few neutrons
to be stable → low energy radiation
● Beta particles are electrons emitted when a neutron turns into a proton and electron →
moderate energy radiation
● Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation waves emitted when alpha or beta
reactions leave a nucleus with too much energy → high energy radiation

Types of balanced nuclear reactions:

● The sum of the mass numbers of the reactants equals the sum of the mass numbers of
the products.
● The sum of the charges of the reactants equals the sum of the charges of the products.
● Naturally occurring Alpha + Gamma →
- 23892U → 23490Th +42He + Y
● Naturally occurring Beta →
- 146C → 147N + 0-1e
● Artificial Beta →
- 9942Mo → 99m43Tc + 0-1e

Inquiry question: Are there patterns in the properties of elements?

Periodicity:

Increasing from the given corner:

● Upper-right → lower left:
- Atomic radius
- Metallic character
● Lower-left → upper right:
 - Ionisation energy - The energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous
atom
- Electron affinity
- Electronegativity - The ability of an atom to attract electrons
- Non-metallic character
● Core Charge (The number of valence electrons) increases across a period
● Reactivity increases from the upper right corner of s, d, f-blocks and from the lower
left corner in p block, excepting noble gases
● Shielding increases with period
● Melting point and boiling point increase until across the period from group 1 to group
14
● Then drastically drops for groups 15-18.
● Melting point and boiling point decrease down a group, suggesting that metallic
bonds in crystals of metals are weaker as atoms get larger.

State of matter at room temperature:

● Metals are solid exc. Mercury
● Non-metals are mainly gases

Electronic configurations and atomic radii:

● As each proton is added, electronic charge increases so atomic radius shrinks
● As a new shell is added at a new period, atomic radius increases due to low electronic
charge

First ionisation energy and electronegativity:

● Ionization energy increases along a period and decreases down a group due to
electronic charge shrinking/growing
● Electronegativity increases along a period and decreases down a group due to
electronic charge growing/shrinking

Reactivity with water:

● Metals increases down a group and decreases along a period
● Non-metals decreases down a group and increases along a period

Inquiry question: What binds atoms together in elements and compounds?

Role of electronegativity in determining the ionic or covalent nature of bonds between

atoms:
● Ionic has large difference in electronegativity
- One wants to lose electrons, other wants to gain an electron
- Cation donates electron to anion
 ● Covalent has small difference in electronegativity
- Both want to gain an electron
- Share electrons

Differences between ionic and covalent compounds:

Using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae:

● Example: sodium sulphide (ionic)
- [Na]1+[ S ]2-[Na]1+
● Example: carbon dioxide (covalent)
- ::O=C=O::

Examining the spectrum of bonds between atoms with varying degrees of polarity with
respect to their constituent elements’ positions on the periodic table:

● Electronegativity is key factor

- Covalent bonds with equal distribution of valence shells are non-polar
- Unequal distribution makes it polar as the charge will pull electrons towards
more electronegative atom

Modelling the shapes of molecular substances:

● Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory

- Negatively charged electron pairs repel each other

Investigate elements that possess the physical property of allotropy:

● Main Study: Carbon

- Diamond
- Graphite
Does not contain individual molecules but forms continuous 3D lattice
structure
No weak intermolecular forces present only strong covalent bonds to
give strength
Conductive of heat and electricity
- Graphite
Covalent bonds between atoms in layers
Weak dispersion forces between layers
Hard in one direction but slippery in another
Covalent layer
Conductive
Different chemical structures of atoms and elements:

● Ionic:
- No freely moving electrons present
- Ions present only as liquid/gas form
- 3D lattice
- High MP/BP, brittle crystals show strong forces
- Electrical conductivity as liquid
- Not malleable
● Metallic solids:
- Freely moving charged particles
- High densities
- Attractive forces hard to break
- High MP/BP
- Good conductors
- Malleable
● Covalent networks:
- Continuous 3D lattice
- High MP/BP
- Very hard due to fixed positions
- Strong bonds
● Covalent molecular:
- Strong covalent bonds but mainly intermolecular forces
- Low MP/BP
- Insoluble
- Not conductive

Similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular and intramolecular

bonds:

Physical properties of elements:

● Intramolecular bonds are bonds between each atom within a molecule
- EXAMPLE: hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole and covalent bonding of a water
molecule
- Hydrogen bonding only occurs with H—O, H—F, and H—N

Physical properties of compounds:

● Intermolecular bonds are bonds between multiple molecules (weak)
- EXAMPLE: Water to other water molecules – VSEPR Theory