CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter covers all about the related literatures and related studies regarding

this research study. It discussed the studies that the researcher used as an additional

source of information.

Related Literature

Humus

Humus is a dark colored shapeless substance composed of residual resistant

organic material. It is considered are the “great storehouse” of plants as it holds essential

elements and gases which are slowly released by microbes. It is not a single compound

but a mixture, which contains carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur

and sometimes phosphates and potash (Modi, 2013). The chemical structure of humus is

very complex, and its complexity is the reason why it is resistance to attacks of fungal

and bacterial enzymes. It is known to coat mineral soil particles (Plaster, 2009).

Humic Acid

Humic acid are organic substance that comes from decomposed plants and

animals. Humic substances and their salts which are derived from coal and other sources

can be used as an alternative to liming to improve soil pH and improve soil structure

stability (Zaghloul, Fatma, El-Quesni and Mazhar, 2009).

Humic acid improves water holding capacity of soil thus reduces water

evaporation and increase its use by plants in dry and sandy soils. It also increases the

cohesive forces of the very fine soil particles which results to reduced soil erosion. They
are also shown to accelerate cell division, improve root development, and decrease stress

deterioration which helps plants grow stronger and resist plant diseases. They are also

seen to improve soil structure and improve physical properties of soil and improve the

plant growth and nutrients uptake of the plant (Khaled and Fawy, 2011). Humic acids

corrode the edges of soil mineral particles releasing the ions from them. These ions are

then absorbed to more stable colloidal humus. Plants will then take them as food after

they are released into the soil solution (Milne, 2010).

Due to visible positive effect of humic substances on the growth of plants, plant

growers have widely used it instead of other substances such as pesticides etc. This leads

to more plant growers use more of these humic substances in their production (Yigit and

Dikilitas, 2008).

Potassium Humate

Potassium humate is the salt of humic acid and it can be characterized as dark

colored. It is soluble in water but it is alkali insoluble (Patil, More, Kalyankar and Wadje,

2011). Potassium humate is considered as an organic fertilizer, it increases the quality of

the plant and its tolerance to drought stress, salinity, heat, cold, disease and pests (Ajalli,

Vazan, Paknejad, Ardekani and Kashani, 2013).

Organic Matter

Soil organic matter is consists of plants and animal residues. These residues are

decomposed by soil faunas and floras to form a more resistant product called humus.

Organic matter increases the water and nutrient holding capacity of soils thus preventing

loss of nutrient and water through leaching and erosion. It also keeps the soil fertile and
balanced (Deshmukh, 2010). Its presence in agricultural soil is essential as it enable crops

to use applied fertilizers more efficiently. It also provides food for the crop and improves

soil conditions. Applying organic matter is the solution to the problems of soil in terms of

physical, chemical and biological conditions, and not by applying concentrated fertilizers

(Van Slyke, 2010).

Soil degradation is one problem in agriculture it is characterized by loss of soil

organic matter. Buffering effect on nutrient ion concentration is affected. It also indirectly

affects the fungal and microbial population of the soil negatively (Gehlot, 2010). Soil

microorganisms such as bacteria are the key to soil fertility. When these organisms are

alive they produce heat and decompose organic materials (Hessayon, 2009).

Irrigation

The most common form of irrigation in agricultural production is rainfall. Three

important characterization of rainfall are its amount, frequency and intensity which may

vary from place to place and time to time. Some of the rainfall received may not be useful

and sometimes can also be destructive when its rate and amount is not desirable. Each

crop has their own water requirements and by which adequate amount and rate of rainfall

can be determined. Rainfall can cause deterioration of the plant thus it can be considered

as ineffective. The effectiveness of rainfall is increased when the soil has a high water

holding capacity. Water holding capacity can be affected by the soils depth, texture,

structure, and organic matter. Crops that needs high amount of water have higher chance

of creating shortage of soil moisture, therefore effective rainfall is directly relative to the

rate of water uptake of the plant (Kashyap P. 2010).

Brasssica

Brassica are leafy vegetables that are used commonly in salads. These crops are

often harvested for their immature and young leaves for best quality. These vegetables

should be cooled in a temperature of 0-2°C at 95 RH and can be stored for 7-14 days.

They are not chilling sensitive and will produce little ethylene, and if they are exposed to

exogenous ethylene they may lead to yellowing and senescence. The plants should be

handled gently throughout the entire production and post harvest as these plants are

delicate (Durner, 2013). Brassicas are also among the most difficult group of vegetable to

grow as they are prone to pest and diseases that can leave to damaged and deteriorated

leaves. Cold climate can slow the growth of brassica and makes them vulnerable to pests

and diseases. These crops are really prone to pest and diseases that is why anything that

can be done to help them grow fast and strong is worth doing (Milne, 2010).

Related Studies

According to the research conducted by Sajid, et al, (2012) in their experiment

conducted at Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, they apply humic acid at rate of 0,

1, 2 and 3 kg/ha on onion cultivars in the hope to identify its effect. The results showed

that application of humic acid improved the yield of onion bulb and that 2 kg/ha gives the

highest bulb yield followed by 3 kg/ha. It is also showed that without application of

humic acid, onion bulbs results to lower yield.

Shahryari, et al, (2011) made an experiment that aims to find strategies that can

provide capabilities to potentially grow and produce wheat with acceptable yield in

terminal drought condition. They focused of applying humic fertilizer and the factors

included humic fertilizer applied in normal irrigated condition and humic fertilizer
applied in drought conditions. It was stated that humic fertilizer generally increased the

biological yield of wheat by 21% and grain yield by 22%. It is also stated that application

of humic fertilizer in drought condition put the mean yield of grain same as the irrigated

levels in drought condition. It is recommended that humic fertilizers should be used in the

developing the drought tolerance of crops in breeding programs.

Sanli, et al, (2013) conducted an experiment at research farm in Isparta to

determine the effect of leonardite (54.5% organic matter) which is a concentrated form of

humic and fulvic acids on yield and quality of potato. The results concluded that 400 kg

ha-1 of leonardite can increase potatoes number of tubers per plant by 22%, marketable

tuber yield by 38% and total tuber yield by 15% compared with the control which has no

leonardite applied.

Javanmardi and Hasanshahian (2014) conducted an experiment about applying

humic acid and manure tea in Pepino (Solanum muricatum) which include treatments

consisted of sheep and cow manure tea in combination with or without humic acid

containing 6.8% humic acid at 50 L/ha applied as soil drench. It was stated that sheep

manure tea plus humic acid resulted to faster number of days to first flowering, greatest

fruit set percentage, highest percentage of fruit dry matter, greater levels of ascorbic acid.

According to Hassanpanah and Khodadadi (2009) HPS-II/67 Hybrid true potato

seeds treated by potassium humate for 6-12 h caused an increase in seed germination

percent and their tuber yield also increases.

Rajpar, et al, (2011) noted that in their research about improving the growth, yield

and oil content of Brassica compestris L. they revealed that by adding 7.83, 15.69 and

23.55 kg/ha of 58% humic acid in three mustard varieties it resulted in significantly taller
plants, more branches, better performance in producing pods, and is equally effective in

all mustard varieties in terms of seed yield compared to control that has no application of

humic acid. It is concluded that humic acid positively affects almost all the growth and

yield parameters of all three mustard varieties.

According to Knapowski, et al. (2015) in their experiment the effect of seed

dressing with Humistar which is 12% of humic acids and 3% fulvic acids in wheat seed

dressing at rate of 1 L per 50 kg of grain is better in terms of 1,000 kernel weight,

hectolitre mass, grain glassiness, total protein content, wet gluten content and

sedimentation value as compared to the control group.

A study by Fawzy (2010) about foliar spraying of bio and organic compounds to

increase productivity of head lettuce stated that foliar application of dry yeast at rate of

2g/L and 4g/L, amino green at 2ml/L and 4ml/L, and humic acid which has 25g of humic

acid per liter which is dissolved to water at rate of 2ml/L and 4ml/L affects most of

vegetative growth parameters of head lettuce plants. This resulted to producing higher

head weight and total weight of head lettuce plants for all the foliar compared to the

control.

Moraditochaee (2012) conducted an experiment in order to study the effects of

humic acid as foliar fertilizer on yield of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and it showed that

by using 40 mg/L foliar spraying of humic acid gives the highest seed yield of 1856.8

kg/ha, highest straw yield of 6000.4 kg/ha, and highest amount of biological yield of

7857.3 kg/ha.

Pant, et al, (2009) conducted an experiment to determine the effect of

vermicompost extracts in growth, mineral nutrients, phytonutrients and antioxidant

activity of Pak choi plants. Three types of vermicompost were obtained by using different

extraction methods, namely non-aerated vermicompost tea, aerated vermicompost tea and

aerated vermicompost tea augmented with microbial enhancer, and were applied to the

plants. Results showed that all vermicompost teas have enhanced plant production,

mineral nutrients and total carotenoids.

According to Pant, et al, (2011) in their experiment to investigate the effects of

vermicompost tea on Pak choi, that application of vermicompost tea increases plant

production, total carotenoids and total glucosinolates in plant tissue and it was most

prominent under compost fertilization. It also improved mineral nutrient status of plants

and enhanced the biological activity of the media being used.

Pant, et al, (2012) conducted another experiment to determine the optimum

amount of compost per unit volume of water in Pak choi. Pak choi plants were treated on

weekly basis for 4 weeks with vermicompost teas of 10%, 5%, 3%, and 1% in the

greenhouse experiments and 10% and 5% teas in the field trials. The result suggests that

within the range of concentrations evaluated from different treatments, greatest plant

growth response was observed with 5% and 10% vermicompost tea.

A study by Boonsiri et al, (2009) was conducted to determine the effect of

granular organic fertilizers on growth and yield of pak choi and rice. It was done by

supplementing Pak choi plants by manure, bioextract water, granular organic fertilizer

and granular organic fertilizer mixed with bioextract water every four days. Results

showed that granular organic fertilizers with bioextract water gave pak choi the highest

growth and yield.

 Chen, et al, (2011) conducted an experiment on determining the effects of soil

cadmium on growth and photosynthetic activities of Pakchoi and Mustard. They found

out that exposing these vegetables to Cadmium resulted in reductions of growth and by

treating vegetables of Cadmium retarded growth is observed. They also found out that the

photosynthetic activity of Pakchoi to Cadmium stress is more sensitive than of Mustard.

Echer, et al, (2015) conducted an experiment which aim to evaluate the influence

of mulching on the production traits of three cultivars of Pak Choi. Different mulching

materials were use namely white agrotextile, black agrotextile, black plastic, silver

plastic, tifton straw and bare soil, and were arranged in the plots, and three cultivars of

Pak Choi (Green Pak Choi, White Pak Choi and Chingensai Natsu Shomi) were arrange

in subplots. Results showed that covering soil with synthetic materials showed better

results on production of Pak Choi than bare soil and that White Pak Choi was better

adapted to these growing conditions than the other cultivars.

A study by Opeña (2015) was conducted in Philippines to determine which foliar

fertilizer will work best for Pakchoi plants. Foliar fertilizers that were used were Soil

Conditioner, Nano Amino Acids, Plant Growth Enhancer and Fish emulsion. The results

showed that all foliar fertilizer works better than the control which has no foliar applied,

but the best foliar fertilizer is Fish emulsion which produced highest yield, greatest

number of leaves, tallest plants, longest and widest leaves, and reduced days to maturity.
 Conceptual Framework

This study focuses on the growth and yield of Pakchoi with the application of

different levels of Potassium Humate. Environmental factors will affect the experiment

whether it is living things (insects, weeds, microorganisms, etc) or non-living things

(sunlight, wind, rain, etc). Application of additional nutrients such as chicken manure or

synthetic fertilizer, and pests and diseases control substances will be done whenever

possible.

Gathering of data will be done by means of observation, measuring, counting,

keeping records, and calculating data about vegetative growth and yield performance.

This process has great significance prior to the completion of this experiment.

All statement in this Chapter was gathered from books, journals and other sources

which would help the researcher support the study by providing valuable information.

Therefore, this study will provide information about growth and yield of Pakchoi

(Brasica rapa var chinensis) with application of Potassium humate and hopefully aid the

farmers in planting this crop more effectively and successfully.