THE LANGUAGE OF DATA MANAGEMENT

MATHEMATICS Data – collection of facts, such as numbers,

words, measurements, observations or just
o Mathematics has a peculiar language in
descriptions of things.
which symbols occupy most important
position. Data Management – involves collecting,
storing, organizing, protecting, verifying, and
Algebra us written in a symbolic
processing essential data and making it
language that is designed to express
available to your organization.
mathematical thoughts.
Data Collection Methods
“Mathematics is the language of physical
sciences and certainly no more marvelous  Direct observation – simplest way to
language was ever created by the mind of collect data
man.” – Lindsay  Survey
 Case Study
o Language of Mathematics – highly
 Interview
structured and rule bond.
 Observation
Characteristics:  Group Assessment
1. Precise (very fine distinctions)  Reviews (Portfolio, Expert/Peer,
2. Concise (talk briefly) Document)
3. Powerful (express complex thought  Testimonials
w/ relative ease)  Tests (Questionnaire)
 Diaries, Journals, Logs
Mathematics – synonymous with rigor  Photographs, Videotapes, Slides
and universality.
Noun (expression) – name Common Methods of Determining the Sample
mathematical objects of interest.  Random – by chance
Sentences – state complete Ex. Students in a class write their names
mathematical thoughts. on strips of paper and put them in a hat.
The teacher draws five names.
Verbs – equal sign (=)
 Systematic – according to a rule or
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS formula
Ex. An exit poll is taken of every tenth
name given NOUN EXPRESSION
voter
to an
Examples: Examples:  Stratified – at random from a random
object of
Carol, 5, 2 + 3, ½ chosen subgroup
interest:
Idaho, book Ex. In a statewide survey, five countries
SENTENCE SENTENCE are randomly chosen and 100 people
a complete
are randomly chosen from each
thought:
Examples: Examples: country
The capital 3+4=7 Data Organization – organizing collected
of Idaho is factual material commonly accepted in
3+4=8
Boise. scientific community as necessary to validate
research finding.
The capital
of Idaho is
Pocatello.
Various Modes of Data Presentation

1. Textual Presentation – data are

presented in the form of texts,
PROBLEM SOLVING phrases/paragraphs.
STRATEGIES Ex. Newspaper reports

1. Trial and Improvement 2. Tabular Presentation – reliable and

2. Draw a Diagram effective way of showing relationship or
3. Look for a Pattern comparisons of data through tablets.
4. Act it out
5. Draw a table 3. Graphical Presentation – most effective
6. Simplify the Problem way of presenting data though
7. Use equation statistical graph.
8. Work Backwards
9. Eliminate Possibilities
Types of Graphs
A. Bar chart – composed of discrete bars
that represent different categories of
data. It is used to compare values
across categories.
B. Pie chart – circular chart used to
compare parts of the whole.
C. Line chart – displays the relationship
between two types of information.
D. Histogram – has connected bars that
displays the frequency or proportion of
cases that fall within defined interval
columns.
E. Cumulative frequency – allows us to find
the median, lower and upper quartile
range.
F. Box Plots – displays data for comparison.
Five needed information:
1. Minimum value
2. Lower quartile (Q1)
3. Median (Q2)
4. Upper quartile (Q3)
5. Maximum value
Measures of Central Tendency (CT)
o A statistical measure that determines a
single value that accurately describes
the center of the distribution and
represents the entire distribution of
scores.
o Aims to identify the single value that is
the best representative for the entire set
of data.
o Allows researchers to summarize or
condense a large set of data in a very
simplified, concise form though
identifying the ‘average score’ (CT).
o A descriptive statistic
1. Mean
o Most commonly used measure of CT.
However, it does not always work in
every situation.
o Requires scores that are numerical
values measured on an interval or ratio
scale.
o Obtained by computing the sum/total
for the entire set of scores, then dividing
the sum/total by the number of scores.
Changing the Mean
If a constant value is added to every
score in a distribution, then the same
constant value is added to the mean.
Also, if every score is multiplied by a
constant value, then the mean is also
multiplied by the same constant value.
2. Median
o Defined as the midpoint of the list (In
distribution of scores: smallest to largest)
o It divides the scores, thus 50% of scores
in the distribution have values that are
equal to or less than the median.
o Requires scores that can be placed in
rank order (small - large) and are
measured on an ordinal, interval or ratio
scale.
o Median can be identified by a simple
counting procedure.
o It is relatively unaffected by extreme
scores; hence it tends to stay in the
‘center’ of the distribution.
o It serves as an alternative to the mean.
3. Mode
o Most frequently occurring category or
score in the distribution.
o In frequency distribution graph, mode is
the score corresponding to the peak or
high point of the distribution.
o It can be determined for data
measured on any scale of
measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval,
or ration.
Primary value
(I) The only measure of CT that can be
used for data measured on a
nominal scale.
(II) Used as a supplemental measure of
central tendency that is reported
along with mean or median.
Central Tendency & Shape of Distribution
 In symmetrical distribution, mean and
median will always be equal.
If a symmetrical distribution has only one
(1) mode, the mode, mean, and
median will always have the same value
 In a skewed distribution, mode will be
located at the peak on one side and
the mean usually will be placed toward
the trail on the other side.
 The median is usually located between
the mean and the mode.
Measure of Dispersion
o Descriptive statistics that describe how
similar a set of scores are to each other.
 The more similar the scores are to
each other, the lower the
measure of dispersion will be.
 The less similar the scores are to
each other, the higher the
measure of dispersion will be.
  Generally, the more spread out a
distribution is, the larger the
measure of dispersion will be.
Three Main Measures of Dispersion
1. Range – difference between the largest
score in the set of data and the smallest
score in the set of data.
R= XL – Xs
Ex. Find the range: 4 8 1 6 6 2 9 3 6 9
XL – Xs = 9 – 1 = 8
o It is used when
- ordinal data
- presenting results to people with
little/no knowledge of statistics.
o It is rarely used in scientific work as it is
fairly insensitive
- Depends on only two scores in
the set of data, XL – Xs.
- Two very different sets of data
can have the same range.
The larger the variance is, the more the
scores deviate, on average, away from
the mean.
The smaller the variance is, the less the
scores deviate, on average, from the
mean.
Standard Deviation
 When the deviate scores are squared in
variance, their unit of measure is
squared as well.
Eg. If people’s weigh are measured in
pounds, then the variance of the
weights would be expressed in pounds2.
 Since squared units of measure are
often awkward to deal with, the square
root of variance is often used instead.
The standard deviation (SD) is the
square root of variance.
SD = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
V = standard deviation2

2. Semi-Interquartile Range (SIR) – the

difference of the first two and third
quartiles divided by two.
1st quartile – 25th percentile
3rd quartile – 75th percentile

SIR = (Q3 – Q1)/2

o SIR is often used with skewed data as it is

insensitive to the extreme scores.

3. Variance (V) – the average of the

square deviations:
Not the formula of variance

What does the Variance Formula Mean?

 It says to subtract the mean from each

of the scores, which is called as a
deviate or a deviation score.
Deviate tells how far a given score is
from the typical, average, score. Hence,
it is a measure of dispersion for a given
score.
 One of the definitions of the mean was
that it always made the sum of the
scores minus the mean equal to 0. Thus,
the average of the deviates must be 0
since the sum of the deviates must
equal 0.
To avoid this problem, squaring the
deviate scores makes all the squared
scores positive.
 Variance is the mean of the squared
deviation scores.

Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
o Descriptive model that describes real
world situations.
o A continuous frequency distribution of
infinite range (can take any values not
just integers as in the case of binomial
and Poisson distribution).
o The most important probability
distribution in statistics and important
tool in analysis of epidemiological data
and management science.
Characteristics of Normal Distribution
 Links frequency distribution to probability
distribution
 It has a Bell Shape Curve and is
Symmetric
 It is Symmetric around the mean: Two
halves of the curve are the same (mirror
images)
Hence Mean = Median
 The total area under the curve is 1 (or
100%)
 It has the same shape as Standard
Normal Distribution.
 In a Standard Normal Distribution: The
mean (μ) = 0 and Standard deviation
(σ) =1
Z - Score (Standard Score)
𝑿– 𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈
o Z indicates how many standard
deviations away from the mean the
point x lies.
o Z score is calculated to 2 decimal
places
Diagram of Normal Distribution Curve (Z score)
Distinguishing Features
o The mean ± 1 standard deviation covers
68.00% of the area under the curve
o The mean ± 2 standard deviation covers
95% of the area under the curve
o The mean ± 3 standard deviation covers
99.7% of the area under the curve
CORRELATION AMD
REGRESSION
Correlation and Regression – used when we
are interested in the relationship between two
variables.
Correlation is used to:
o describe the strength of a relationship
between two variables. This is the ‘r
value’ and may vary from -1.0 to 1.0
o determine the probability that two
unrelated variables would produce a
relationship this strong, just by chance.
This is the ‘p value’.
NOTE:
Correlation does not imply causation - the
variables are related, but one does not cause
the second.
The variables are both dependent variables in
the experiment. Hence, it is incorrect to think of
one variable as ‘causing’ the other.
Parametric Test – the Pearson Correlation
coefficient.
If the data is normally distributed, then
you can use a parametric test to
determine the correlation coefficient -
the Pearson correlation coefficient.
Pearson’s Correlation 177 182
Assumptions of the Test
178 182
o Random sample from the populations
o Both variables are approximately
192 198
normally distributed
o Measurement of both variables is on an
202 202
interval or ratio scale
o The relationship between the 2
variables, if it exists, is linear.
- Thus, before doing any Solution:
correlation, plot the relationship
Step 1. Plot data
to see if its linear!

To calculate the Pearson’s correlation

coefficient, we use the formula below, where

n = sample size.

Testing ‘r’

o Calculate t using above formula

o Compare to tabled t-value with n-2 df
o Reject null if calculated value > table
value
o But SPSS will do all this for you, so you
don’t need to!

Example: The heights and arm spans of 10

adult males were measured in cm. Is there a
correlation between these two
measurements?

Height (cm) Arm Span (cm)

171 173
Step 2. Calculate the correlation coefficient
195 193
- r = 0.932

180 188 Step 3. Test the significance of the relationship

- p = 0.0001
182 185

190 186

175 178
Spearman’s Test 3 840 17.2
Like most non-parametric tests, the data are
first ranked from smallest to largest 4 505 6.7

In this case, each column is ranked

5 765 20
independently of the other.

Then….. 6 780 24.1

(1) subtract each rank from the other

7 235 1.5
(2) square the difference
8 790 13.8
(3) sum the values, and

(4) plug into the following formula to 9 440 1.7

calculate the Spearman correlation
coefficient. 10 435 2.1

11 815 20.2
Calculating Spearman’s correlation coefficient
12 460 3.0

13 697 10.3

Step 1. Plot the data

Testing ‘r’

o The null hypothesis for a Spearman’s

correlation test is also that:

ρ = 0; i.e., H0: ρ = 0; HA: ρ ≠ 0

o When we reject the null hypothesis we

can accept the alternative hypothesis
that there is a correlation, or
relationship, between the two variables. NOTE: not very linear

o Calculate t using above formula

o Compare to tabled t-value with n-2 df
o Reject null if calculated value > table
value
o But SPSS will do all this for you, so you
don’t need to!

Example: The mass (in grams) of 13 adult male

tuataras and the size of their territories (in
square meters) was measured. Are territory size
and the size of the adult male tuatara related?

Solution:
Step 2. Calculate the correlation coefficient
Observation Mass Territory Step 3. Test the significance of the relationship
number size
ρ = 0.835, p = 0.001
1 510 6.9

2 773 20.6
Linear Regression
o Here we are testing a causal
relationship between the two variables.
o We are hypothesizing a functional
relationship between the two variables
that allows us to predict a value of the
dependent variable, y, corresponding
to a given value of the independent
variable, x.
Regression
o Unlike correlation, regression does imply
causality
o An independent and a dependent
variable can be identified in this
situation.
3. For any value of x, any particular value
of y is:
i. yi = α + βx + e
ii. Where e, the residual, is the
amount by which any observed
value of y differs from the mean
value of y (analogous to
“random error”)
iii. Residuals will follow a standard
normal distribution
4. The variances of the y variable for all
values of x are equal
5. Observations are independent – each
individual is measured only once.
Estimating the Regression Function and Line

- This is most often seen in o A regression line always passes through

experiments, where you the point: “mean x, mean y”.
experimentally assign the
independent variable, and
measure the response as the
dependent variable.

o Thus, the independent variable is not

normally distributed (indeed, it has no
variance associated with it!) - as it is
usually selected by the investigator.

For a linear regression, this can be written

as:

o μy = α + βx (or y = mx + b)

o where μy = population mean

value of y at any value of x

o α = the population (y) intercept,

and

o β = population slope.

You can use this equation to make

predictions - although of course these
are usually estimated by sample
statistics rather than population
parameters.

Linear Regression Assumptions

1. The independent variable (X) is fixed

and measured without error – no
variance.
2. For any value of the independent
variable (X), the dependent variable (Y)
is normally distributed, and the
population mean of these values of y, μy
is:

μy = α + βx
Estimating the Regression Function and Line

o To measure total error, you want to sum

the residuals… but they will cancel out…
so you must square the differences, then
sum.
o Now we have the TOTAL SUM OF
SQUARES (SST)
o The sum of squares of the residuals is
thus:

o Thus, you see a lot of variance in y when

x is not taken into account. How much
of the variance in y can be attributed to
the relationship with x?

Sums of Squares

o SSt - this is the value for sums of squares

o This “line of best fit” minimizes the y sum
of squares, and accounts for how x, the
independent variable, influences y, the
dependent variable.
o The difference between the observed
values and this “line of best fit” are the
residuals – the “error” left over when the
relationship is included.
o The sum of squares of these regression
residuals is now:
for y when x is not considered (the total
sums of squares)
o SSe - this is the value for the sums of
squares of the residuals - in other words,
it represents the variance in y that is still
present even when x is considered (the
error sums of squares)
o SSr – this is the variation in y accounted
for by the relationship with x. It can be
calculated two ways:
- by subtraction (SSt – SSe)
- directly using formula

o This is equivalent to the ERROR SS = (SSe);

it is the variance “left over” after the
relationship with x has been included.
o To get this best fit line, based on the
principles we just went over, you can
calculate the slope and the intercept of
the best fit line.