MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

● The matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

● It is composed of tiny particles called atoms

Arrangement of Particles in Solid, Liquid, and Gas

Physical and Chemical Properties

● Physical properties are properties that can be observed or measured without changing

the composition of the substance.

○ Examples include color, taste, hardness and odor.

● Chemical properties are properties that can be observed or measured by changing the

chemical nature of the substance.

○ Examples include heat of combustion, flammability and chemical stability.

Extensive and Intensive Properties

● Extensive properties are properties that depend on the amount of matter being

measured.

○ Examples of extensive properties are volume and mass.

● Intensive properties are properties that do not depend on the amount of matter being

measured.

○ Examples of intensive properties are color, density, melting point, boiling point.
 Classification of Matter

Elements and Compounds

Homogenous and Heterogenous Mixtures

● Homogeneous Mixture
○ Has a uniform appearance and composition throughout.

○ No visible boundaries of separation

○ Examples: salt and water, sugar and water

● Heterogenous Mixture
○ Does not have a uniform composition

○ Can be physically separated

○ Examples: fruit salad, sugar, and sand

Separation Techniques
● Distillation
○ This separation technique purifies a liquid mixture by using the boiling points of

its substances.
● Decantation
○ This separation technique separates an undissolved solid from a liquid.
● Evaporation
○ This separation technique separates a mixture by allowing the liquid to

evaporate and the solid particles will remain in the evaporating dish.
● Chromatography
○ This separation technique involves separating the components of a mixture by

passing the mixture through a stationary phase.

● Filtration
○ This technique separates an undissolved solid from a liquid using filter paper.
● Sublimation
○ This separation technique is applicable for separating a liquid mixture.
● Crystallization
○ The process by which solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly

organized into a structure known as a crystal.

● Electrolysis
○ This technique is used to separate compounds like water.
● Separatory Funnel
○ A separatory funnel is used to separate two immiscible liquids like oil and water.

Measurements
SI Units
Accuracy and Precision
● Accuracy tells how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity that is

measured.

● Precision refers to how closely two or more measurements of the same quantity agree

with one another.

Scientific Notation
● Given a number, move the decimal point to the number after the first non-zero digit.
○ 72511 → 7.2511 (decimal point moves four places to the left)

○ Multiply this number by 10 to raise it to the proper exponent (power).

○ The proper exponent is the number of places where the decimal point was

moved.
4
○ 7. 2511 𝑥 10
● The sign on the exponent indicates the direction in which the decimal point was moved.
○ Moved right → negative exponent

○ Moved left → positive exponent

Significant figures
1. All non-zero digits are significant.
1.234
4 significant figures

2. Zeroes between two nonzero digits are significant

40,507
5 significant figures

3. Zeroes to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
0.009
1 significant figure

4. If a number is greater than one, all zeroes to the right of the decimal point are significant.
7.00 km
3 significant figures

4005.0
5 significant figures

5. If a number is less than one, only the zeroes at the end of the number and the zeroes
between two non-zero digits are significant.
0.02010
4 significant figures

6. The zeroes immediately to the left of an unexpressed decimal point are not significant.
400
1 significant figure

Significant Figures in Calculations

● For multiplication or division. The answer contains the same number of significant figures
as the value with the least number of significant figures.
Example : (118.2) (1.4) = 165.48 (corrected to 2 significant figures)

=1.7x10²
Example: A ball has a mass of 0.246 kg. What is the total mass of 6 identical balls?

6 x 0.246 = 1.476 kg

Exact number obtained by counting the number of objects should not be considered in

determining the number of significant figures.

= 1.48

For multiple operations, rounding off the correct number of significant figures after each

operation is not advisable. Rounding off errors may accumulate. It is suggested that one or two

insignificant figures be carried along after each operation and rounding off be done on the final

answer.

For addition and subtraction, the result should be rounded to the same number of decimal

places as the value with the fewest decimal places.

Example: 115.83 + 114+ 62.7= 292.53

=293 (corrected to 0 decimal places)

The result of adding 167.58, 4.6, and 24.257 on a calculator is 196.437. How would you

report the result?

= 196.4

Measuring Mass, Volume, and Density

● Mass of an object is the amount of matter in the object.

 ● Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter. The standard unit used is the liter (L).
● Density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume occupied by that mass. The
formula for density is

The Composition of Matter

“Matter is continuous.” - Aristotle’s view

“Matter is made of discrete particles.” - Democritus’ view

Aristotle’s idea prevailed for more than 2,000 years!

Laws of Chemical Combination

Two consistently observed patterns of the behavior of matter:
● Law of Conservation of Mass
○ In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the materials reacted (reactants) is

equal to the total mass of the materials that were produced (products).

○ The total mass remains constant during a chemical reaction.

○ For example, 2.02 grams of hydrogen react completely with 16.0 grams of

oxygen to form exactly 18.02 grams of water.

● Law of Definite Proportions
○ Any pure sample of a chemical compound, from whatever source and however

prepared, always contains the same elements and always in the same

proportions by mass

○ The mass ratio of chlorine to sodium in sodium chloride or table salt is 1.54 : 1.0.

○ What mass of chlorine will completely use up 3.5 g of sodium metal?

○ Ans: 5.4 g of chlorine

These patterns of reactivity were found inconsistent with the idea of matter being
infinitely divisible.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Postulates of the theory
1. All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms are hard, indivisible, indestructible particles.
Note: Experiments have shown that atoms are made up of smaller particles and are not

entirely indivisible and indestructible.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical in all properties, and atoms of one element

differ in properties from atoms of another element.

Note: We now know that many elements have more than one isotope.

3. Compounds are combinations of atoms of two or more elements. A compound is made

up of a fixed number of each of its constituent elements.

Note: Today, we know some compounds which are different in properties but with

exactly the same % composition.

4. In chemical reactions, atoms of reactants combine or rearrange to form products. No

atom is created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

Law of Multiple Proportions

The Law of Multiple Proportions states that when two elements form two different

compounds, the ratio of the mass ratio of one compound to the mass ratio of the other is a

small whole number.

This law was established by John Dalton himself after he proposed the atomic theory.
Atoms and Molecules
An atom consists of

● a nucleus

● electrons

The nucleus is made up of

● protons

● neutrons

What makes up an atom?

● Protons, neutrons, and electrons are called fundamental or subatomic particles.

● The particles in the nucleus – protons and neutrons – are called nucleons.

● The radius of the nucleus is approximately 10–15 m.

● most of the volume of the atom is made up of empty space which is occupied by

electrons.

● almost all (99.98%) of the atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus.

The Subatomic Particles

Atomic Notation

● Atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

○ Each element has a different atomic number which is the identifying

characteristic of the element.

● The mass number, A, is the nucleus's total number of protons and neutrons.

○ Atoms are neutral particles because the number of protons equals the number

of electrons.

Atomic Notation
Atomic Number = 11

Mass Number = 11 + 11 + 1 = 23
+
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑝 = 11
−
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 = 11
0
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 = 23 − 11 = 12

Atoms of a given element have the same atomic number, but may differ in
- number of neutrons.

- mass number

- mass

These are called ISOTOPES. Isotopes are identified by their mass number.
 Naturally-Occurring Isotopes of Oxygen

Relative Atomic Mass

● Atoms are too small to weigh.

● In 1991, the Internation Union of Pure Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted a scale
12
based on the isotope carbon-12 (𝐶6 ) wherein one C-12 atom is assigned a mass of

exactly 12.00 atomic mass units (u).

● The relative atomic mass (𝐴𝑟) of an element is the ratio of the mass of the atom of the

element to 1/12 of the mass of a C-12 atom.

● Most of the mass of an atom is contributed by protons and neutrons (the nucleons).

● Each of these particles (nucleons) has a relative mass very close to 1 u.

● Relative atomic mass is therefore very close to, but not precisely equal to the mass

number.
Average Atomic Mass
● Any natural sample of an element is a mixture of its isotopes.

● The relative atomic mass of the element is calculated based on the abundance

(percentage) of each isotope.

● The calculated mass is called the average atomic mass.

There are two naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine:

Isotope Relative Atomic Mass, u Isotope Abundance

Cl-35 34.969 75.4

Cl-37 36.966 24.6

Average atomic mass = 0.754 (34.969) + 0.246 (36.966)

= 35.5 u

Molecules and Relative Molecular Mass

- When two or more atoms of non-metallic elements combine, a molecule is formed.

- Molecules may be made up of atoms of the same element, such as O2 and P4, or of

different elements, such as water, H2O, and glucose, C6H12O6.

The relative molecular mass, Mr, is the ratio of the mass of one molecule of the substance to

1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12.

- The relative molecular mass is calculated by adding up the relative atomic masses of

all atoms present in the molecule.

For example, the relative molecular mass of ethanoic acid (acetic acid), 𝐶𝐻3COOH, is

[12 + (3 x 1.0) + 12 + (2 x 16.0) + 1.0] = 60.0 u

Relative Formula Mass

Ionic compounds like Ca𝐹2 and network solids such as SiC do not exist as molecules.

The relative mass of such compounds is called relative formula mass.

The relative formula mass of Ca𝐹2 is calculated as

[40.1 + (2 x 19.0)] = 78.1 u

Mole
- Chemists count atoms and molecules by weighing them.

- The SI unit used to relate mass to a number of particles is called mole (mol).

- The mole is the quantity of the substance that contains the same number of elementary

entities as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kilograms of carbon-12.

When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified - atoms, molecules, ions,

electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.

Basis of Avogadro’s Number

Assigned mass of one mole of C-12 atoms: exactly 12 g.

−23
The mass of one atom of C-12 was experimentally determined to be 1.992 × 10 g.

Thus, the number of atoms in one mole of C-12 is 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 or

23
6.02 × 10 - This number is called Avogadro’s number.

Molar Mass, MM
- The mass of one mole of any substance is called its molar mass, MM.

- One mole of an element has a mass, in grams, that is numerically equal to its relative

atomic mass.
The type of substance wherein the count of particles is being made must be specified.

Entities or particles may be atoms,

molecules, ions, electrons, or some

specified groups

Thus, how many O atoms are in

1 mol of O atoms?

1 mol of O2 molecules?

1 mol of O3 molecules?

Conversion Scheme:
Mole, Mass, Number of Particles

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 31. 0 𝑔

𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠?

4 (31. 0) = 124. 0𝑔

𝐻𝑜𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑃4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 0. 62 𝑃4?

0. 62 / 124. 0 = 0. 0050 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝐻𝑜𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑃 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 0. 62 𝑔 𝑃4?

= 1.20 x 1022 atoms P

Mole and Molar Volume of a Gas
The relationship between the number of moles of a gas and the volume of a gas is given by the

formula:

STP = Standard temperature and pressure (STP) refers to the nominal conditions in the

atmosphere at sea level. These conditions are 0 degrees Celsius and 1 atmosphere (atm) of

pressure.

23
Thus, 22.4 L of gas at STP contains 1 mole of gas or 6.02 x 10 discrete particles

Interconversion between moles, mass, number of particles, and molar volume of gas

Composition of Compounds
Ways of expressing the composition of compounds:

1. % composition

2. The formula of the compound

Percent Composition
- The mass percent composition of a compound is calculated as the fractions of the total

mass contributed by each element present in a compound, expressed as a percentage

of the total mass of the sample.

When 4.30 g of magnesium metal is burned in excess oxygen, the mass of the magnesium

oxide formed is 7.13 g. What is the percent composition of the compound?

Ans: 60.3% Mg

39.7% O

Determine the percent composition of magnesium chloride, MgC𝑙2.

(Relative atomic mass: Mg: 24.3; Cl: 35.5)

Ans: 25.5% Mg

74.5% Cl

We have calculated the percent composition from the formula of the compound.

Formula → Percent Composition

But in practice, when a compound is extracted from a plant or when a mineral from a rock

sample is analyzed, the percent composition of the compound is determined and from there, its

formula is deduced.

Percent Composition → Formula

 Types of Chemical Reactions

Types of Chemical Reactions Explanation General Reaction

Combination Reaction A reaction in which two or more 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl

reactants combine to form a single

product is known as a combination

reaction.

It takes the form of X + Y → XY

Decomposition Reaction A reaction in which a single compound CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

breaks into two or simpler compounds

is known as a decomposition reaction.

It takes the form of XY → X + Y

Displacement Reaction A chemical reaction in which a more Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu

reactive element displaces a less

reactive element from its aqueous salt

solution.

It takes the form X + YZ → XZ + Y

Double Displacement Reaction A chemical reaction in which ions get BaCl₂ + Na₂SO₄ → BaSO₄ + 2NaCl

exchanged between two reactants

which form a new compound is called

a double displacement reaction.

It takes the form of XY + ZA → XZ +

YA

Single Replacement Reaction is a reaction in which one element is AgNO₃ +Cu →Cu(NO₃)₂ + Ag

substituted for another element in a

compound.

AB+C → A+ CB
Balancing Chemical Equations

A chemical equation represents the changes that occur during a chemical reaction. A chemical

equation has the general form:

Reactants → Products

An example of a simple chemical reaction is the reaction in which hydrogen (H2) and oxygen

(O2) combine to produce water (H2O). In this reaction, the reactants are hydrogen and oxygen

and the product is water. To write the chemical equation for this reaction, you would start by

writing the reactants on the left and the product on the right, with an arrow between them to

show the direction in which the reaction occurs:

Equation 1:

H2 + O2 → H2O

Q: Look closely at equation 1. There’s something wrong with it. Do you see what it is?

A: All chemical equations must be balanced. This means that there must be the same number

of each type of atom on both sides of the arrow. That’s because mass is always conserved in

chemical reactions. Count the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on each side of the

arrow. There are two hydrogen atoms in both reactants and products. There are two oxygen

atoms in the reactants but only one in the product. Therefore, equation 1 is not balanced.

Using Coefficients

Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. A coefficient is a number placed in front of

a chemical symbol or formula. It shows how many atoms or molecules of the substance are

involved in the reaction. For example, two molecules of hydrogen would be written as 2 H2,

and two molecules of water would be written 2 H2O. A coefficient of 1 usually isn’t written.

Coefficients can be used to balance equation 1 (above) as follows:

Equation 2:

2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

Equation 2 shows that two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to

produce two molecules of water. The two molecules of hydrogen each contain two hydrogen

atoms and so do the two molecules of water. Therefore, there are now four hydrogen atoms in

both reactants and products.

Q: Is equation 2 balanced?

A: Count the oxygen atoms to find out. There are two oxygen atoms in the one molecule of

oxygen in the reactants. There are also two oxygen atoms in the products, one in each of the

two water molecules. Therefore, equation 2 is balanced.

Steps in Balancing a Chemical Equation

Balancing a chemical equation involves a certain amount of trial and error. In general, however,

you should follow these steps:

1. Count each type of atom in reactants and products. Does the same number of each

atom appear on both sides of the arrow? If not, the equation is not balanced, and you

need to go to step 2.

2. Place coefficients, as needed, in front of the symbols or formulas to increase the

number of atoms or molecules of the substances. Use the smallest coefficients

possible. Warning! Never change the subscripts in chemical formulas. Changing

subscripts changes the substances involved in the reaction. Change only the

coefficients.

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the equation is balanced.

Q: Balance this chemical equation for the reaction in which nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2)

combine to form ammonia (NH3):

N2 + H2 → NH3

A: First count the nitrogen atoms on both sides of the arrow. There are two nitrogen atoms in

the reactants so there must be two in the products as well. Place the coefficient 2 in front of

NH3 to balance nitrogen:

N2 + H2 → 2 NH3

Now count the hydrogen atoms on both sides of the arrow. There are six hydrogen atoms in

the products so there must also be six in the reactants. Place the coefficient 3 in front of H2 to

balance hydrogen:

N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3

Summary

● A chemical equation represents the changes that occur during a chemical reaction. It

has the general form: Reactants → Products. All chemical equations must be

balanced. This means that there must be the same number of each type of atom on

both sides of the arrow.

● Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. A coefficient is a number placed

in front of a chemical symbol or formula. It shows how many atoms or molecules of

the substance are involved in the reaction.

● To balance a chemical equation, place coefficients as needed in front of the symbols

or formulas so the same number of each type of atom occurs in both reactants and

products.