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лекція 1
лекція 1
Філологічний факультет
ЗАТВЕРДЖУЮ
Заступник директора з
навчальної роботи
____________ О. В. Когутюк
«___» ________ 2022 р.
Вінниця – 2022
Тема 1. Лекція 1. Предмет мовознавства. Зміст і основні завдання
загального мовознавства. Місце мовознавства в системі наук. Прикладне
мовознавство.
Наочність:
Тематична презентація в Power Point.
Опорний конспект до лекції №1
Література:
Основна
1. Дорошенко С. І. Загальне мовознавство : навч. посіб. Київ : Центр
навчальної літератури, 2006. 288 с.
2. Зеленько А. С. Загальне мовознавство : навч. посіб. Київ : Знання,
2010. 380 с.
3. Кочерган М. П. Загальне мовознавство : підруч. 3-тє вид. Київ : ВЦ
«Академія», 2010. 464 с.
4. Семчинський С. В. Загальне мовознавство. Київ : АТ «ОКО», 1996.
416 с.
5. Супрун Л. В. Загальне мовознавство. Практичні заняття, самостійна
робота : навч. посіб. Київ : Знання, 2012. 335 с.
Додаткова
1. Бацевич Ф. С. Основи комунікативної лінгвістики : підруч. Київ : ВЦ
«Академія», 2009. 376 с.
2. Бацевич Ф. С. Вступ до лінгвістичної прагматики : підруч. Київ :
ВЦ «Академія», 2011. 304 с.
3. Білецький А. О. Про мову й мовознавство : навч. посіб. Київ : АртЕк,
1996. 224 с.
4. Масенко Л. Нариси з соціолінгвістики. Київ : Вид. дім
«Києво-Могилянська академія», 2010. 243 с.
English block
Additional information
Throughout the book, he stated that a linguist can develop a diachronic analysis of
a text or theory of language but must learn just as much or more about the
language/text as it exists at any moment in time (i.e. "synchronically"): "Language
is a system of signs that expresses ideas". A science that studies the life of signs
within society and is a part of social and general psychology. Saussure believed
that semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign, and he
called it semiology.[31]
Laryngeal theory[edit]
Main article: Laryngeal theory
While a student, Saussure published an important work about Proto-Indo-
European, which explained unusual forms of word roots in terms of lost phonemes
he called sonant coefficients. The Scandinavian scholar Hermann
Möller suggested that they might actually be laryngeal consonants, leading to what
is now known as the laryngeal theory. After Hittite texts were discovered and
deciphered, Polish linguist Jerzy Kuryłowicz recognized that a Hittite consonant
stood in the positions where Saussure had theorized a lost phoneme some 48 years
earlier, confirming the theory. It has been argued[citation needed] that Saussure's work on
this problem, systematizing the irregular word forms by hypothesizing then-
unknown phonemes, stimulated his development of structuralism.
Influence outside linguistics[edit]
The principles and methods employed by structuralism were later adapted in
diverse fields by French intellectuals such as Roland Barthes, Jacques
Lacan, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and Claude Lévi-Strauss. Such scholars
took influence from Saussure's ideas in their own areas of study (literary
studies/philosophy, psychoanalysis, anthropology, respectively).[citation needed]
View of language[edit]
Saussure approaches theory of language from two different perspectives. On the
one hand, language is a system of signs. That is, a semiotic system; or a
semiological system as he himself calls it. On the other hand, a language is also a
social phenomenon: a product of the language community.
Language as semiology[edit]
The bilateral sign[edit]
One of Saussure's key contributions to semiotics lies in what he called semiology,
the concept of the bilateral (two-sided) sign which consists of 'the signifier' (a
linguistic form, e.g. a word) and 'the signified' (the meaning of the form). Saussure
supported the argument for the arbitrariness of the sign although he did not deny
the fact that some words are onomatopoeic, or claim that picture-like symbols are
fully arbitrary. Saussure also did not consider the linguistic sign as random, but as
historically cemented.[a] All in all, he did not invent the philosophy of arbitrariness,
but made a very influential contribution to it.[32]
The arbitrariness of words of different languages itself is a fundamental concept in
Western thinking of language, dating back to Ancient Greek philosophers. [33] The
question whether words are natural or arbitrary (and artificially made by people)
returned as a controversial topic during the Age of Enlightenment when the
medieval scholastic dogma, that languages were created by God, became opposed
by the advocates of humanistic philosophy. There were efforts to construct a
'universal language', based on the lost Adamic language, with various attempts to
uncover universal words or characters which would be readily understood by all
people regardless of their nationality. John Locke, on the other hand, was among
those who believed that languages were a rational human innovation, [34] and
argued for the arbitrariness of words.[33]
Saussure took it for granted in his time that "No one disputes the principle of the
arbitrary nature of the sign."[b] He however disagreed with the common notion that
each word corresponds "to the thing that it names" or what is called the referent in
modern semiotics. For example, in Saussure's notion, the word 'tree' does not refer
to a tree as a physical object, but to the psychological concept of a tree. The
linguistic sign thus arises from the psychological association between the signifier
(a 'sound-image') and the signified (a 'concept'). There can therefore be no
linguistic expression without meaning, but also no meaning without linguistic
expression.[c] Saussure's structuralism, as it later became called, therefore includes
an implication of linguistic relativity. However, Saussure's own view has been
described instead as a form of semantic holism that acknowledged that the
interconnection between terms in a language was not fully arbitrary and only
methodologically bracketed the relationship between linguistic terms and the
physical world.[35]
The naming of spectral colours exemplifies how meaning and expression arise
simultaneously from their interlinkage. Different colour frequencies are per se
meaningless, or mere substance or meaning potential.
Likewise, phonemic combinations which are not associated with any content are
only meaningless expression potential, and therefore not considered as signs. It is
only when a region of the spectrum is outlined and given an arbitrary name, for
example 'blue', that the sign emerges. The sign consists of the signifier ('blue') and
of the signified (the colour region), and of the associative link which connects
them. Arising from an arbitrary demarcation of meaning potential, the signified is
not a property of the physical world. In Saussure's concept, language is ultimately
not a function of reality, but a self-contained system. Thus, Saussure's semiology
entails a bilateral (two-sided) perspective of semiotics.
The same idea is applied to any concept. For example, natural law does not dictate
which plants are 'trees' and which are 'shrubs' or a different type of woody plant;
or whether these should be divided into further groups. Like blue, all signs gain
semantic value in opposition to other signs of the system (e.g. red, colourless). If
more signs emerge (e.g. 'marine blue'), the semantic field of the original word may
narrow down. Conversely, words may become antiquated, whereby competition
for the semantic field lessens. Or, the meaning of a word may change altogether.[36]
After his death, structural and functional linguists applied Saussure's concept to
the analysis of the linguistic form as motivated by meaning. The opposite direction
of the linguistic expressions as giving rise to the conceptual system, on the other
hand, became the foundation of the post-Second World War structuralists who
adopted Saussure's concept of structural linguistics as the model for all human
sciences as the study of how language shapes our concepts of the world. Thus,
Saussure's model became important not only for linguistics, but
for humanities and social sciences as a whole.[37]
Opposition theory[edit]
See also: Binary opposition and Markedness
A second key contribution comes from Saussure's notion of the organisation of
language based on the principle of opposition. Saussure made a distinction
between meaning (significance) and value. On the semantic side, concepts gain
value by being contrasted with related concepts, creating a conceptual system
which could in modern terms be described as a semantic network. On the level of
the sound-image, phonemes and morphemes gain value by being contrasted with
related phonemes and morphemes; and on the level of the grammar, parts of
speech gain value by being contrasted with each other. [d] Each element within each
system is eventually contrasted with all other elements in different types of
relations so that no two elements have the exact same value:
"Within the same language, all words used to express related ideas limit
each other reciprocally; synonyms like
French redouter 'dread', craindre 'fear,' and avoir peur 'be afraid' have value
only through their opposition: if redouter did not exist, all its content would
go to its competitors."[e]
Saussure defined his own theory in terms of binary oppositions: sign—
signified, meaning—value, language—speech, synchronic—diachronic,
internal linguistics—external linguistics, and so on. The related
term markedness denotes the assessment of value between binary oppositions.
These were studied extensively by post-war structuralists such as Claude Lévi-
Strauss to explain the organisation of social conceptualisation, and later by
the post-structuralists to criticise it. Cognitive semantics also diverges from
Saussure on this point, emphasizing the importance of similarity in defining
categories in the mind as well as opposition.[38]
Based on markedness theory, the Prague Linguistic Circle made great advances
in the study of phonetics reforming it as the systemic study of phonology.
Although the terms opposition and markedness are rightly associated with
Saussure's concept of language as a semiological system, he did not invent the
terms and concepts which had been discussed by various 19th century
grammarians before him.[39]
Language as a social phenomenon[edit]
In his treatment of language as a 'social fact', Saussure touches topics that were
controversial in his time, and that would continue to split opinions in the post-
war structuralist movement.[37] Saussure's relationship with 19th century
theories of language was somewhat ambivalent. These included social
Darwinism and Völkerpsychologie or Volksgeist thinking which were regarded
by many intellectuals as nationalist and racist pseudoscience.[40][41][42]
Saussure, however, considered the ideas useful if treated in a proper way.
Instead of discarding August Schleicher's organicism or Heymann Steinthal's
"spirit of the nation", he restricted their sphere in ways that were meant to
preclude any chauvinistic interpretations.[43][40]
Organic analogy
Saussure exploited the sociobiological concept of language as a living
organism. He criticises August Schleicher and Max Müller's ideas of languages
as organisms struggling for living space, but settles with promoting the idea of
linguistics as a natural science as long as the study of the 'organism' of
language excludes its adaptation to its territory. [43] This concept would be
modified in post-Saussurean linguistics by the Prague circle linguists Roman
Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy,[44] and eventually diminished.[45]
The speech circuit[edit]
Main article: Langue and parole
Perhaps the most famous of Saussure's ideas is the distinction between
language and speech (Fr. langue et parole), with 'speech' referring to the
individual occurrences of language usage. These constitute two parts of three
of Saussure's 'speech circuit' (circuit de parole). The third part is the brain, that
is, the mind of the individual member of the language community.[f] This idea
is in principle borrowed from Steinthal, so Saussure concept of a language as a
social fact corresponds to "Volksgeist", although he was careful to preclude
any nationalistic interpretations. In Saussure's and Durkheim's thinking, social
facts and norms do not elevate the individuals, but shackle them. [40]
[41]
Saussure's definition of language is statistical rather than idealised.
"Among all the individuals that are linked together by speech, some sort of
average will be set up : all will reproduce — not exactly of course, but
approximately — the same signs united with the same concepts."[g]
Saussure argues that language is a 'social fact'; a conventionalised set of rules or
norms relating to speech. When at least two people are engaged in conversation,
there forms a communicative circuit between the minds of the individual speakers.
Saussure explains that language, as a social system, is neither situated
in speech nor in the mind. It only properly exists between the two within the loop.
It is located in – and is the product of – the collective mind of the linguistic group.
[h]
An individual has to learn the normative rules of language and can never control
them.[i]
The task of the linguist is to study language by analysing samples of speech. For
practical reasons, this is ordinarily the analysis of written texts. [j] The idea that
language is studied through texts is by no means revolutionary as it had been the
common practice since the beginning of linguistics. Saussure does not advise
against introspection and takes up many linguistic examples without reference to a
source in a text corpus.[43] The idea that linguistics is not the study of the mind,
however, contradicts Wilhelm Wundt's Völkerpsychologie in Saussure's
contemporary context; and in a later context, generative grammar and cognitive
linguistics.[46]
Works[edit]