How Animals Move:

Skeletal Systems
Figure 5.8a The human skeleton.

1
Skull
2

3
4
Thoracic 5
cage 6
7
Vertebral 8
column 9
10
21
11

13
12
14
15

16
17

18
19
20
(a) Anterior view
How Animals Move: Skeletal Systems

▪ Muscles bring about movement by applying

contractile force against body fluids or structural
elements such as bones
▪ Hydrostatic skeleton (earthworm)
▪ An internal fluid-filled chamber(s) that muscles exert
force against
▪ Exoskeleton (fly)
▪ A hard external body part that receives the force of
muscle contractions
▪ Endoskeleton (humans and other vertebrates)
▪ An internal framework of hardened elements to which
muscles attach
Hydrostatic Skeleton
Fly Exoskeleton
thorax
Vertebrates

▪ “Vertebrate” refers to a vertebral column, or

backbone
▪ Axial skeleton
▪ Vertebral column
▪ Bones of the head and rib cage
▪ Appendicular skeleton
▪ Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
▪ Pelvic (hip) girdle
▪ Limbs (or bony fins) attached to them
The Vertebrate Endoskeleton

rib cage vertebral column skull bones

pelvic girdle

pectoral
girdle
The Human Skeletal System

▪ Two subdivisions of the skeleton

1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton
▪ Parts of the skeletal system
▪ Bones (skeleton)
▪ Joints
▪ Cartilages
▪ Ligaments
Functions of Bones

▪ Support the body

▪ Protect soft organs
▪ Skull and vertebrae protect brain and spinal cord
▪ Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs
▪ Attached skeletal muscles allow movement
▪ Store minerals and fats
▪ Calcium and phosphorus
▪ Fat in the internal marrow cavity
▪ Blood cell formation
Bones of the Human Body

▪ The adult skeleton has 206 bones

▪ Two basic types of bone tissue
1. Compact bone
▪ Dense, smooth, and homogeneous
2. Spongy bone
▪ Small needle-like pieces of bone
▪ Many open spaces
Figure 5.1 Flat bones consist of a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bone.

Spongy
bone

Compact
bone
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Anatomy of a Long Bone

▪ Diaphysis
▪ Shaft
▪ Makes up most of bone’s length
▪ Composed of compact bone
▪ Periosteum
▪ Outside covering of the diaphysis
Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).

Articular
cartilage
Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
(a) epiphysis
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Anatomy of a Long Bone

▪ Epiphysis
▪ Ends of the bone
▪ Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed by thin
layer of compact bone
▪ Articular cartilage
▪ Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
▪ Made of hyaline cartilage
▪ Decreases friction at joint surfaces
Study Tip!
▪A long bone is
similar in shape
of a barbell:
The barbells’
rounded ends
represent the
epiphyses, and
its cylindrical
handle is the
diaphysis.
Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).

Articular
cartilage
Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
(a) epiphysis
Anatomy of a Long Bone

▪ Epiphyseal plate
▪ Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing
bone
▪ Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone
▪ Epiphyseal line
▪ Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
▪ Seen in adult bones
The Axial Skeleton

▪ Forms the longitudinal axis of the body

▪ Divided into three parts
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column
3. Bony thorax
Figure 5.8a The human skeleton.

1
Skull
2

3
4
Thoracic 5
cage 6
7
Vertebral 8
column 9
10
21
11

13
12
14
15

16
17

18
19
20
(a) Anterior view
The Skull

▪ Two sets of bones

1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
2. Facial bones
▪ Hold eyes in anterior position
▪ Allow facial muscles to express feelings
▪ Bones are joined by sutures
▪ Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable
joint
The Skull

▪ 8 cranial bones protect the brain

1. Frontal bone
2. Occipital bone
3. Ethmoid bone
4. Sphenoid bone
5–6. Parietal bones (pair)
7–8. Temporal bones (pair)
The Skull

▪ There are 14 facial bones. All are paired except for

the single mandible and vomer.
1–2. Maxillae
3–4. Zygomatics
5–6. Palatines
7–8. Nasals
9–10. Lacrimals
11–12. Inferior nasal conchae
13. Mandible
14. Vomer
Figure 5.9 Human skull, lateral view.

Coronal suture Frontal bone

Parietal bone Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone Ethmoid bone
Lambdoid suture Lacrimal bone

Squamous suture
Nasal bone
Occipital bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla

Mandible (body)

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Figure 5.12 Human skull, anterior view.

Coronal suture
Frontal bone
Parietal bone

Nasal bone

Sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone

Maxilla
Vomer
Mandible

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Paranasal Sinuses

▪ Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal

cavity
▪ Functions of paranasal sinuses
▪ Lighten the skull
▪ Amplify sounds made as we speak
Figure 5.13a Paranasal sinuses.

Frontal sinus

Ethmoid sinus
Sphenoidal
sinus
Maxillary
sinus

(a) Anterior view

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Figure 5.13b Paranasal sinuses.

Frontal sinus

Ethmoid sinus
Sphenoidal
sinus
Maxillary
sinus

(b) Medial view

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The Hyoid Bone

▪ Closely related to mandible and temporal bones

▪ The only bone that does not articulate with another
bone
▪ Serves as a movable base for the tongue
▪ Aids in swallowing and speech
Figure 5.14 Anatomical location and structure of the hyoid bone.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

Vertebral Column (Spine)

▪ Vertebral column provides axial support

▪ Extends from skull to the pelvis
▪ 26 single vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
▪ 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
▪ 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
▪ 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower
back
Vertebral Column (Spine)

▪ 9 vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones

▪ Sacrum formed by the fusion of 5 vertebrae
▪ Coccyx (tailbone) formed by the fusion of 3 to 5
vertebrae
Figure 5.16 The vertebral column.

Anterior Posterior
1st cervical vertebra
(atlas) Cervical curvature (concave)
2nd cervical vertebra 7 vertebrae, C1 – C7
(axis)

1st thoracic vertebra

Thoracic curvature (convex)

12 vertebrae, T1 – T12

Intervertebral disc

1st lumbar vertebra

Lumbar curvature (concave)
5 vertebrae, L1 – L5

Sacral curvature (convex)

5 fused vertebrae

Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
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Figure 5.18 Abnormal spinal curvatures.

(a) Scoliosis (b) Kyphosis (c) Lordosis

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Figure 5.21 Sacrum and coccyx, posterior view.

Sacrum

Coccyx

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The Bony Thorax

▪ Forms a cage to protect major organs

▪ Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
▪ True ribs (pairs 1–7)
▪ False ribs (pairs 8–10)
▪ Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
3. Thoracic vertebrae
Figure 5.22a The bony thorax (thoracic cage).

Manubrium

Body
Sternum
True
ribs Xiphoid
(1–7) process

False
ribs
(8–10)
Intercostal
spaces
L1
vertebra Costal cartilage
Floating
(a) ribs (11, 12)
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The Appendicular Skeleton

▪ Composed of 126 bones

▪ Limbs (appendages)
▪ Pectoral girdle
▪ Pelvic girdle
Figure 5.8a The human skeleton.

1
Skull
2

3
4
Thoracic 5
cage 6
7
Vertebral 8
column 9
10
21
11

13
12
14
15

16
17

18
19
20
(a) Anterior view
© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.
Figure 5.8b The human skeleton.

Cranium
Bones of
pectoral
Clavicle girdle
Scapula
Upper
Rib limb
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius Bones of
Ulna pelvic
Carpals girdle

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Lower
limb
Tibia
Fibula

(b) Posterior view

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The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

▪ Composed of two bones that attach the upper limb

to the axial skeletal
1. Scapula
2. Clavicle
▪ Pectoral girdle (2)
▪ Light, poorly reinforced girdle
▪ Allows the upper limb a great deal of freedom
Figure 5.23a Bones of the shoulder girdle.
Acromio-
clavicular joint Clavicle

Scapula

(a) Articulated right shoulder (pectoral)

girdle showing the relationship to
bones of the thorax and sternum
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Bones of the Upper Limbs

▪ Humerus
▪ Forms the arm
▪ Single bone
Bones of the Upper Limbs

▪ The forearm has two bones

1. Ulna— _____ bone in anatomical position
2. Radius— _____ bone in anatomical position
Bones of the Upper Limbs

▪ Hand
▪ Carpals—wrist
▪ 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each
hand
▪ Metacarpals—palm
▪ 5 per hand
▪ Phalanges—fingers and thumb
▪ 14 phalanges in each hand
▪ In each finger, there are 3 bones
▪ In the thumb, there are only 2 bones
Figure 5.25 Bones of the right hand, anterior view.

Distal
Middle
Phalanges
(fingers)
Proximal

4 3 2
Metacarpals 5 1
(palm)

Carpals
(wrist)

Ulna
Radius
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Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

▪ Formed by 2 coxal (ossa coxae) bones

▪ Composed of three pairs of fused bones
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

▪ The total weight of the upper body rests on the

pelvis
▪ Pelvis protects several organs
▪ Reproductive organs
▪ Urinary bladder
▪ Part of the large intestine
Figure 5.26a The bony pelvis.

Iliac crest

Ilium

Coxal bone
(or hip bone) Sacrum

Pubis Coccyx
Acetabulum
Ischium Pubic symphysis

(a) Pubic arch

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Bones of the Lower Limbs

▪ Femur—thigh bone
▪ The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
▪ Proximal end articulation
▪ Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal
(hip) bone
▪ Distal end articulation
▪ Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in
the lower leg
Figure 5.27a Bones of the right thigh and leg.

Neck

Head

(a)
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Bones of the Lower Limbs

▪ The lower leg has two bones

1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and medially oriented
2. Fibula—thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia
▪ Has no role in forming the knee joint
Figure 5.27c Bones of the right thigh and leg.

Interosseous
membrane

Fibula

Tibia

(c)
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Bones of the Lower Limbs

▪ The foot
▪ Tarsals—7 bones
▪ Two largest tarsals
▪ Calcaneus (heel bone)
▪ Talus
▪ Metatarsals—5 bones form the sole of
the foot
▪ Phalanges—14 bones form the toes
Figure 5.28 Bones of the right foot, superior view.

Phalanges

Metatarsals

Tarsals

Tarsals

Talus

Calcaneus

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Figure 5.36 Osteoporosis.

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Figure 5.37 Vertebral collapse due to osteoporosis.

Age 40 Age 60 Age 70

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Figure 5.37 Vertebral collapse due to osteoporosis.

Age 40 Age 60 Age 70

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 Factors Affecting Bone Growth
• Genetic factors determine bone shape and size.
The expression of genetic factors can be
modified.
• Factors that alter the mineralization process or
the production of organic matrix, such as
deficiencies in Vitamin D, can affect bone
growth.
• Growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone
stimulate bone growth.
• Estrogen and testosterone cause closure of the
epiphyseal plate.
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 Molecules That Affect Bone Maintenance and Growth

Molecule Effect on Bone

HORMONES
Calcitonin Promotes calcium deposition in bone and inhibits
osteoclast activity
Growth Stimulates liver to produce the hormone
Hormone somatomedin, which causes cartilage proliferation
at epiphyseal plate and resulting bone elongation
Parathyroid Increases blood calcium level by encouraging bone
hormone resorption
Sex Hormones Stimulate osteoblasts; promote epiphyseal plate
growth and closure
Thyroid stimulates bone growth by stimulating metabolic
hormone
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rate of osteoblasts
 Molecule Effect on Bone
VITAMINS
Vitamin A Activates osteoblasts
Vitamin C Promotes collagen
production
Vitamin D Promotes absorption of
calcium and phosphate into
blood

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