’CÓN JKI D[KB QKTWEAEN CI AE[JCJCBN‖.

‖

’[BEWKTQEJCJ
BCAENBCI
QCBZECMN
CBZ[BK_ JK FCUNIN‖

GCA[IZCJ JK EBMKBEKTÆC AEWEI

 KQA[KIC CACJÅFEAN
CACJÅFEAN PTNGKQENBCI J
JK
K EBMKBEKTÆC
AEWEI
Zrcdcon B° 03
’ZEPNQ JK KQZT[AZ[TCQ‖ 

CQEM
CQEMBC
BCZ[
Z[TC
TC ? CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI E.

JNAKBZK ? EBM. NIC_C HKBNQZTN_C,

Acrins Humn.
CI[FBC ? WCIJEWEC KQPEBN_C, Aybthec Tuth.
QKFKQZTK ? 403= - 0

H[CTC_ - PKTß

  403=
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

AICQEGEACAENB JK ICQ KQZT[AZ[TCQ 

G[BAEÑB JK Q[ NTEMKB?
3. KQZ
KQZT[AZ
T[AZ[T [TCQCQ BCZ[
BCZ[TC TCIKIKQQ
Qnb cqukiics arkcjcs pnr ic bcturcikzc, seb ebtkrvkbaeñb jki hnfdrk, y cqukiics quk
sk rkgekrkb ci ksqukiktn n kstruaturc ñskc. Ki ksqukiktn jk ub skr vkrtkdrcjn, ics
gnrfcaenbks påtrkcs, ki acpcrczñb jk ub cbefci n ic kstruaturc jk ub ãrdni snb
cimubns kokfpins jk kstk tepn jk kstruaturc.

Gemurc 3. Aukvcs prkhestñreacs jk Acic Fnrkii.

4. KQZT
KQZT[A [AZ[Z[TC
TCQ Q CT
CTZE
ZEGE
GEAE
AECI
CIKQKQ
Hcakb rkgkrkbaec c ics ebquektujks y bkaksejcjks jki hnfdrk pnr acfdecr ki fkjen
kb quk sk jkskbvukivk, ebvkbtc y anbstruyk sestkfcs kstruaturciks quk kb acjc
fnfkbtn ik rksukivkb ins prndikfcs quk sk ik prkskbtcb. Ins kokfpins fãs usuciks
jk kstk tepn jk kstruaturcs snb ins pukbtks y kjegeaens, pkrn ics pnjkfns kbanbtrcr 
kb ic fcynræc jk ins ndoktns rkciezcjns pnr ki hnfdrk. C ic hnrc jk jeskócr ubc
kstruaturc kstc jkdk jk aufpier trks prnpekjcjks prebaepciks? skr rksestkbtk, ræmejc y
kstcdik. Tksestkbtk pcrc quk snpnrtk seb rnfpkrsk ki kgkatn jk ics gukrzcs c ics quk
sk kbaukbtrc snfktejc, ræmejc pcrc quk in hcmc seb jkgnrfcrsk y kstcdik pcrc quk sk
fcbtkbmc kb kqueiedren seb vniacrsk be ackrsk.

4
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Gemurc 4. Aeujcj jk ics Crtks y ics Aekbaecs jk Wcikbaec

Jkbtrn jk ics kstruaturcs crtegeaeciks pnjkfns jegkrkbaecr

4. 3.KQZT[AZ[TCQ FCQEWCQ
Ics prefk
prefkrcs
rcs kstrua
kstruatur
turcs
cs sk gnrfc
gnrfcdcb
dcb ca
caufu
ufuicb
icbjn
jn fctkre
fctkreci,
ci, seb jkocr
jkocr cp
cpkbc
kbcss
hukans, aninacbjn
aninacbjn dinquks jk pekjrc n craeiic ubns kbaefc jk ntrns n kxacvcbjn kb
ic rnac. Pcrc ics vkbtcbcs n hukans sk uteiezcdcb ins jebtkiks jk pekjrc n fcjkrc.
Ins jebtkiks anbstcb jk ubc vemc hnreznbtci aninacjc sndrk jns snpnrtks vkrteaciks,
bnrfcifkbtk anb ic gebciejcj jk jkocr ub hukan jkdcon jk kiics. Zcfdeåb sk
jkbnfebc vemc n acrmcjkrn .

Muezc. 
Gemurc 1. Mrcb perãfejk jk Muezc.

4. 4.KQZT[AZ[TCQ CDNWKJCJCQ

1
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Ki jks
jksaud
audref
refekb
ekbtn
tn jki cra
crann y ic dñv
dñvkjc
kjc pk
pkrfe
rfeteñ
teñ audrer
audrer ks
kspca
pcaens
ens fcynr
fcynrks ks y
cufkbtcr ins hukans kb ic kstruaturc. [bc dñvkjc ks ki rksuitcjn jk setucr vcrens
crans ubn c anbtebucaeñb jk ntrn ( dñvkjc jk acóñb) n jk kbtrkaruzcrins y rkiikbcr 
ins kspcaens ebtkrfkjens (dñvkjc jk aruakræc).

Gemurc :. Kstruaturc cdnvkjcjc jk ic znbc jki aefdnrren jk ic Actkjrci jk Durmns .

4. 1.KQZT[AZ[TCQ ICFEBCTKQ N JK ACTACQC

Ics kstruaturcs
ci ndoktn, jk acracsc
gnrfcbjn kstãb
ubc acoc anbstetuejcs
n acracsc pnr iãfebcs
quk prntkmk rksestkbtks
y fcbtekbk kb suquk kbvukivkb
pnseaeñb c ics
 pekzcs quk in anfpnbkb. Kokfpins jk kstruaturcs jk acracsc snb ics acrrnakræcs y
guskicoks jk anahks y cvenbks, y ic fcynræc jk ins kbvcsks anfn dntkiics jk piãstean
n tktrcdreals.

:
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Gemurc ;. Kstcaeñb
 Kstcaeñb jk cutndusks jki
jki pukdin jk Acscr jk A
Aãakrks
ãakrks

4. :.KQZT[AZ[TCQ JK CTFCJ[TC N CTFC_ÑB

Kstruaturcs gnrfcjcs pnr kikfkbtns cicrmcjns anfn pkrgeiks, dcrrcs, tudns, peicrks,
vemcs, vemuktcs, trcvkscóns n aniufbcs ubejcs kbtrk sæ pcrc gnrfcr ubc kspkaek jk
ksqukiktn n crfczñb. Qkmÿb ic jespnseaeñb jk sus kikfkbtns, kstcs kstruaturcs
 pukjkb aicsegeacrsk
aicsegeacrsk c su vkz kb?
C. KQZT[AZ[TCQ KBZTCFCJCQ.-Qn .-Qnbb ic
icss ks
kstr
trua
uatu
turc
rcss ut
utei
eiez
ezcj
cjcs
cs kb ic
anbstruaaeñb jk kjegeaens y vevekbjcs. Kstã anbstetuejc pnr dcrrcs jk hnrfemñb n
cakr
cakrnn ub
ubej
ejcs
cs jk fc fcbk
bkrc
rc ræme
ræmejc
jc gnrf
gnrfcbcbjn
jn ub kfpckfpcrre
rreii
iicj
cjn.
n. Acjc
Acjc pc pcrtk
rtk jk ic
kstruaturc tekbk ubc feseñb kspkaægeac. Pnr jkdcon jki sukin quk pescfns hcy
ub gnrocjn jk jk hnrfemñbquk trcbsfetk bukstrn pksn y ki jk tnjns ins ndoktns
kxestkbtks kb ki pesn hcaec ics vemcs, kikfkbtns hnreznbtciks anb gnrfc jk presfc
rkatcbmuicr y snfktejcs c ub ksgukrzn jk gikxeñb.
Icss vemc
Ic vemcss quk
quk vcvcbb jkbt
jkbtrn
rn jki
jki gnro
gnrocj
cjnn rkrkae
aedk
dkbb ki bnfd
bnfdrk rk jk vemuktcs, vemcs
 pkqukóetcs. Ics vemcs sk cpnycb kb ins peicrks y iks trcbsfetkb ki pksn. Ins peicrks
snb vkrteaciks y sk kbacrmcb jk iikvcr ki pksn hcstc ic aefkbtcaeñb, kstãb snfktejns
c ksgukrzns jk anfprkseñb , ks jkaer, cpicstcjns kbtrk ics vemcs y ins aefekbtns. Ins
 peicrks aerauicrks sk iicfcb aniufbcs y se kstãb pkmcjns c ic pcrkj peicstrcs.
Ki pksn tntci bn vc jerkatcfkbtk ci sukin pnrquk sk hubjeræc, pcrc kvetcr quk ins
 peicrks sk aicvkb kb ki tkrrkbn, sk cpnycb kb ic aefkbtcaeñb, kikfkbtn ebtkrfkjen
quk
quk pu pukj
kjkk kskstc
tcrr anbs
bste
tetu ejnn pnr zcpctcs, insc
tuej inscss jk aefk aefkbt
btca
caeñ
eñbb y peintks,
jkpkbjekbjn jk ic bcturcikzc y acrcatkræsteacs jki tkrrkbn.
Ics inscs y peintks sk uteiezcb kb tkrrkbns fuy dicbjns, y sk gcdreacb kb jestebtns
fctkreciks, sekbjn ins fãs uscjns ki cakrn y ki hnrfemñb crfcjn pnr su mrcb
rksestkbaec. Ic fcjkrc sk sukik uteiezcr anfn kikfkbtn jkanrctevn kb kstruaturcs.
Ins pkr
pkrgei
geiks
ks sk uteiez
uteiezcb
cb kb bufkrn
bufkrnscscss kst
kstrua
ruatur
turcs
cs,, sndrk
sndrk tnjn
tnjn fktãie
fktãieacs
acs.. Qnb
kikfkbtns quk tekbkb jestebtcs skaaenbks, jkpkbjekbjn jk ins ksgukrzns quk jkdkb
snpnrtcr. Anb ins pkrgeiks sk anbsemukb kstruaturcs fãs iemkrcs quk snpnrtcb mrcbjks

;
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

 pksns anb fkbns acbtejcj jk fctkreci, ins pkrgeiks cdekrtns sk cjcptcb fuy dekb c
ins ksgukrzns jk anfprkseñb.

Gemurc 7. Ks ubc kstruaturc crtegeaeci jk crfcjurc kbtrcfcjc.

D. KQZT[AZ[TCQ ZTECBM[ICJCQ.- Qk acrcatkrezcb pnr ic jespnseaeñb jk

 dcrrcs gnrfcbjn treãbmuins.
treãbmuins. Tksuitcb fuy rksestkbtks y iemkrcs c ic vkz.
vkz.

Gemurc =. mrÿc acrnic jki fuskn fcrætefn jk Deidcn.

Deidcn.

7
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

A. KQZT[AZ[TCQ ANIMCBZKQ snpnrtcb ki pksn jk ic anbstruaaeñb fkjecbtk

acdi
acdiks
ks n dcrr
dcrrcs
cs quk
quk vcb
vcb ub
ubej
ejns
ns c sn
snpn
pnrtk
rtkss fuy
fuy rk
rkse
sest
stkb
kbtk
tks.
s. Kstn
Kstnss ac
acdi
diks
ks sk
iicfcb tercbtks y aucbjn su inbmetuj sk pukjk rkmuicr, tkbsnrks . Ins tercbtks sñin
snpnrtcb ksgukrzns jk trcaaeñb, pkrn tekbkb ic vkbtcoc jk pnjkr cjcptcr su gnrfc c
ics acrmcs quk rkaedkb kb acjc fnfkbtn.

Gemurc 8. Pukbtk
 Pukbtk animcbtk jk fcjkrc kb Acbmcs jk Nbæs
Nbæs..
KB G[BAEÑB JK Q[ FNWEIEJCJ?
1. KQZ
KQZT[AZ
T[AZ[T [TCQCQ FNWE
FNWEIK IKQQ
Qkræcb tnjcs cqukiics quk sk pukjkb jkspiczcr, quk snb crteauicjcs. Anfn pukjk skr 
ki ksqukiktn, ub pukbtk ikvcjezn, ubc descmrc, ubc dekic, ubc rukjc, kta. Anfn
kokfpin ic kstruaturc quk sustkbtc ub anahk jk acdciins y ub fntnr jk anfdusteñb

Gemurc 5. Qeiuktc jki pukbtk ikvcjezn

:. KQZ
KQZT[AZ
T[AZ[
[TC
TCQ
QGGEO
EOCQ
CQ

=
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Qkrecb cqukiics quk pnr ki anbtrcren bn pukjkb sugrer jkspiczcfekbtns, n kstns snb
fæbefns. Qnb pnr kokfpin ins peicrks, tnrrktcs, vemcs, pukbtks.

Gemurc 30. Pukbtk Ahcntecbfkb

;. KQZ
KQZT[AZ
T[AZ[ [TC
TCQ Q FEX
FEXZCZCQ?Q? Zcfdeåb kxestkb kstruaturcs fextcs, pnr tkbkr ubc
 pcrtk geoc y ntrc pcrtk fñvei, anfn pnr kokfpin
kokfpin ubc fksc auy
auycs
cs jns pctcs jkicbtkrcs
jkicbtkrcs
n trcskrcs tekbkb rukjcs kb sus kxtrkfns.

Gemurc 33. Qnpnrtk pcrc dniscs skfefñvei

KB G[BAEÑB JK Q[ [ZEIEJCJ N QEZ[CAEÑB?

7. PEICTKQ

8
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Ks ubc dcrrc cpnycjc vkrteacifkbtk, auyc gubaeñb ks ic jk snpnrtcr acrmcs n ki pksn

jk ntrcs pcrtks jk ic kstruaturc. Ins prebaepciks ksgukrzns quk snpnrtc snb jk
anfprkseñb y pcbjkn. Zcfdeåb sk ik jkbnfebc pnstk, aniufbc, kta. Ins fctkreciks
jk ins quk kstã anbstruejn snb fuy jevkrsns, jksjk ic fcjkrc ci hnrfemñb crfcjn,
 pcscbjn pnr ki cakrn,
cakrn, icjreiins, fãrfni, kta. Quk
Qukikb
ikb skr jk gnrfc mknfåtrea
mknfåtreacc rkmuicr 
(aucjrcjc n rkatcbmuicr) y ics aniufbcs sukikb skr jk skaaeñb aerauicr.

Gemurc 34. Peicrks

=. WEMCQ
Ks ubc pekzc n dcrrc hnreznbtci, anb ubc jktkrfebcjc gnrfc kb gubaeñb jki ksgukrzn
quk snpnrtc. Gnrfc pcrtk jk ins gnrocjns jk ics anbstruaaenbks. Kstãb snfktejcs c
ksgukrzns jk gikxeñb.

Gemurc 31. Prebaepciks kikfkbtns jk snpnrtk

8. F[TNQ
Wcb c snpnrtcr ins ksgukrzns kb tnjc su inbmetuj, jk gnrfc quk rkpcrtkb ics acrmcs.

Ins fctkreciks
icjreiins, jk ins quk
jk hnrfemñb, kta. kstãb anbstruejns snb vcrecjns? ic pekjrc, jk gãdreac jk

5
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Gemurc 3:. Zepn jk furn pnrtcbtk

5. ZETCBZKQ
Ks ub kikf
kikfkbtn
kbtn anbst
anbstruate
ruatevn
vn quk kstã snfkt
snfktejn
ejn prebaep
prebaepcifk
cifkbtk
btk c ksgukrzns
ksgukrzns jk
trcaaeñb. Ntrcs jkbnfebcaenbks quk rkaedk skmÿb ics cpieacaenbks snb? renstrc,
acdik, tnrbcpubtc y tkbsnr. Cimubns fctkreciks quk sk uscb pcrc gcdreacrins snb
aukrjcs, acdiks jk cakrn, acjkbcs, iestnbks jk fcjkrc.

Gemurc 3;. Pukbtk animcbtk ctercbtcjn

30. P[K
P[KBZ BZKKQ
[b pukbtk ks ubc anbstruaaeñb quk pkrfetk scivcr ub caaejkbtk mknmrãgean anfn ub
ræn, ub acóñb, ub vciik. Ki jeskón jk acjc pukbtk vcræc jkpkbjekbjn jk su gubaeñb y
jk ic bcturcikzc jki tkrrkbn sndrk ki quk sk anbstruyk.

30
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Qu prnykatn y su aãiauin pkrtkbkakb c ic ebmkbekræc kstruaturci

Gemurc 37. Zepns jk pukbtks

KB G[BAEÑB JKI FCZKTECI JKI S[K KQZÅB ANBQZT[EJCQ?

33. FCJKTC.

Gemurc 3=. Kstruaturc fcjkrc icfebcjc ‑ Zkbkregk, Kspcóc Crans decrteauicjns jk fcjkrc

icfebcjc pcrc ics fcynrks iuaks y fkjecbtk vemcs de cpnycjcs kb ki acsn jk ics nbjcs jk
fkbnr inbmetuj.

34. FKZÃIEACQ.

33
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Gemurc 38. Kstruaturcs Fktãieacs jk CIFC IIKBC

31. HNTFEMÑB.

Gemurc 35. Kstruaturc jk hnrfemñb crfcjn kb jkscrrniin vkrteaci pcrc vevekbjcs

PNT Q[Q KQG[KT_NQ EBZKTBNQ JNFEBCBZKQ

3:
3:.. ZTCA
ZTCAAE
AEÑB
ÑB P[
P[TN
TN

34
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Gemurc 40. Qnpnrtcr fkjecbtk ub fkacbesfn jk trcaaeñb purc

3;
3;.. ANFP
ANFPTK
TKQE
QEÑB
ÑB P[T
P[TN
N

Gemurc 43. Kstruaturc kb anfprkseñb purc

37. GIKXENB
GIKXENB QEFPI
QEFPIK
K N ANFP
ANFP[KQZ
[KQZC
C

31
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Gemurc 44. kstruaturc kb gikxeñb sefpik y anfpukstc

PNT Q[ ANBJEAEÑB JK WÆBA[IN

3=
3=.. EQ
EQNQ
NQZÃ
ZÃZE
ZEAC
ACQ
Q
Ks quk ki bÿfkrn jk gukrzcs catucbtks ks emuci ci bÿfkrn jk gukrzcs catucbtks ks
emuci ci bÿfkrn jk kaucaenbks kb kqueiedren, jemcfns quk se ik quetcs ubc ctcjurc
qukjc ebkstcdik.

Gemurc 41.  Kstruaturc esnstãteac

38
38.. HEPK
HEPKTKTKQZQZÃZ
ÃZEAEACQ
CQ
(supkr quektc, bkaksetc
bkaksetc iedkrcrsk jk vcrens cpnyns
cpnyns pcrc iedk
iedkrcrsk
rcrsk jk ic ctcjurc), kb
kstc kstruaturc kxestkb fãs gukrzcs catucbtks quk kaucaenbks kb kqueiedren, pnr in
tcbtn sk bkaksetc pictkcr kaucaenbks cjeaenbciks anb ins jkspiczcfekbtns n merns kb
ub pubtn kspkaægean pcrc anbnakr kstcs gukrzcs (kaucaenbks jk anfpctedeiejcj).

3:
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Gemurc 4:. Wemc hepkrkstãteac

PNT Q[ ANBGEM[TCAEÑB

35. WEMC
[bc vemc (Gem. 4.3c) kstã gnrfcjc pnr ub kikfkbtn rkatn quk tekbk ubn n fãs pubtns
jk cpnyn, tciks anfn ins pubtns C, D y J. Ics gukrzcs quk sk cpieacb c ubc vemc sk
supnbk quk catÿcb kb ub picbn quk anbtekbk ub kok jk sefktræc jk ic skaaeñb
trcbsvkrsci jk ic vemc (ub kok jk sefktræc ks tcfdeåb ub kok prebaepci jk ic skaaeñb
trcbsvkrsci). Cÿb fãs, tnjns ins pcrks kxtkrenrks quk catÿcb sndrk ic vemc tekbkb sus
vkatnrks jk fnfkbtn bnrfciks c ksk picbn, y ic vemc sk jkgnrfc kb ki fesfn picbn
(ki picbn jk gikxeñb) y bn sugrk tnrseñb. Kb auciquekr skaaeñb trcbsvkrsci jk ic vemc
kxesterãb gukrzcs ebtkrbcs y, kb ki acsn mkbkrci, pukjkb cpcrkakr ubc gukrzc anrtcbtk
y ub pcr gikatnr.

40
40.. CTFC
CTFCJ[ J[TC
TC P PIC
ICBCBC
[bc crfcjurc picbc (Gem. 4.3d) sk ejkciezc anfn ub sestkfc jk kikfkbtns kb ub
 picbn, ebtkranbkatcjns
ebtkranbkatcjns kb oubtcs (bnjns) crteauicjcs. Qk anbsejkrc quk tnjcs ics
gukrzcs
gukrzcs quk catÿ
catÿcb
cb sndrk ubc crfc
crfcjurc
jurc kstãb kb ki picbn jk ic kstruaturc,
kstruaturc, y tnjns
ins pcrks kxtkrbns tekbkb sus vkatnrks jk fnfkbtns bnrfciks ci picbn (anfn kb ki
acsn jk ic vemc). Ics acrmcs pukjkb anbsester jk gukrzcs anbakbtrcjcs cpieacj
cpieacjcs
cs c ins
bnjns, csæ anfn acrmcs quk catÿcb sndrk ins kikfkbtns. Ins kikfkbtns jk ubc
crfcjurc picbc kstãb snfktejns, ÿbeacfkbtk, c gukrzcs jk tkbseñb n jk anfprkseñb.

43
43.. PNTZ
PNTZEA EAN
NP PIC
ICBNBN
Pñrtean Picbn? [b pñrtean picbn (Gem. 4.3a) kstã anfpukstn pnr kikfkbtns kb ub
snin picbn quk tekbkb su kok jk sefktræc kb ki fesfn picbn. Ins bnjns kbtrk ins
kikfkbtns (tciks anfn ins bnjns D y A), snb anbkxenbks ræmejcs. Ics gukrzcs quk
catÿcb kb ub pñrtean
ic kstruaturc. Znjns yinsinspcrks
jkspiczcfekbtns jki fesfn
quk catÿcb sndrk kstãbtekbkb
ki pñrtean kb ki fesfn picbn jk
sus vkatnrks jk
3;
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

fnfkbtn
fnfkb tn bnr
bnrfci
fciks
ks ci pic
picbn.
bn. Ics
Ics guk
gukrzc
rzcss ebt
ebtkrb
krbcs
cs rks
rksuit
uitcbt
cbtks
ks quk catÿc
catÿcbb kb
auciquekr skaaeñb jk ub kikfkbtn jk ub pñrtean picbn anbsestkb, kb mkbkrci, jk ubc
gukrzc cxeci, ub pcr gikatnr y ubc gukrzc anrtcbtk.

44.
44. PCTT
PCTTEI EII
IC
[bc pcrreiic (Gem. 4.3j) ks ubc kstruaturc picbc anfpukstc pnr kikfkbtns anbtebuns
quk sk ebtkrskatcb n sk aruzcb. Kb ki ÿitefn acsn, ics anbkxenbks kbtrk ins kikfkbtns
sk anbsejkrcb, c fkbujn, anfn crteauicjcs, kb tcbtn quk kb ki prefkr acsn, ics
anbkxenbks sk anbsejkrcb ræmejcs.
Fekbtrcs quk kb ki pñrtean picbn ics gukrzcs kxtkrbcs kstãb, tnjcs, kb ki picbn jk ic
kstruaturc, kb ki acsn jk ubc pcrreiic, tnjcs ics gukrzcs catÿcb pkrpkbjeauicrfkbtk
pkrpkbjeauicrfkbtk ci
 picbn jk ic fesfc. Kstc nrekbtcaeñb jk ic acrmc pukjk jcr anfn rksuitcjn tnrseñb
csæ anfn tcfdeåb gikxeñb kb cimubns kikfkbtns. Qk anbsejkrc quk acjc kikfkbtn
tekbk jns koks jk sefktræc kb su skaaeñb trcbsvkrsci, jk fnjn quk ic gikxeñb y ic
tnrseñb snb ebjkpkbjekbtks. Kb ubc skaaeñb trcbsvkrsci jk ub kikfkbtn jk pcrreiic,
kb mkbkrci, sk mkbkrcrã ubc gukrzc anrtcbtk, ub fnfkbtn gikatnr y ub fnfkbtn
tnrsnr.

41. CTFCJ[
CTFCJ[TC TC KQP
KQPCAE
CAECICI
[bc crfcjurc kspcaeci (Gem. 4.3k) ks sefeicr c ubc crfcjurc picbc, kxakptn quk sus
kikfkbtns pukjkb tkbkr auciquekr jerkaaeñb kb ki kspcaen. Ics gukrzcs quk catÿcb
sndrk ubc crfcjurc kspcaeci pukjkb tkbkr jerkaaenbks crdetrcrecs, pkrn auciquekr pcr 
cpieacjn kb ub kikfkbtn jk ic fesfc, jkdk tkbkr su vkatnr fnfkbtn pkrpkbjeauicr 
ci kok jki kikfkbtn. Ic rczñb jk kstk rkqukrefekbtn ks quk ub kikfkbtn jk ubc
crfcjurc ks ebacpcz jk snpnrtcr ub fnfkbtn tnrsnr.

4:. PNTZE
PNTZEAN AN KQPCAE
KQPCAECI CI
[b pñrtean kspcaeci (Gem. 4.3g) ks ki tepn fãs mkbkrci jk ubc kstruaturc rkteauicr,
tcbtn, quk bn hcy rkstreaaenbks kb ic pnseaeñb jk ins bnjns, jerkaaenbks jk ins
kikfkbtns n jk ics acrmcs. Ins kikfkbtns jk ub pñrtean kspcaeci pukjkb snpnrtcr 
gukrzcs cxeciks, pcrks tnrsnrks, pcrks gikatnrks kb ics jns jerkaaenbks prebaepciks jk
ic skaaeñb trcbsvkrsci, y gukrzcs anrtcbtks kb ics jns jerkaaenbks prebaepciks. Qk
anbsejkrc, emuci quk kb ki acsn jk ub kikfkbtn jk pcrreiic, quk ub kikfkbtn jk
 pñrtean kspcaeci
kspcaeci tekbk jns picbns jk sefktræc.

37
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

Ge 
 murc 4; . Zepns jk kstruaturcs rkteauicrks< (c) vemc< (d) crfcjurc picbc< (a) crfcjurc kspcaeci<
(j) pñrtean picbn< (k) pcrreiic< (g) pñrtean kspcaec

DEDIENMTCGÆC

 (4
(4030)..  Prebaepciks tepns jk kstruaturcs. gkdrkrn 48,403=, jk thciks Qeten wkd?
030)

http?//thciks.aeac.ks/rj/Tkaursns/rj55/kj55-00;1-04/anbtk
http?//thciks.aeac.ks/rj/Tkaursns/rj55/kj55-00;1-04/anbtkbejn/4^tepns.htf
bejn/4^tepns.htf
 Fcrteb, G. (4033). Zepns jk kstruaturcs.
kstruaturcs. gkdrkrn 48,403=, jk Qiejkshcrk Qeten wkd?
https?//ks.siejkshcrk.bkt/fcsegk/tepns-jk-ks
https?//ks.siejkshcrk.bkt/fcsegk/tepns-jk-kstruaturcs-8;;50=3
truaturcs-8;;50=3

 (4030).  Kstruatu rcs. gkdrkrn 48, 403=, jk KJ[ Qeten wkd?

 Kstruaturcs
https?//www.kju.xubtc.ks/kspcznCdcicr/setks/kspcznCdcicr/geiks/jctns/3:7
:5:=:85/anbtejn/77^kstruaturcs^animcbtks.htfi

 (4034). Aicsegeacaeñb jk ics kstruaturcs . gkdrkrn 48, 403=, jk Zkabninmæc

 perebkns Qeten wkd?
http?//tkabninmecperebkns.dinmspnt.pk/4034/33/aicsegeacaenb-jk-ics-
kstruaturcs.htfi

3=
 

CBÃIEQEQ KQZT[AZ[TCI
[BCQCF
  Gcauitcj jk Ebmkbekræc Aevei

 Quzy,, M. (403:
Quzy ).  Kstruatur
(403:).  Kstruaturcs
cs esnstãteacs
esnstãteacs k hepkrkstãteacs
hepkrkstãteacs. gkdrkrn 48,
403=, jk Cakrn y fcjkrc, crquetkaturc Qeten wkd?
http?//1sdj.dinmspnt.pk/403:/0;/kvciucaenb-anfprkbsevc-aukstenbcren-
jk.htfi

 (403:). aicsegeacaeñb jk ics kstruaturcs. gkdrkrn 48, 403=, jk wnrjprkss

Qeten wkd? https?//k1kbiebkc.geiks.wnrjprkss.anf/4033/30/aicsegeacaea1d1b-
jk-ics-kstruaturcs3.pjg 

38