Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BASIC MOUNTAINEERING:
11
A TEACHING GUIDE
June 1980
The Graduate Project of Paul Arnold Hellweg is approved:
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank the many friends and co 11 eagues who cant ri buted
to this graduate project. To begin with, the members of my Graduate
Committee -- Talmage W. Morash, George E. Welton, and John J. Bullaro
-- provided valuable support and guidance. I thus wish to acknowledge
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
Abstract vi
Introduction 1
Course Outline 5
List of Class Equipment 6
Lesson Plans 7
Narrative, Set I 44
Narrative, Set II 57
Bibliography 69
v
ABSTRACT
BASIC MOUNTAINEERING
A TEACHING GUIDE
by
Paul Arnold Hellweg
Master of Science in Recreation and Leisure Studies
vi
In addition to the slide sets, this project provides an entire
set of lesson plans for the teaching of a semester long course. The
lesson plans provide guidance for the instructor by describing the
equipment required, the safety considerations, and the behavioral
objectives for each class. For classroom sessions, the lesson plans
provide a detailed outline of contents. For field sessions, each
lesson plan not only describes the type of activity to be conducted
but also gives criteria for selecting an appropriate climbing route.
The lesson plans and accompanying slides form the heart of this
project, but some additional materials are provided. These include
the following: an introduction, a sample course outline, a list of
all required equipment, and a bibliography. In summary, this project
provides complete background material for the teaching of Basic
Mountaineering.
vii
INTRODUCTION
1
2
the same lesson plans are nonetheless applicable. The only change
is that the weekly two hour climbing sessions would have to be
combined into one or more weekend climbing periods.
TEACHING METHODOLOGY
The new instructor is invited to review the two books on
teaching methods recommended in the accompanying bibliography. The
first, Freedom to Learn, discusses techniques for making instruction
more meaningful and significant to the student. The second, To
Nurture Humaneness, discusses the role of humaneness in education.
This book would seem particularly appropriate for. a class in Basic
Mountaineering -- a class which by its very nature emphasizes close
4
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A selected bibliography has been provided for the instructor.
In addition to the two books recommended above, the bi"bliography
includes reference works on mountaineering and related topics. The
new instructor should pay particular attention to the references on
mountaineering first aid procedures.
5 ~ .
COURSE OUTLINE
BASIC MOUNTAINEERING
WEEK # LESSON
1. Administrative Requirements (Classroom)
2. Fundamentals of Climbing (Slides) & Equipment (Both in classroom)
3. Climbing Techniques (Slides) &Basic Knots (Both in classroom)
4. Proper Belay Techniques & Rappel Technique (Both in classroom)
5. Climbing Fundamentals (Field)
6. 3rd and 4th Class Scrambling (Field)
7. Beginning Rappeling (Field)
8. Beginning 5th Class Climbing (Field)
9. Chimney Climbing (Field)
10. Intermediate Rappeling (Field)
11. Intermediate 5th Class Climbing (Field)
12. Field Evaluation Day (Field)
13. Route Finding & Cross-Country Travel (Classroom)
14. Review (Classroom)
15. Written Final (Classroom)
TEXTBOOK:
Robbins, Royal. Basic Rockcraft, La Siesta Press, $2.95
EVALUATION:
Field Evaluations: 50%
Written Fin a1: 50%
6
LESSON PLANS
8
CLASS: WEEK: 1
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 1-2 hours
UNIT:
Administrative Requirements
TYPE OF UNIT:
Lecture
EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Activity Releases
Course Outlines
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should leave with a clear understanding of what will
be expected of them during the semester.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Hand out course outline and discuss with students. Insure
that each student understands the course requirements.
2. Briefly discuss safety considerations pertinent to the
climbing session. Pass out activity releases and have
each student complete one.
3. Take roll, add new students, etc.
9
period afterwards.
SLIDE # CONTENT
1 Introduction: Climb with extreme exposure
2 Introduction: Climb with minimal exposure
3 Classifications: Class I
4 Classifications: Class II
5 Classifications: Class III
6 Classifications: Class IV
7 Classifications: Class V
8 Classifications: Class VI
9 Belaying: The Belayer
10 Belaying: Leader placing protection
11 Belaying: Top-roped climb
12 Equipment: A quick overview
13 Equipment: All that is needed to get started
14 Proper Use of Legs: Legs stronger than arms
15 Proper Use of Legs: Resting on legs
16 Balance Wrong
17 Balance Correct
18 Balance -- Wrong
19 Balance -- Correct
20 Slab Climbing --Wrong
21 Slab Climbing -- Correct
22 Three Point Rule
11
SLIDE # CONTENT
23 Three Point Rule -- Wrong
24 Three Point Rule -- Wrong
25 Three Point Rule -- Correct
26 Footholds: Toeing
27 Footholds: Edging
28 Footholds: Sloping
29 Footholds: Incorrect use of knees
30 Footholds: Lifting foot instead of knee
31 Footholds: Can stand on foot, not knee
32 Basic Handholds
33 Fingernail hold
34 Cling hold
35 11
Thank God 11 hold
36 Pinch hold
37 Downpressure hold
38 Anyone can climb ...
39 If he has a belayer
12
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
B. Uses
1. Swami belt: a long piece tied around the waist
five or six times
2. Runners: 9 to 20 foot lengths, used for anchors
15
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
SLIDE # CONTENT
1 Introduction
2-11 Mantleshelving
12-13 Counterforce
14 Layback
15-22 Crack jamming
23-30 Chimney technique: squeeze and stemming
31-33 Downclimbing
34-42 Rappe ling
19
KNOTS CONTINUED:
CLASS: WEEK: 5
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2 hours
UNIT:
Fundamentals of Climbing
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
None
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
All climbing to be done close to the ground (student•s feet
never more than six feet off the ground), therefore, no belay
is required. Class must be trained in spotting techniques and
a minimum of two spotters provided for each student actually
climbing.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate mastery of the following
climbing fundamentals: proper use of hands and feet, proper
balance, and knowledge of three point rule.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Select a practice boulder with an absolute minimum of
exposure. At least one side should have a gently sloping
face for practice of friction and balance techniques.
26
CLASS: WEEK: 6
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours
UNIT:
3rd & 4th Class Scrambling
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets; llmm rope
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Climbers and belayers both must wear helmets. All climbers,
even on 3rd class, must be belayed.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate the ability to apply
climbing fundamentals to actual climbing situations.
Additionally, each participant should learn how to set up and
conduct a belay using no gear other than the climbing rope.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Select a moderately long (50-60 feet) 3rd or 4th class route.
2. Demonstrate the method of setting up a belay using rope only.
Required knots: bowline (for anchor), figure eight (for
belayer tie-in), and bowline-on-a-coil (for climber tie-in).
3. Allow each student opportunity to both climb the route and
to belay another student (under close supervision).
28
CLASS: WEEK: 7
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours
UNIT:
Beginning Rappel
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete set of class equipment
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
All rappelers must wear helmets and be on belay. Instructor
must supervise closely to insure that every individual has
correct hook-up before descending. Instructor must closely
supervise each stage of the descent -- watching for correct
balance, placement of feet, and overall safety consciousness.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate proper rappel technique,
including: anchoring, harness and carabiner arrangement, body
position, and belay.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Select beginning rappel site. Criteria for selection:
about 20-30 feet rappeling distance (free of overhangs or
other obstructions), safe and easy access to top, and
absolutely secure anchor.
29
CLASS: WEEK: 8
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours
UNIT:
Beginning 5th Class Climb
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to
establish top-roped belay.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Top-roped belay required (bowline-on-a-coil tie-in), helmets
required for both belayer and climbers. Belayer should be
instructor or trusted assistant. Close supervision required
throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to apply climbing fundamentals to easy
5th class climbing situation.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Select easy 5th class climb (about 5.1-5.3). Criteria for
selection: short length (about 20-30 feet), all or part of
climb should involve crack of 3-4 inch width, easy and safe
downclimb available, absolutely secure anchor for top-roped
belay.
31
CLASS: WEEK: 9
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours
UNIT:
Chimney Climbing
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to
set up belay anchor.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Top belay required. Climber and belayer must wear helmets.
Close supervision demanded throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate the fundamentals of
chimney technique.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Select chimney climbing route. Criteria for selection:
moderate length (about 15-20 feet), adequate width for
stemming (about 3 feet), easy and safe downclimbing route,
adequate site for top belay, absolutely secure belay anchor.
2. Establish top belay position, explaining procedure to class.
3. Demonstrate and explain the alternate hand and foot place-
ments of correct stemming technique.
33
CLASS: WEEK: 10
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours
UNIT:
Intermediate Rappel
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete class set of climbing equipment.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
All rappelers must wear helmets and be on belay. Instructor
must supervise closely to insure that every individual has
correct hook-up before descending. Instructor must closely
supervise each stage of the descent watching for correct
procedure throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate proper rappel technique,
including: anchoring, harness and carabiner arrangement,
correct body position, and belay.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Select the intermediate rappel site. Criteria for selection:
moderate length (about 50-60 feet), free of overhangs or
other hazards, safe and easy access to top, absolutely
secure anchor.
35
CLASS: WEEK: 11
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours
UNIT:
Intermediate 5th Class Climb
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to
establish top-roped belay.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Top-roped belay required (bowline-on-a-coil tie-in), helmets
required for both belayer and climbers. Belayer should be
instructor or trusted assistant. Close supervision required
throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to apply climbing fundamentals to a
moderate 5th class climbing situation.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1. Select moderate 5th class route (about 5.5-5.6). Criteria
for selection: moderate length (50-60 feet), easy and safe
downclimb available, absolutely secure anchor required for
top-roped belay.
37
CLASS: WEEK: 12
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours
UNIT:
Field Evaluation Day
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete set of class equipment, minus helmets.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A (No actual climbing involved)
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate all the field techniques
experienced in the class.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
Class participants will be evaluated on their abilities to
perform five or more of the following tasks (randomly selected).
Criteria for evaluation: degree of mastery of each technique.
1. Tie one or more of the following knots: figure eight,
bowline, bowline-on-a-coil, prussik, or double fisherman's
knot.
2. Coil a climbing rope.
3. Demonstrate and explain toeing vs. edging.
4. Demonstrate and explain proper balance.
39 ~ '
CLASS: WEEK: 13
Basic Mountaineering TIME REQUIRED: 2 hours
UNIT:
Cross-Country Travel & Routefinding
TYPE OF UNIT:
Lecture
EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
None
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate knowledge of how to apply
the principles of Basic Mountaineering to cross-country travel
situations.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
I. Routefinding: Sources of Information
A. Topographic Maps: Briefly describe the map and its
contents, giving directions on where to go for map
training.
B. Guide Books: Briefly revie\'1 the Sierra Club Climbing
Classification System used in most guides.
C. Rangers, guides, and other professionals.
41
SLIDE NARRATIVES
45
NARRATIVE
SLIDE SET I
INTRODUCTION
Basic Mountaineering is a sport of seemingly endless variety.
Depending on the climber's interests and the rock available, the
sport can be practiced barely inches off the ground or from heights
so dizzying that even the birds are careful. Some good climbers
practice rock gymnastics which require no special gear -- not even
footwear. Others wouldn't dream of heading to the rock without
hundreds of dollars worth of gear. Some people climb for a little
exercise and outdoor fun, nothing more. Others pursue risk,
adventure, and a chance to test their limits. The style of climbing
you choose is wholly determined by your own desires and inclinations.
CLIMBING CLASSIFICATIONS
Because climbing does exist in such variety, classification
systems have been devised to describe the difficulty of any climb.
The most common classification system was developed by the Sierra
Club. Under the Sierra Club system, climbs are divided into six
separate classes:
CLASS I: Walking upright; no special gear required.
CLASS II: Scrambling over rocks; special footgear required.
Hands needed for balance.
46
BELAYING
Belaying is a climbing term which has nautical origins. On
sailing vessels, wooden pins (belays) were provided for lowering
canvas sails. The friction produced by wrapping a rope around the
belay pin made it possible to lower heavy sails by hand. ln a
similar manner, a person holding a climbing rope {_the belayer) can
use friction to stop the downward plunge of a falling climber.
In practice situations, the climber is protected by a top roped
belay, that is, the belay rope is anchored above the climber. In
most mountaineering situations, however, it is not possible to top-
rope the climber. In these situations, the climber utilizes either
pitons, chocks, or bolts to create his own anchor points as he climbs.
The belay rope is essential to safe climbing. Under no circum-
s.tances should anyone venture more than five or six feet off the
ground without the security of a rope and belayer -- and this is
47
EQUIPMENT
Mountaineering gear comes in a confusing variety of ropes,
slings, pitons, carabiners, and related equipment. Technical
expertise is required for the safe use of such equipment. The
beginner, however, can get started with little more than a pair of
old 11 tennies 11 • Snug fitting shoes are all that is needed to practice
beginning techniques close to the ground.
Proper clothing depends on the weather. Obviously different
clothing is required for a Himalyan ascent than is seen on sunny
California boulders. In general, though, clothing should be
comfortably loose, but not baggy. Denims are superior to shorts
because of the protection provided against scrapes and scratches.
When the beginner is ready to venture more than a few feet
off the ground, safety demands the addition of two items of
equipment: the belay rope and a helmet.
SLAB CLif~BING
More likely than not, slabs will not offer usable hand or foot-
holds, they must be climbed relying primarily on friction. This
discussion of slab climbing will thus be closely related to the
previous discussion of friction and balance. The traditional method
for climbing slabs is for the climber to lean forward and press his
palms flat to the rock, while maintaining his weight predominantly
over his feet (bending at the ankle helps}. But only orangutans
and their close cousins have the flexibility to keep both hands and
feet flat on steep slabs. The climber must compromise somewhere--
usually by leaning forward too far and not keeping his weight
properly over his feet.
A superior method is to climb slabs in a switchback fashion
rather than making a bee-line for the top. Only by so doing can the
climber get consistently good foot placement. Remember, the key to
proper friction is to keep the foot flat on the rock and to keep the
body•s weight directly over the feet. If the toe is straight uphill,
the climber will unconsciously lift his heel as he leans forward to
place palms against the rock. Lifting the heel removes about half
the sole from the rock and thus cuts friction in half. At the other
extreme, if the foot is placed sideways on the rock (perpendicular
to the slope}, then the foot will roll to the downhill side--this too
greatly reduces friction. The ideal foot placement is halfway
between these two extremes; that is, the toes should point off at
about 45 degrees to the side of straight uphill. The easiest way
to keep the toes pointed in the proper direction is simply to climb
52
urge is sometimes strong to move both a hand and a foot at the same
time. This urge must be resisted.
If you are in the habit of leaving yourself with only two points
of contact, sooner or later a foot or hand is going to slip. The
sole remaining point of contact will not be enough to hold your
weight and a fall could easily result. If properly belayed, such a
fall would most likely not be injurious. But why take a needless
risk? Remember the three point rule, and move only one foot or one
hand at a time, not both together.
FOOTHOLDS
As the legs are more important than the arms in climbing, the
finding of good footholds is a matter of prime concern. New climbers
typically have hopes and expectations for broad or level footholds.
But if the principles of balance and friction are kept in mind, then
some mighty tiny looking holds will be found to be perfectly service-
able (assuming, of course, that anything can be kept in mind while
groping up the face of a cliff). Should a potential foothold look
at all suspect, it must be tested before one's entire weight is
entrusted to it.
When a foothold is level and spacious, no special skill is
required. But if the hold appears otherwise, then the following
techniques should prove of value:
TOEING vs. EDGING: Holds of very small width are best
approached with the side of the foot, not the toes. If the toes
alone are making contact, then the foot must be held level by muscle
54
power. This places strain on the calves and 11 sewing machine leg 11 can
result. In contrast, if the edge of the foot is placed on the hold,
leg muscles can relax and let the bones do most of the work. Which
side of the foot is edged onto a hold will depend largely on the
direction the climber is moving. The important point to remember is
that either edge of the foot is generally superior to toes alone.
SLOPING FOOTHOLDS: These will be encountered either as shallow
depressions in vertical rock or in the form of uneven ledges of
varying size. The intent is to get as much of the boot on the sloping
surface consistent with maintaining proper balance. This can be done
by planting the foot with the toe facing uphill and by bending at the
ankle to keep the leg vertical.
KNEES: When the next good foothold is almost waist high, it
can be very tempting to use the knee rather than putting out the
extra effort to bring up a foot. But that extra effort must be
made. Knees are finicky creatures and they are readily subject to
injury. A good way to injure the knee is to place it on a rough
rocky hold and then place the body•s entire weight on it. Thus,
the foot must be brought up if at all possible. Doing so will place
one is a better position to continue climbing. If a foot has reached
the hold, one can easily stand on it. But if the knee has been used,
the climber might find himself stuck and unable to rise to his feet.
HANDHOLDS
The importance of good footholds has been emphasized, but this
does not mean that handholds are to be taken lightly. The value of
55
hold is encountered near the end of a hard climb or at any other time
when the climber is becoming fatigued, then the name for the hold is
self-explanatory.
A student once reflected that a particular 11 Thank God 11 hold felt
so good she was tempted to move in with bed and board. Such a feeling
of security is quite natural; however, it can lead to trouble. The
climber should not rest unless his/her feet are on secure footholds.
When resting, the climber's weight must be supported by bone
structure, not muscle. If a rest pause is taken at a 11 Thank God 11
hold, the natural tendency is to have the arms supporting too much
weight. Fatigue can set in, and the climber can find himself in
trouble. 11
Thank God 11 holds can in fact be godsends, but they must
not be relied upon excessively.
PINCH HOLDS: The pinch hold is a specialized form of grip
utilized on protuberances which are overhanging, or otherwise
positioned in an awkward manner that does not allow them to be
gripped as cling or fingernail holds. The climber simply pinche~
NARRATIVE
SLIDE SET II
MANTLESHELVING
supporting work and the arm muscles can relax somewhat. Now lean
forward and slightly to one side and bring the opposite foot to the
ledge (no knees, please). Try to place the foot flat and as close
to the body as possible. With the help of a gentle pushoff from the
fingertips, straighten the leg and stand up. And that is all there
is to doing the classic mantle. The essence of the technique is in
smoothness and continuity of motion. Great arm strength is not
required as the initial upwards thrust is provided by both arms and
legs lifting in unison.
Flat mantles higher than the climber's head can be gained in a
manner similar to the technique just described. The only difference
is that proper use of the feet is increasingly important, and a
smooth continuous action is essential for success. Grasp the mantle
with both hands and walk the feet up until the ledge is about chest
high. Then quickly and smoothly shift the hands to the palm down
position, thrust off with the feet, and lift yourself up as in doing
a classic mantle.
59
jammed with hand or fist, the climber can grasp the crack•s edges and
pull against the rock in opposite directions. These counterforce
techniques are strenuous, but they can be effective if used sparingly.
One of the most useful variations of counterforce is the under-
cling hold. The climber grips the bottom of a flake or undercut ledge
and attempts to 11
PU11 11
himself towards the flake. At the same time,
he leans out from the rock by pushing .. with his feet.
11
The counter-
force provided by this opposing pushing and pulling holds the climber
in a secure position and gives him the opportunity to reach for his
next hand or foothold.
The classic form of counterforce is known as laybacking. This
involves a combination of pushing and pulling forces similar to the
undercling hold, but the climber is actually able to ascend by using
a continuous combination of these opposed forces. Laybacking can be
done in three basic situations: at a corner where two rock faces
meet (if there is a crack between them), along any crack which has
one side offset sufficiently to allow room for the climber•s feet;
and finally, up a vertical flake.
Laybacking is the most strenuous form of counterforce, and the
beginner will have difficulty ascending more than a few feet. The
hands grip the close edge of the flake or crack and pull the body in
while the legs push out. The leading foot is kept just below the
hands. If higher, the strain on the arms becomes too great. If
lower, the feet will not maintain a good grip on the rock. One foot
or hand is slid upwards at a time, and in this manner the climber
60
shuffles his way up the rock. The arms are kept extended as much as
possible in order to transfer strain from muscle to bone. But there
are limits to the amount of strain even the bones can hold, and the
beginner would be wise to limit his laybacking to short cracks and
flakes.
CRACK JAMMING
The stresses of expansion and contraction build up in rock until
the strain is relieved by the rock's splitting. Most of the resulting
fissures are useful to climbers. Horizontal cracks can be of assis-
tance by providing opportunity for conventional hand and footholds.
But of particular value are vertical cracks--these frequently provide
the only route up an otherwise smooth face. Vertical cracks up to
about a foot in width are climbed by jamming a portion of the body
into them. Wider cracks which admit the entire body are known as
chimneys. The techniques of chimney climbing are distinct from
crack jamming, and thus will be considered separately.
Fingers, hands, fists, arms and shoulders; also toes, feet,
legs, and even knees have all been utilized in one or another form
of jam. The idea is to shove into the crack whichever of the above
fits. The selected body member is then flexed or twisted into a
position in which pressure is applied outwards to both sides of the
crack. Sufficient pressure must be exerted to allow the "jam" to
hold the body's weight either partially or in full. The climber is
then able to move upwards by repeating a sequence of jams. The
easiest jams to accomplish involve the hands and feet. The others
61
To remove the fist jam, simply uncurl the fingers and the hand will
slide easily back and out.
TOE JAM: The knee is lowered to the outside in order to allow
the tip of the foot (or toes) to be inserted sideways into the crack.
Then the knee is raised up, all the way up, until it is flush with
the crack. This motion of raising the knee twists the toes tightly
into the crack. The resulting jam is extremely secure and will
support one's entire weight. But it is a rare climber who wants to
stand very long on a toe jam. They can be quite painful, especially
if one is wearing tennis or jogging shoes.
In order to remove the toes, the knee has to be again dropped
to the outside. Keep in mind that removal can be difficult if one
is in the habit of taking large steps. Thus the key to proper crack
climbing is to proceed steadily, but gradually, taking steps of about
8 to 12 inches.
FOOT JAM: The foot jam is accomplished in a manner identical to
the toe jam. It is used in wider cracks which will accept the better
part of the climber's foot, not just his toes.
Climbing becomes more difficult when cracks are too narrow to
accept either hands or feet. Narrow cracks do provide some useful
holds but they are best climbed in combination with conventional hand
and footholds. In fact, it may not be possible to free climb narrow
cracks if there are no other helping holds.
The following techniques are useful in gaining some assistance
from narrow cracks:
63
FINGER JAM: Place two or more fingers into the crack as far as
they will go. Then twist the entire hand to tightly wedge the fingers
within the crack. This sounds rather rugged, but finger jams are
actually both practical and simple. In addition to their use in
narrow cracks, they can be effectively employed in old piton scars
and similar small holes.
TOE-TIP JAM: If one is wearing flexible-soled shoes (_climbing,
tennis or jogging shoes), it should be possible to wedge the tip of
the toes into a narrow crack. Lower the knee to the outside, slip
the tip of the shoe in sideways, then bring the knee all the way up
and back to the crack. The only difference between this and a true
toe jam is that a bit more courage is required to trust the body's
weight to toe-tips alone.
If narrow cracks seem overly challenging, then it would be wise
to steer altogether c1ear of wide cracks. For it is th.e wide cracks
(_greater than 4 inches) which are most difficult of all. They are
too wide to jam with hands or feet, and yet too narrow to squeeze the
entire body inside. A variety of wide-crack techniques have been
developed, but they are all of limited practicality. In the end,
it is up to the climber and his wits to come up with a successful
combi.nation of jams and wedges. Ingenuity is thus the most important
64
CHIMNEY CLIMBING
When a crack widens to the point the entire body fits inside,
then the crack becomes known as a chimney. Squeeze chimneys just
barely admit the climber; others are so wide that the climber has
difficulty bridging the gap with his body. But whatever the width
65
66
and speed.
Slightly wider fissures can be climbed with even greater facility
and the ideal chimney is one with a width of about three feet. These
ideal chimneys are climbed by pressing the feet against alternate
walls in a process known as 11 Stemming 11 • Chimney stemming appears
awkward at first, but it can be executed smoothly and speedily once
mastered.
The stemming process is as follows:
1. Press against the front wall with the right foot raised
about hip high. Also press against front wall with the
left hand,
2. Raise the left foot up under the buttocks and pressing
against the back wall. Also press against back wall with
right hand.
3. Lift the body away from the rear wall by pushing off with
the right hand. At the same time, raise the body by
pushing up with both legs.
4. Reverse the positions of both hands and both feet. Bring
the right hand forward first, then follow with the left foot
pressed about hip high to the front wall. Next lift the
right foot up under the buttocks, and finish by shifting
left hand to the back wall.
5. Continue upwards motion by lifting the body off the rear
wall (this time with the left hand), and stand up on the
feet.
67 ~ '
DOWNCLIMBING
Down may be the opposite of up, but downclimbing is not really
the opposite of upclimbing. In truth, the two are almost identical
since all of the fundamentals apply equally to both. Proper balance,
friction, hand and footholds, use of the legs, and so forth, are just
as important to downclimbing as to any other aspect of climbing. The
only real difference between the two (other than the obvious) is that
it is more difficult to see where one is going when downclimbing.
The reason for this should be obvious too: the head (and eyes) lead
the way in climbing up, but are forced to follow in the rear when
going the other direction.
When climbing down gentle slopes, the climber should face down-
hill in order to best see the way ahead. This is particularly true
for descending friction slabs. Here the climber not only faces
downhill, but he also sits down, keeping feet and palms flat to the
rock. Never descend friction slabs standing up lest too much momentum
be acquired and the descent becomes uncontrolled.
When the route becomes a bit steeper, the climber should face
sideways to the rock. This still allows good downward vision, but
offers improved balance and also allows the climber to make use of
available handholds.
When the route down is truly steep, the climber should face in
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
CLIMBING GUIDES:
Aleith, R.C. Bergsteigen: Basic Rock Climbing. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975.
Banks, Mike. Mountain Climbing for Beginners. New York:
Stein and Day, 1978.
Ferber, Peggy (ed.). Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills
(3rd edition). Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1975.
Leonard, Richard M., et al. Belaying the Leader: An Omnibus
On Climbing Safety. San Francisco: The Sierra Club, 1956.
Lyman, Tom. Bouldering and Outcrop Climbing. Brattleboro:
The Stephen Greene Press, 1978.
Lyman, Tom and Riviere, Bill. The Field Book of Mountaineering
and Rock Climbing. The Winchester Press, 1978.
Mandolf, Henry I. (ed.). Basic Mountaineering. San Diego:
The San Diego Chapter of the Sierra Club, 1961.
Mendenhall, Ruth and John. Beginner's Guide to Rock and
Mountain Climbing. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1975.
Robbins, Royal. Basic Rockcraft. Glendale: La Siesta Press,
1971.
Advanced Rockcraft. Glendale: La Siesta Press, 1973.
Smith, Howard E., Jr. The Complete Beginner's Guide to Mountain
Climbing. New York: Pocket Books, 1977.
Wheelock, Walt. Ropes, Knots, and Slings for Climbers. Glendale
La Siesta Press, 1967.
TEACHING METHODOLOGY:
Rogers, Carl R. Freedom to Learn. Columbus: Charles E.
Merrill Publishing Company, 1969.
Scobey, Mary-Margaret and Graham, Grace {eds.). To Nurture
Humaneness. Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, 1970.