You are on page 1of 7

1396 心理科学 Journal of Psychological Science 2019,42(6):1396-1402

心    理    科    学

赌博障碍的认知功能缺陷及神经基础 *

刘 星1 陈 睿1 黄小璐 1 何清华 **1,2


(1 西南大学心理学部 , 认知与人格教育部重点实验室 , 重庆市脑科学协同创新中心西南大学分中心 , 北京师范大学中国基础教育质量监测协同创
新中心西南大学分中心,重庆,400715)(2 中国科学院心理健康重点实验室 , 中国科学院心理研究所 , 北京 , 100101)

摘   要   赌博障碍是指持续且反复的赌博行为,给个人、家庭和社会都带来了严重后果,近年来受到越来越多研究者的关注。本研
究总结了赌博障碍的认知功能缺陷及其神经基础,主要集中在如下四个方面:①认知扭曲、②奖赏和惩罚敏感性、③注意偏向和
④决策。未来研究应多从认知神经科学角度深入探究赌博障碍的发生机制和发展过程,关注大脑结构变化及功能网络改变,并将
其整合到一个统一的神经生物机制框架中,找到更加有效的干预和治疗手段。
关键词    赌博障碍 认知扭曲 奖赏与惩罚敏感性 注意偏向 决策 神经基础

动控制障碍”移至“物质相关和成瘾障碍”类别,
1   引言  是该类别中唯一的无物质相关的疾病(诊断编码
虽然世界上大多数国家禁止赌博,然而仍有 312.31 (F63.0)), 用 以 诊 断 持 续 且 反 复 适 应不良
约 80% 的成人参与过赌博行为 (Loo, Raylu, & Oei, 的 赌 博 行 为 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013;
2008)。赌博是指个体在不确定结果的事件中冒险下 Potenza, 2013)。在 DSM-5 中,赌博障碍的临床诊断
赌注(通常是金钱)的行为,其主要意图是获得更 标准为耐受性增强、出现戒断症状、重复不成功地
大的奖赏 (Fauth-Bühler, Mann, & Potenza, 2017)。对 尝试减少或停止赌博行为以及追逐损失等 (American
于多数人来说,赌博可能只是一种偶尔进行的娱乐 Psychiatric Association, 2013)。
活动,并不会对生活带来太大的影响,所谓“怡情” 在认知加工上,赌博障碍者也会表现出与物质成
而已。但研究表明从事过赌博活动的成年人中大约 瘾者类似的,多个认知领域的功能失调(赵海潮 , 黄
有 2-3% 的人会对赌博上瘾而且约有 .4~1.9% 的人会 小璐 , 何清华 , 2016),如认知扭曲、奖惩敏感性改
终生受到赌博障碍的负面影响,特别“伤身”(Grant, 变、注意偏向与线索反应障碍以及决策机制受损等
Odlaug, & Chamberlain, 2016)。 (Limbrick-Oldfield et al., 2017; van Holst, van den Brink,
赌博障碍和物质使用障碍有很多相似之处,包 Veltman, & Goudriaan, 2010a; Wiehler & Peters, 2015)。
括遗传易感性、临床特征、潜在的风险因素以及 以此为出发点,本研究分别介绍了赌博障碍个体在
神 经 生 物 学 机 制 等 (Fauth-Bühler et al., 2017; Grant, ①认知扭曲、②奖赏和惩罚敏感性、③注意偏向和
Potenza, Weinstein, & Gorelick, 2010; Potenza, 2006)。 ④决策四个方面的缺陷及其背后的神经基础(详见
因此,美国精神病学会在精神疾病诊断和统计手册 表 1),并进一步提出今后可以继续开展的研究方向。
第 5 版(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
2   认知扭曲
Disorders V,DSM-5)中将赌博障碍从旧版的“冲

* 本研究得到国家自然科学基金(31400959)、中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金项目(SWU1809003)、中国科学院心理健康重点实验
室开放课题基金(KLMH2019K05)、重庆市留学回国人员创业创新支持计划(cx2017049)和中国基础教育质量监测协同创新中心自主支持课
题(2016-06-014-BZK01, SCSM-2016A2-15003, JCXQ-C-LA-1)的资助。
** 通讯作者:何清华。E-mail: heqinghua@swu.edu.cn
DOI:10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20190617
刘   星等 : 赌博障碍的认知功能缺陷及神经基础 1397

表 1  赌博障碍者在不同认知加工领域的行为学与神经影像学研究总结表

赌博障碍者存在对赌博的不合理信念,例如对 & Clark, 2010; Clark, Lawrence, Astley-Jones, & Gray,


获胜机会的解释、对结果的主观控制感、对失败的 2009)。例如,Clark 等人(2009)采用简化的老虎
归因等等 (Clark, 2010; Potenza, 2014),进而表现出一 机任务测量赌博者对赌博结果的行为及神经反应,
些特有的认知扭曲现象,主要表现为追逐损失、掌 实验结果表明近赢结果使得大脑的 VS 和脑岛的激
控妄想、近赢等。这些认知扭曲导致他们对自己的 活增加,这些脑区在近赢下的激活情况和真正赢钱
能力、控制和概率等都持错误概念,导致过度异常 时的激活情况是类似的 (Chase & Clark, 2010)。
的赌博行为 (Brevers, He, Xue, & Bechara, 2017)。 (3)追逐损失(loss-chasing)指赌博障碍者相
(1) 掌 控 妄 想(illusion of control), 指 赌 博 信损失可以通过继续赌博而得以赢回,因此他们会
障碍者秉持着自己在赌博活动中有特殊的技能、知 在损失后会做出更加高风险的决定 (Potenza, 2014)。
识以及其他方面的优势的错误信念,致使他们坚信 是否存在追逐损失的行为是衡量赌博障碍的重要诊
值 得 赌 下 去 (Cowley, Briley, & Farrell, 2015)。 对 赌 断 标 准 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)。 追
博结果的控制感强的个体会评估自己能否在每次赌 逐损失是一种和赌博障碍密切相关的行为模式,与
博中获得最大的收益,同时能否继续接受更大的赌 自我控制和决策功能的平衡有关。比如在追逐损失
注。例如,Lorenz 等人(2015)在以青少年赌博者 的决策任务中,赌博者选择追逐损失时,其腹内侧
为研究对象开展的老虎机任务中,测量其奖赏预期 前 额 叶(ventromedial prefrontal cortex,VMPFC)
是否受到掌控妄想的调节作用,发现在奖惩结果不 和 背 侧 前 扣 带 回(dorsal anterior cingulate cortex,
确定的情况下,产生控制错觉的赌博者的腹侧纹状 dACC)的活动降低 (Campbell-Meiklejohn, Woolrich,
体(ventral striatum, VS), 和 右 侧 额 下 回(Inferior Passingham, & Rogers, 2008);而在另一项采用同样
frontal gyrus, IFG)激活显著增加,并且纹状体与 的追逐损失决策任务中发现,相比药物成瘾群体
脑 岛(insula) 的 功 能 连 接 也 会 增 强 (Cocker, Lin, 和健康组,赌博障碍者在决定停止追逐损失时,
Barrus, Le Foll, & Winstanley, 2016)。 其执行功能网络脑区如 DLPFC、ACC 以及额顶网
(2) 近 赢(near miss), 指 赌 博 障 碍 者 更 倾 络(fronto-partial network)的激活更强 (Worhunsky,
向于将接近赢钱而实际损失的结果视为积极的结果 Potenza, & Rogers, 2017)。 更 加 值 得 注 意 的 是, 长
(Belisle & Dixon, 2016)。尽管在没有实际收入的情 期赌博会造成大脑结构的改变,相关研究发现赌博
形下,近赢也会通过奖赏回路的异常激活进而激励 障碍者的背内侧前额叶灰质体积比正常被试小,还
被试继续赌博。研究者认为近赢会提高赌博者的赌 发现认知扭曲程度与赌博障碍者的 dACC 灰质体
博动机,并且会使奖赏相关的脑区激活增加 (Chase 积 减 小 呈 正 相 关 关 系 (de Lara, Navas, Soriano-Mas,
1398 心    理    科    学

Sescousse, & Perales, 2018; Zois et al., 2017)。 了大脑的中脑边缘系统和前额叶皮层在奖赏加工中


综上所述,认知扭曲与前额叶 - 边缘系统的活 的作用,赌博障碍者的这些脑区的功能异常导致了
动异常有关。赌博障碍患者这些特殊的认知扭曲会 他们对奖赏敏感性的降低。在结构上,虽然由于研
诱发个体腹侧纹状体等奖赏脑区的过度激活,同时 究方法和个体的差异,关于赌博障碍者灰质体积改
带来前额叶执行控制和决策加工相关脑区的激活降 变的报告并不完全一致,但都反映了其缺乏有效
低,进而引发并增加更多的赌博行为。基于此,我 的前额叶控制,导致灰质体积和厚度相应的增大
们认为额叶 - 腹侧纹状体的神经适应性改变可能是 或减小 (Grant, Odlaug, & Chamberlain, 2015; Koehler,
赌博障碍认知扭曲的神经基础之一。 Hasselmann, Wüstenberg, Heinz, & Romanczuk-Seiferth,
2015)。
3   奖赏与惩罚敏感性
综上,赌博障碍是一种奖赏加工障碍,无论在
在面临重复多次的奖惩赌博中,赌博者的大脑 面对奖赏或是损失的情况下,他们的反应都比正常
在实时分析每次赌博所带来的收益和损失 (Oberg, 人要迟钝,其神经生理指标也表现出类似特点。这
Christie, & Tata, 2011)。一方面,由于多次重复的操 使得赌博者更可能寻求更多的奖赏刺激来弥补其快
作性条件反射使得赌博个体对奖赏更为敏感,而 感缺乏的状态 (Holst et al., 2010b)。
奖赏刺激的唤醒状态会导致其赌博次数增加并发
4   注意偏向
展为习惯性的赌博行为模式 (Blaszczynski & Nower,
2002)。另一方面,赌博个体对惩罚的结果逐渐不那 注意偏向一般用于物质成瘾者,是指其会对
么敏感,即使面对不利的反馈和有害的结果,也会 物质成瘾相关的刺激表现出更多的注意的现象
继续赌博行为 (Eisen et al., 2001)。 (Fadardi, Cox, & Rahmani, 2016)。赌博障碍者也往往
在奖惩加工时,赌博障碍者会表现出奖赏缺陷 存在类似的对赌博相关线索的注意偏向,他们极容
行为,即相比正常人,赌博障碍者对奖赏的敏感性 易被线索吸引,从而导致持续赌博的行为或是治疗
更低,其多巴胺能系统功能异常,需要更大的奖 后赌博行为的反复。
励或更长的赌博时间来建立和正常人相同的奖励 在行为反应方面,研究表明赌博障碍者对与赌
体验 ( Meng et al., 2014),同时对于惩罚的敏感性 博相关刺激的反应能力增加 (Hønsi, Mentzoni, Molde,
也 显 著 下 降 (Goudriaan, Oosterlaan, De Beurs, & van & Pallesen, 2013),即使在高认知注意需求下也很
den Brink, 2004)。 例 如 在 Cavedini, Riboldi, Keller, 容易辨别与赌博相关的刺激,有更多的注意指向
D'Annucci 和 Bellodi(2002)等人的猜牌任务研究 及更长的持续时间 (Brevers, Cleeremans, Bechara, et
中发现尽管增加赌博者损失比例,他们依然选择继 al., 2011)。比如在 Stroop 任务中,赌博障碍者对与
续赌博行为,表现为增加奖赏寻求忽略失败和损 赌博相关词汇的反应时显著增加 (Atkins & Sharpe,
失。研究人员探究其神经基础发现赌博障碍个体的 2003);还有相关研究使用注意瞬脱任务考察赌博障
奖赏加工系统(尤其是 VS)存在功能障碍,因而 碍群体发现,他们对赌博相关的词汇表现出了衰减
导致了赌博障碍者对奖惩敏感性的异常 (Limbrick- 的注意瞬脱现象 (Brevers, Cleeremans, Tibboel, et al.,
Oldfield, van Holst, & Clark, 2013)。例如,Reuter 等 2011)。在认知神经基础上,赌博障碍者的注意偏向
人(2005)采用猜牌任务来观察赌博障碍者和正常 与认知控制脑环路(前额叶、前扣带回等)和情绪
人的大脑激活差异,结果表明在接受金钱奖赏时, 加工相关脑环路(杏仁核、脑岛、伏隔核等)的异
赌博障碍者的 VS 和 VMPFC 激活显著低于正常人, 常活动有关。Limbrick-Oldfield 等(2017)首次在线
并且赌博严重性越高,这些脑区激活降低也越明显; 索反应任务中采用赌博、食物及中性线索并结合个
另外,De Ruiter 等人(2009)采用概率学习反转任 体的主观渴求来研究赌博者的功能连接的改变,结
务来考察被试在赢钱或输钱情况下的奖赏敏感性时 果表明赌博线索引发了与赌博渴求相关的脑区(脑
发现,无论在哪种情况下,相比于正常和尼古丁成 岛、前扣带回、纹状体等)的强烈激活,并且伏隔
瘾的被试,赌博障碍者的腹外侧前额叶(ventrolateral 核(accumbens nucleus, NAc)与脑岛的功能连接可
prefrontal cortex, VLPFC)和 VS 的激活有着更加明 以正向预测赌博渴求,NAc 与内侧前额叶(medial
显的下降 (De Ruiter et al., 2009)。这些结果都表明 prefrontal cortex, MPFC)的功能连接可以反向预测赌
刘   星等 : 赌博障碍的认知功能缺陷及神经基础 1399

博渴求。简而言之,赌博者的注意偏向会引起情绪 / 用经颅直流电刺激刺激被试的这些脑区会使得他
奖赏脑区的活动增强,同时会引发认知控制网络对 们在爱荷华赌博任务中做出更有利的决策 (Ouellet
情绪等脑网络的调节能力下降,导致个体将认知资 et al., 2015)。另外,前额叶系统中的很多脑区的价
源转向情绪记忆,从而产生渴求感。在结构上,赌 值信号都会受到 DLPFC 的调节,例如赌博障碍者
博障碍者的海马(hippocampus)和杏仁核(amygdala) 的 VMPFC、ACC、OFC 及 其 他 脑 区 与 DLPFC 的
区域的灰质体积减小,可能与其长期对赌博线索的 功能连接受损,可能会导致他们认知控制能力下降
注意偏向有关 (Rahman, Xu, & Potenza, 2014)。 (Potenza et al., 2003),在决策中难以控制自己的冲动
因此,赌博障碍者对赌博线索的注意偏向是因 行为 (Hochman, Yechiam, & Bechara, 2010)。
在结构上,
为赌博线索可以诱发个体与金钱奖赏相关的脑区网 关于灰质以及白质的改变是和行为相关的,例如赌
络的激活,引发赌博渴求,带来认知 - 情绪系统的 博障碍者大脑白质完整性和频繁的赌博决策有关,
制衡改变。 他们的白质完整性普遍较低,表现为胼胝体、上纵
束及扣带回各向异性分数减少,平均扩散率更高
5   决策
(Chamberlain et al., 2016; Joutsa, Saunavaara, Parkkola,
一般个体在面临多种选择的情况下,往往会通 Niemelä, & Kaasinen, 2011)。
过评估与权衡选项的收益(或损失)以及需要付出 综上,决策障碍是由两个互相拮抗的神经系统
的成本,然后做出低成本高收益的选择。而赌博成 其功能受损所引起的。当赌博相关刺激出现时,赌
瘾者存在决策障碍,易做出不利的决策,即为了获 博障碍者的冲动性系统(杏仁核、纹状体等)表现
得即时的满足而放弃长期较大的收益 (van Holst et 为过度激活;前额叶系统(前扣带回、前额叶、海
al., 2010b),在多次受损后仍继续赌博行为 (Brevers, 马等)促使我们根据长期的结果权衡并做出决策,
Koritzky, Bechara, & Noël, 2014)。 在赌博障碍者中表现为激活降低。因此,“冲动性
研究表明,赌博障碍者具有短期利益和长期利 系统”和“前额叶系统”之间的失衡是造成其决策
益的选择障碍。比如,赌博障碍者的延迟折扣显 能力受损的神经基础 (Bechara, 2005)。
著高于正常被试,即他们对未来收益有更大的贬
6   研究展望
值,且赌博严重性与冲动性都和延迟折扣呈正相关
(Brevers et al., 2012)。在爱荷华赌博任务中,赌博 从前文的论述中可以发现,尽管有很多和赌博
障碍者选择了更少的有利卡牌 (Brevers et al., 2014; 行为相关的功能性研究,但是较少有研究关注与功
Nautiyal, Okuda, Hen, & Blanco, 2017);他们对规则 能异常相关的大脑结构的改变。虽然大脑的功能变
的习得也更慢,经历了损失之后也不能很好地转换 化也会反映在脑结构的差异上,但它们之间的关系
其选择策略 (Kovacs, Richman, Janka, Maraz, & Balint, 尚且缺乏足够的研究进行定论,这也导致了许多关
2017),且赌博的严重程度也与他们选择有利纸牌 于赌博障碍者大脑结构的研究结果不一致。未来需
的次数呈负相关关系 (Wiehler & Peters, 2015)。在概 要多关注执行相关赌博任务时的被试的大脑活动的
率折扣任务中赌博障碍个体也表现出更愿意冒险, 变化并且探究其相关的脑结构的改变,例如灰质、
概率折扣率显著低于正常被试的行为特点 (Miedl, 白质及结构性脑网络等,给大脑功能性系统增加相
Peters, & Büchel, 2012; Wiehler & Peters, 2015)。 关的结构性证据。
在决策中,赌博障碍者的情绪与动机相关脑区 其次,以往关于赌博成瘾的研究大多注重于某
(杏仁核、脑岛)等过度活跃,这可能会导致赌博 一脑区的激活,只能记录单一脑区的神经活动信
障碍者不能从负面反馈中快速学习,而负责执行 号,但一些复杂的认知决策功能需要多个脑区的协
控制及监控的 DLPFC、ACC 等前额叶神经网络反 同合作才能完成。目前基于功能磁共振成像的脑功
应降低,导致他们决策能力异常 (Brevers, Bechara, 能连接分析方法已经被普遍用于疾病的神经机制和
Cleeremans, & Noël, 2013)。 例 如, 在 爱 荷 华 赌 博 治疗研究中,它通过分析功能连接的空间拓扑结构
任 务 中 赌 博 障 碍 者 的 VMPFC 和 眶 额 叶(orbital 来研究大脑网络,可以绘制出不同人脑结构和功能
frontal cortex, OFC)激活水平明显低于正常被试, 图谱,以此建立大规模的脑回路模型 (van Timmeren,
其表现出的决策行为和 VMPFC 受损个体类似。而 Zhutovsky, van Holst, & Goudriaan, 2018)。 因 此, 未
1400 心    理    科    学

来研究可以在动态的功能连接中分析赌博障碍者大 Brevers, D., He, Q., Xue, G., & Bechara, A. (2017). Neural correlates of the impact
of prior outcomes on subsequent monetary decision-making in frequent poker
脑的认知、病理状态和工作机制,探究赌博障碍和
players. Biological Psychology, 124, 30-38.
大脑功能连接之间的关联,从而更深入地揭示赌博
Brevers, D., Koritzky, G., Bechara, A., & Noël, X. (2014). Cognitive processes
障碍的神经机制,
帮助我们找到更有针对性的诊断、 underlying impaired decision-making under uncertainty in gambling disorder.
预防和治疗措施。 Addictive Behaviors, 39(10), 1533-1536.

最后,从治疗的角度来看,大多数赌博障碍者 Campbell-Meiklejohn, D. K., Woolrich, M. W., Passingham, R. E., & Rogers, R.


D. (2008). Knowing when to stop: The brain mechanisms of chasing losses.
没有主动寻求治疗的意愿,哪怕参与过赌博治疗的
Biological Psychiatry, 63(3), 293-300.
患者的复发行为也较多。最近的一些研究从病理生 Cavedini, P., Riboldi, G., Keller, R., D'Annucci, A., & Bellodi, L. (2002). Frontal
理学机制报告了涉及赌博障碍的生物胺和其他神经 lobe dysfunction in pathological gambling patients. Biological Psychiatry,
化学物质,例如去甲肾上腺素、血清素、多巴胺、 51(4) , 334-341.

阿片及谷氨酸等 (Potenza, 2013)。我们或许可以从生 Chamberlain, S. R., Derbyshire, K., Daws, R. E., Odlaug, B. L., Leppink, E. W.,
& Grant, J. E. (2016). White matter tract integrity in treatment-resistant
物药理学角度出发,并结合多模态神经影像技术来
gambling disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 208(6), 579-584.
揭开赌博障碍的神经生物学基础。例如,在功能性 Chase, H. W., & Clark, L. (2010). Gambling severity predicts midbrain response to
磁共振成像(fMRI)研究中采用安慰剂和纳洛酮操 near-miss outcomes. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(18), 6180-6187.
纵阿片受体系统,
考察纳洛酮对奖赏和惩罚敏感性、 Clark, L. (2010). Decision-making during gambling: An integration of cognitive

渴求以及决策的影响 (Nautiyal et al., 2017)。为进一 and psychobiological approaches. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1538) , 319-330.
步了解在药物治疗期间赌博障碍潜在变化的大脑机
Clark, L., Lawrence, A. J., Astley-Jones, F, & Gray, N. (2009). Gambling near-
制,我们需要将多模态神经影像学研究整合到临床 misses enhance motivation to gamble and recruit win-related brain circuitry.
神经生物机制中,提供更有效的治疗效果。 Neuron, 61(3), 481-490.
参考文献 Cocker, P. J., Lin, M. Y., Barrus, M. M., Le Foll, B., & Winstanley, C. A. (2016).
赵海潮 , 黄小璐 , 何清华 . (2016). 物质成瘾所伴随的认知功能缺陷及其神 The agranular and granular insula differentially contribute to gambling-like
经基础 . 科学通报 , 61(34), 3672-3683. behavior on a rat slot machine task: Effects of inactivation and local infusion of
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of a dopamine D4 agonist on reward expectancy. Psychopharmacology, 233(17),
mental disorders. Washington: American Psychiatric Press. 3135-3147.
Atkins, G., & Sharpe, L. (2003). Cognitive biases in problem gambling. Gambling Cowley, E., Briley, D. A., & Farrell, C. (2015). How do gamblers maintain an
Research: Journal of the National Association for Gambling Studies, 15(2), illusion of control? Journal of Business Research, 68(10), 2181-2188.
35-43. de Lara, C. M. R., Navas, J. F., Soriano-Mas, C., Sescousse, G., & Perales, J.
Bechara, A. (2005). Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist C. (2018). Regional grey matter volume correlates of gambling disorder,
drugs: A neurocognitive perspective. Nature Neuroscience, 8(11), 1458-1463. gambling-related cognitive distortions, and emotion-driven impulsivity.
Belisle, J., & Dixon, M. R. (2016). Near misses in slot machine gambling developed International Gambling Studies, 18(2), 195-216.
through generalization of total wins. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32(2), 689- De Ruiter, M. B., Veltman, D. J., Goudriaan, A. E., Oosterlaan, J., Sjoerds, Z., &
706. van den Brink, W. (2009). Response perseveration and ventral prefrontal
Blaszczynski, A., & Nower, L. (2002). A pathways model of problem and sensitivity to reward and punishment in male problem gamblers and smokers.
pathological gambling. Addiction, 97(5), 487-499. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34(4), 1027-1038.
Brevers, D., Bechara, A., Cleeremans, A., & Noël, X. (2013). Iowa Gambling Eisen, S. A., Slutske, W. S., Lyons, M. J., Lassman, J., Xian, H., Toomey, R.,
Task (IGT): Twenty years after - gambling disorder and IGT. Frontiers in et al. (2001). The genetics of pathological gambling. Seminars in Clinical
Psychology, 4, 665. Neuropsychiatry, 6(3), 195-204.
Brevers, D., Cleeremans, A., Bechara, A., Laloyaux, C., Kornreich, C., Verbanck, P., Fadardi, J. S., Cox, W. M., & Rahmani, A. (2016). Neuroscience of attentional
& Noël, X. (2011). Time course of attentional bias for gambling information in processes for addiction medicine: From brain mechanisms to practical
problem gambling. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25(4), 675-682. considerations. Progress in Brain Research, 223, 77-89.
Brevers, D., Cleeremans, A., Tibboel, H., Bechara, A., Kornreich, C., Verbanck, P., Fauth-Bühler, M., Mann, K., & Potenza, M. N. (2017). Pathological gambling:
& Noël, X. (2011). Reduced attentional blink for gambling-related stimuli in A review of the neurobiological evidence relevant for its classification as an
problem gamblers. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, addictive disorder. Addiction Biology, 22(4), 885-897.
42(3) , 265-269. Goudriaan, A. E., Oosterlaan, J., De Beurs, E., & van den Brink, W. (2004).
Brevers, D., Cleeremans, A., Verbruggen, F., Bechara, A., Kornreich, C., Verbanck, Pathological gambling: A comprehensive review of biobehavioral findings.
P., & Noël, X. (2012). Impulsive action but not impulsive choice determines Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(2), 123-141.
problem gambling severity. PLoS ONE, 7(11), e50647. Grant, J. E., Odlaug, B. L., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2015). Reduced cortical
thickness in gambling disorder: A morphometric MRI study. European
刘   星等 : 赌博障碍的认知功能缺陷及神经基础 1401

Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 265(8), 655-661. Oberg, S. A. K., Christie, G. J., & Tata, M. S. (2011). Problem gamblers
Grant, J. E., Odlaug, B. L., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2016). Neural and psychological exhibit reward hypersensitivity in medial frontal cortex during gambling.
underpinnings of gambling disorder: A review. Progress in Neuro- Neuropsychologia, 49(13), 3768-3775.
Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 65, 188-193. Ouellet, J., McGirr, A., van den Eynde, F., Jollant, F., Lepage, M., & Berlim, M.
Grant, J. E., Potenza, M. N., Weinstein, A., & Gorelick, D. A. (2010). Introduction T. (2015). Enhancing decision-making and cognitive impulse control with
to behavioral addictions. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applied over the orbitofrontal
36(5), 233-241. cortex (OFC): A randomized and sham-controlled exploratory study. Journal
Hochman, G., Yechiam, E., & Bechara, A. (2010). Recency gets larger as lesions of Psychiatric Research, 69, 27-34.
move from anterior to posterior locations within the ventromedial prefrontal Potenza, M. N. (2006). Should addictive disorders include non-substance-related
cortex. Behavioural Brain Research, 213(1), 27-34. conditions? Addiction, 101(S1), 142-151.
Hønsi, A., Mentzoni, R. A., Molde, H., & Pallesen, S. (2013). Attentional bias in Potenza, M. N. (2013). Neurobiology of gambling behaviors. Current Opinion in
problem gambling: A systematic review. Journal of Gambling Studies, 29(3), Neurobiology, 23(4) , 660-667.
359-375. Potenza, M. N. (2014). The neural bases of cognitive processes in gambling
Joutsa, J., Saunavaara, J., Parkkola, R., Niemelä, S., & Kaasinen, V. (2011). disorder. Trends Cognitive Scince, 18(8), 429-438.
Extensive abnormality of brain white matter integrity in pathological gambling. Potenza, M. N., Steinberg, M. A., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R. K., Lacadie, C. M.,
Psychiatry Research: NeuroImaging, 194(3), 340-346. Wilber, M. K., et al. (2003). Gambling urges in pathological gambling: A
Koehler, S., Hasselmann, E., Wüstenberg, T., Heinz, A., & Romanczuk-Seiferth, functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry,
N. (2015). Higher volume of ventral striatum and right prefrontal cortex in 60(8), 828-836.
pathological gambling. Brain Structure and Function, 220(1), 469-477. Rahman, A. S., Xu, J. S., & Potenza, M. N. (2014). Hippocampal and amygdalar
Kovacs, I., Richman, M., Janka, Z., Maraz, A., & Balint, A. (2017). Decision volumetric differences in pathological gambling: A preliminary study of the
making measured by the Iowa Gambling Task in alcohol dependence and associations with the behavioral inhibition system. Neuropsychopharmacology,
gambling disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug and Alcohol 39(3), 738-745.
Dependence, 181 , 152-161. Reuter, J., Raedler, T., Rose, M., Hand, I., Gläscher, J., & Büchel, C. (2005).
Limbrick-Oldfield, E. H., Mick, I., Cocks, R. E., McGonigle, J., Sharman, S. P., Pathological gambling is linked to reduced activation of the mesolimbic reward
Goldstone, A. P., et al. (2017). Neural substrates of cue reactivity and craving system. Nature Neuroscience, 8(2) , 147-148.
in gambling disorder. Translational Psychiatry, 7(1), e992. van Holst, R. J., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2010a).
Limbrick-Oldfield, E. H., van Holst, R. J., & Clark, L. (2013). Fronto-striatal Brain imaging studies in pathological gambling. Current Psychiatry Reports,
dysregulation in drug addiction and pathological gambling: Consistent 12(5), 418-425.
inconsistencies? NeuroImage: Clinical, 2, 385-393. van Holst, R. J., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2010b).
Loo, J. M. Y., Raylu, N., & Oei, T. P. S. (2008). Gambling among the Chinese: A Why gamblers fail to win: A review of cognitive and neuroimaging findings in
comprehensive review. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(7), 1152-1166. pathological gambling. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(1) , 87-
Lorenz, R. C., Gleich, T., Kuhn, S., Pohland, L., Pelz, P., Wustenberg, T., et al. 107.
(2015). Subjective illusion of control modulates striatal reward anticipation in van Timmeren, T., Zhutovsky, P., van Holst, R. J., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2018).
adolescence. NeuroImage, 117, 250-257. Connectivity networks in gambling disorder: A resting-state fMRI study.
Meng, Y. J., Deng, W., Wang, H. Y., Guo, W. J., Li, T., Lam, C., & Lin, X. (2014). International Gambling Studies, 18(2), 242-258.
Reward pathway dysfunction in gambling disorder: A meta-analysis of Wiehler, A., & Peters, J. (2015). Reward-based decision making in pathological
functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Behavioural Brain Research, gambling: The roles of risk and delay. Neuroscience Research, 90, 3-14.
275, 243-251. Worhunsky, P. D., Potenza, M. N., & Rogers, R. D. (2017). Alterations in functional
Miedl, S. F., Peters, J., & Büchel, C. (2012). Altered neural reward representations brain networks associated with loss-chasing in gambling disorder and
in pathological gamblers revealed by delay and probability discounting. cocaine-use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 178 , 363-371.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(2), 177-186. Zois, E., Kiefer, F., Lemenager, T., Vollstädt-Klein, S., Mann, K., & Fauth-Bühler,
Nautiyal, K. M., Okuda, M., Hen, R., & Blanco, C. (2017). Gambling disorder: M. (2017). Frontal cortex gray matter volume alterations in pathological
An integrative review of animal and human studies. Annals of the New York gambling occur independently from substance use disorder. Addiction
Academy of Sciences, 1394(1) , 106-127. Biology, 22(3), 864-872.
1402 心    理    科    学

Cognitive Dysfunction and Underlying Neural Basis in


Gambling Disorder

Liu Xing1, Chen Rui1, Huang Xiaolu1, He Qinghua1,2


1
( Faculty of Psychology, MOE Key Lab of Cognition and Personality, Chongqing Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Southwest University
Division Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University, Chongqing, 400715)
(2Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101)

Abstract The essential feature of gambling disorder is persistent and recurrent maladaptive gambling behavior that has recently gained much
attention because of its increasing prevalence and devastating personal, familial, and social consequences. Based on similarities between gambling
and substance-use disorders in neurocognitive and other domains, gambling disorder has recently been classified into “substance-related and addictive
disorders” in the DSM-5, as “Non-Substance-Related Disorders”. For a better understanding of the causes of gambling disorder and its underlying
neural mechanisms, we provided an integrative review of cognitive dysfunction of gambling disorders studies implicated in cognitive distortions,
reward and punishment sensitivity, attention bias, and decision making. The future research needs to study more on the mechanism and development
process of gambling disorders from the perspective of cognitive neuroscience, pay attention to the brain structural alterations and functional brain
networks in gambling disorders, and integrate them into clinical neurobiological mechanisms to find more effective interventions and clinical
treatments.
We summarized the research on the cognitive dysfunction and neural mechanisms involved in gambling disorder. (1) It investigated brain
regions underpinning gambling-related cognitive distortions. ‘Near-miss’ events, where unsuccessful outcomes were proximal to a win, recruited
overlapping neural circuitry with actual monetary wins. Illusion of control over a gamble was also known to increase confidence in one’s chances of
winning, showing an increased neural activity within a cortico-striatal network. ‘Loss-chasing’, or continued gambling in an attempt to recover losses,
implicated a complex of executive-control and impulsivity-related systems involved in loss-processing. (2) Differences in sensitivity to punishments
and rewards could influence an individual's behavior and might be pertinent to the development of gambling disorder. The deficit in rewards and losses
processing typically observed a reduction of ventral striatal activation in individuals with gambling disorder. We intended to add evidence on relevant
brain structures in this functional brain system. Functional neuroimaging studies on gambling disorder found changes in the mesolimbic reward system
(i.e., ventral striatum) and in the prefrontal cortex during reward processing and executive functions. In accordance with the observations, there were
evidences that showing higher grey matter volumes in ventral striatum and anterior prefrontal cortex in gambling disorder as compared with controls. (3)
Gambling-related cues could enhance the activities in the cognitive-controlled brain circuits (prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyrus, etc.) as well
as emotional processing brain circuits (amygdala, insula, nucleus accumbens, etc.), which might be a potential neural basis for attentional bias towards
gambling disorders, resulted in increased attention to the gambling-related stimuli. In addition, relatively diminished hippocampal and amygdalar
volumes were found in gambling disorder individuals. (4) These individuals’ poor decision-making might be a product of an imbalance between the
emotion and motivation-related brain regions (amygdala, insula, etc.) and the prefrontal cortex.
Finally, we propose that future studies should (1) Be more concerned about the relationship between functional and structural alterations to
add evidence on relevant brain structures in this functional brain system. (2) Analyze the cognition, pathological state and working mechanism
of the gambling disorders in a dynamic functional connectivity networks, explore the relationship between gambling disorders and brain function
connectivity, and reveal the neural mechanism of gambling disorders. (3) Integrate neuroimaging measures into pathophysiological, offer the
opportunity to understand the mechanisms underlying effective treatments, and translate neurobiological advances into more effective prevention and
treatment strategies.
Key words gambling disorder, cognitive distortions, reward and punishment processing, attentional bias, decision making, neural mechanisms

You might also like