TABLE OF CONTENTS

· BASIC PRINCIPLES

· FOUR & TWO STROKE CYCLES

· ENGINE DEFINATIONS

· MAJOR ENGINE COMPONENTS

CYLINDER BLOCK
CYLINDER LINER
PISTONS & RINGS
VALVES
ROCKER GEAR
CAMSHAFT
CRANKSHAFT
CONNECTING ROD
BEARINGS
TURBOCHARGERS & SUPERCHARGERS

· COOLING SYSTEM

· LUBRICATION SYSTEM

· FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

· GOVENORS

· ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS

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 RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Reciprocating engine's come in many shape's, sizes and functions. Certain

types of engine use different forms of combustion and fuel, however they all
comprise of the same basic components and convert reciprocating motion to
rotary motion.
The first reciprocating engines used steam as a power source. The basic
components consisted of a cylinder, piston connecting rod and a crank. Steam
was fed into the cylinder under pressure above the piston forcing it down, this
reciprocating motion was transferred to a crank which converted it to rotary
motion.

One of the best examples of reciprocating motion being transferred to rotary

motion is riding a bicycle, your legs supply the reciprocating motion and the
crank to which the pedal's are attached convert it to rotary motion.
The first reciprocating engines that run on steam were termed external
combustion engines, this was because the steam that forced the piston down
was produced in a boiler that was heated by burning coal, turning water into
steam. On reciprocating engine's today instead of using steam to fill the
cylinders and expand pushing the piston down we have substituted the steam
for gasses which are created by combustion of fuel in the cylinder itself,
therefore these engines are termed internal combustion engines. The first
experiments using various types of combustible fuel's were pretty unsuccessful
owing to there volatile nature i e gunpowder, and coal dust. It was only when
petroleum products arrived that an even controlled combustion process could
be achieved, which then led to the development of the two types of internal
combustion engines used today.
.

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The two main types of internal combustion engine consist of the SPARK
IGNITION ENGINE or petrol engine as it is more commonly known, and the
COMPRESSION IGNITION engine or diesel.

Both these engine's work on the same principles, of combustion producing the
gasses to move the pistons down the cylinder, however the way in which
combustion is achieved separates them into the two different categories
together with there respective components. any internal combustion engine
works on either a two or four stroke cycle, a cycle can be described as a
sequence of events that happen inside the cylinder in other words each time the
piston travels up or down the cylinder, this is called a stroke. On a four stroke
cycle, the sequence of events are:
INDUCTION COMPRESSION POWER EXHAUST

FOUR STROKE CYCLE

INDUCTION
SI ENGINE
On the induction stroke the piston travels down the cylinder, and draws in
air/fuel via the inlet valve.
CI ENGINE
On the induction stroke the piston travels down the cylinder but only draws in
air via the inlet valve.

COMPRESSION

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S. I. ENGINE
On the compression stroke the piston travels back up the cylinder, both the inlet
and exhaust valves are closed therefore the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder is
compressed by the piston.

C. I. ENGINE
On the compression stroke the piston travels back up the cylinder, once again
both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed therefore the air mixture is
compressed as in the S. I. engine, but to a much higher ratio owing to the
engines design.

POWER

-4-
S. I. ENGINE
As soon as the piston reaches top dead center T D C the compressed air/fuel
mixture is ignited by the spark plug. Expansion of the burning gases forces the
piston to travel back down the cylinder.

C. I. ENGINE
As the piston approaches T D C the air in the cylinder is so highly compressed
and hot, that when fuel is injected into the cylinder as a fine mist ignition takes
place forcing the piston back down the cylinder.

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EXHAUST
S. I. ENGINE . / C. I. ENGINE
On the last and final stroke, the piston travels back up the cylinder. The exhaust
valve opens and all the combustible gasses are pushed out of the cylinder by
the piston.

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For each cycle INDUCTION, COMPRESSION, POWER, and EXHAUST
the crankshaft will make two revolutions.

FIRST TURN
INDUCTION & COMPRESSION

SECOND TURN
POWER & EXHAUST

-7-
TWO STROKE CYCLE C.I. ENGINE
In a two stroke cycle as the name indicates there are two strokes two each
cycle. One stroke is up and one is down. Each down stroke is a power cycle. In
a two stroke compression ignition engine (Diesel)
In a two stroke diesel the inlet valves are ports (Holes) in the cylinder walls
which are opened and closed by movement of the piston up and down the
cylinder. When the piston is at the bottom of it's stroke, the ports are open, and
air is forced into the cylinder under high pressure from a blower (air pump). At
the same time exhaust gasses are being blown out through open valves
positioned in the cylinder head as in a four stroke engine. As the piston rises
the intake ports are covered and the exhaust valves close, resulting in the air
being compressed. Fuel is injected into the cylinder in the form of a fine spray
just as the piston is reaching the top of it's stroke, this mixes with the hot air
and ignition takes place forcing the piston down the bore ready to start the
induction cycle again.
INDUCTION / EXHAUST

The piston is at the bottom of it's stroke and the intake ports are open. Air is
being forced into the cylinder under pressure from the blower, forcing the
exhaust gasses out through the exhaust valves at the top of the cylinder.

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COMPRESSION

As the piston rises, the intake ports are covered and the exhaust valves close,
causing the air in the cylinder to be compressed.

POWER

Heat developed from the compression of the air in the cylinder causes the fuel
to be ignited as it is sprayed into the cylinder via the injector. Expanding gases
force the piston down the cylinder to complete the cycle.

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RECIPROCATING ENGINE DEFINATIONS

BORE
The term bore is used to describe the diameter of the cylinder

STROKE
The stroke is the amount of distance the piston travels from bottom dead center
(B.D.C.) to top dead center (T.D.C.).

DISPLACEMENT
The displacement of an engine cylinder is a measurement of size, and is equal
to the number of cubic inches/centimeters the piston displaces as it moves from
bottom dead center to top dead center. As a formula this would be the area of
the piston multiplied by the stroke.

COMPRESSION RATIO

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Compression ratio is the relationship between the cylinder volume when the
piston is at T.D.C. and the cylinder volume is at B.D.C.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY
The thermal (Heat) efficiency of an engine is based of how much of the energy
in the burning fuel is converted into usable power. Heat developed by burning
the fuel drives the piston down to produce a power stroke. In an internal
combustion engine such as a diesel, a great deal of the heat energy is lost to the
exhaust, cooling, and lubricating systems of the engine.

HORSEPOWER
Horsepower is a measurement of the ability of an engine to do work. One
horsepower may be described as the ability to lift 33,000 pounds on foot in one
minute. The term was originated in the days that strong horses were used to lift
coal from the mines.

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Brake horsepower is a measurement of the actual usable power delivered to the
crankshaft of the engine. Brake horsepower can be measured with a
dynamometer. A dynamometer is a resistance controlling device, such as a
electric generator or a paddle wheel revolving in a fluid which will absorb the
power developed by the engine via a reading registering the amount of power
being absorbed.
MAJOR COMPONENTS

CYLINDER BLOCK

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The cylinder block forms the main skeleton of the engine and is usually
constructed from welded steel forging. The purpose of the block is to provide a
location for the main bearings, cylinders, and associated equipment concerned
with the lubrication and cooling systems.

CYLINDER LINER
The bore in which the piston operates may be either integral with the cylinder
block, or it may be a separate liner. Most diesel engine manufacturers prefer to
use the liner owing to the relatively simple overhaul procedures and cost
allowing an engine to be restored to it's original condition after it has become
worn. Another advantage of using a liner is the ability to use special alloys in
the construction of the liner while the cylinder block can be produced from
lower cost material. Liners fall into two categories WET and DRY.

WET liners are mounted in the cylinder block with sealing rings around the
outside diameter, providing a seal for the cooling system. They are easy to fit
and do not require excessive force to push them into place to seal the top of a
liner a counter bore is machined at the top of the block allowing a gasket to
locate under the liner lip and when the cylinder head is fitted this compresses
the liner down on the gasket.

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DRY liners are mounted in the cylinder block in a similar fashion to the wet
liner however they do not have sealing rings around there outside diameter to
form a seal for the cooling system. The seal is achieved by making the liner an
interference fit with the cylinder block, resulting in the liner having to be
pressed into position using a press or a jack. Once the liner is fitted further
machining is usually necessary to remove the distortions caused by the fitting
process.

PISTONS
With compression pressures reaching 900 psi and temperatures in excess of
1000 deg F C.I. engine pistons are subject to severe operating conditions. The
pistons must be designed to withstand the conditions and are therefore of a
much heavier design than the pistons used in spark ignition engines and have
special provision for cooling. The materials used in piston construction may
vary according to the type and operation of the engine, generally aluminum and
cast iron are the main materials used. Aluminum has a number of advantages as
piston material, it is very light and has excellent heat conductivity however it's
strength decreases rapidly as the temperature increases and when subject to the
extreme temperatures and pressures in the combustion area, the crown of the
piston can become malleable and distortion occurs in the piston ring grooves.
To overcome this problem inserts can be added to the piston around the
grooved areas, NiResist nickel / iron alloy is a common material used as the
material has the same rate of expansion as aluminum but is considerably
stronger.

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The shape of the top of the piston is also very important in the combustion
process, some designs incorporate depressions or chambers which will cause
greater turbulence of the air when it is compressed (Swirl) allowing the
atomized fuel to mix thoroughly with the air to give a efficient combustion.

As previously mentioned owing to the extreme temperatures created in the

cylinder through the combustion process, special provision must be made to
cool the pistons. There are three general methods of achieving this,
CIRCULATION SHAKER SPRAY
In the circulation method oil is circulated through grooves behind the rings
which is supplied via the connecting rod which is drilled then through the
gudgeon pin.

In the shaker method, a compartment is filled with oil in the piston head,
supplied with oil once again from the connecting rod. The motion of the piston
shakes the oil which spills into channels in the piston.

In the last system spray cooling, oil is sprayed to the underside of the piston
head through a spray nozzle. This is generally the most common form of piston
cooling used.

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PISTON RINGS
There are many different designs of piston rings used on compression ignition
engines but they all fall into two basic categories,
COMPRESSION RINGS OIL SCRAPER RINGS
As the names imply compression rings are designed to keep the compressed
gasses inside the cylinder and not let them pass the piston. Oil rings are used to
remove excess lubricant from the cylinder walls, and not allow oil to reach the
combustion chamber.
Compression rings are located at the top of the piston, the rings are designed
so that the diameter is slightly larger than that of the cylinder bore. When the
engine is at operating temperature the ends of the rings do not contact each
other. The basic compression ring is usually a rectangular section in shape,
however to assist in providing quicker seating to the face the ring is very often
tapered approximately one degree. This provides a small contact with the
cylinder wall and quickly seats, preventing loss of combustion gasses. Another
design variation is the use of an inside bevel, this utilizes the gas pressure to
force the bottom edge of the ring to contact the cylinder wall.

Oil rings are located immediately below the compression rings, and in some
cases further rings are located below the gudgeon pin. The design of oil rings
vary considerably most have an expander to keep the ring in close proximity to
the cylinder wall, and all the excess oil removed from the cylinder wall passes
through slots in the ring then on through holes in the piston.

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VALVES AND ROCKER GEAR
Previously we have mentioned the extreme temperatures present in the
combustion chamber and the need for special materials to be used to combat
the heat and stresses of combustion. Valves are no exception and are usually
made of special steel alloys with a high resistance to heat. In the diagram below
the heat flow is shown at the various positions on the valve.

Since most of the heat is dissipated to the valve head and seat, it is important
that attention is paid to the width of the seat. The wider the seat the better the
heat loss however problems may be encountered with carbon build up, causing
the seat to leak, therefore a compromise is necessary on the seat width. Valves
are generally constructed in two sections, the stem is constructed from steel
alloy as it operates in a reasonably cool area and provides good bearing
qualities in the valve guide. The valve head must withstand very high
temperatures, pressures and the corrosive action of the burned fuel, so these are
generally constructed from a special steel alloy. The area where the valve
makes contact with the cylinder head is called the valve seat, these are
generally removable allowing replacements to be fitted extending the engine
life. The materials used in construction vary from cast iron for inlet valve seats
to stellite and chrome vanadium steel for the exhaust valves. Valve seat angles
are usually set at either 30 or 45 deg and the angle on the valve face is set at
half a degree less to accommodate quicker bedding in of the valve when set to
work.

VALVE GUIDES AND ROTATORS

Replaceable valve guides are used in most engines, there purpose is to provide
a bearing area for the valve stem to slide up and down in allowing the valve
face to locate squarely on the seat and also to conduct heat away from the
valve. Rotators are used to prevent the valve face from striking against the seat
in the same area. During operation small deposits of carbon caused from the
combustion process start to form on the valve faces, this causes the exhaust
gasses to flow past the valve and raise the temperature of the seat resulting in
valve failure. By rotating the valve during operation the deposits are kept to a
minimum and any wear is spread evenly around the valve face.

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 VALVE ROTATOR AND GUIDE ARRANGEMENT
CAM FOLLOWERS,ROCKER ARMS AND SPRINGS
Cam followers or valve lifters as they are sometimes called, transfer the rotary
motion of the camshaft to reciprocating motion opening the valves. The
followers rest on the camshaft and are pushed upwards as the lobe of the cam
comes into contact with the bottom of the follower, this motion is then passed
on to the push rod which is directly contacted with the rocker arm.. As the
rocker arm is operated it pivots on the rocker shaft and pushes down on the top
of the valve, to open the valve it has to overcome the spring tension of the
valve spring which is designed to keep the valve shut until the required opening
time is achieved

.
CAMSHAFT
The purpose of the camshaft is to open the valves via contact with the cam
followers, push rods and rocker arms. In some engines the camshaft is mounted

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in the cylinder head and is referred to as an overhead cam engine (OHC). Drive
to the camshaft is provided by helical timing gears meshed directly to the
crankshaft in a standard engine or a toothed belt as in OHC engines. The
contours of the cams decides the length and timing of the valve operation and
many variations exist.

OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT

CRANKSHAFT
As it's name implies the crankshaft is made of a series of cranks, the number of
which are dependent on the number of cylinders present in the engine. The
crank has a number of bearing surfaces (journals) to which the connecting rods
are attached. Either side of the journals are the thick sides that form the
skeleton of the crank and these are called webs. The crankshaft is located in the
main cylinder block and rests in the main bearing housings, corresponding
journals along the centerline of the crank match up with these to provide a
centralized location for the crank. The eccentric position of the connecting rod
journal in relation to the centerline of the crankshaft determines the stroke of
the piston up and down the cylinder, and although the angular position of the
journals will vary along the crank, the stroke will remain the same on each
cylinder. Owing to it's rotating motion it is very necessary to make sure that the
crankshaft is balanced otherwise excessive vibration and wear will take place
on the main and big end bearings. Another imbalance problem is caused by the
combustion process taking place in the cylinders causing explosive forces to
act on the piston and in turn the crankshaft causing it to twist, therefore on
many multi cylinder engines a vibration damper is fitted to even out the
unbalanced forces.

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 BIG END BEARING
JOURNAL
CRANKSHAFT
WEBB

MAIN BEARING
JOURNAL

WHEN THE CRANK HAS

ROTATED 180 DEGREES
THE DISTANCE BETWEEN
CENTER'S WILL EQUAL THE
PISTON STROKE

CONNECTING ROD
The connecting rod is the main connecting link between the piston and
crankshaft and changes the rotary motion of the crankshaft to reciprocating
motion of the piston. There construction is usually of I beam steel, with shell
bearings and bushes fitted at the big end and small end areas. The big end
section of the connecting rod is split in two halves for fitting purposes with the
split either vertical, horizontal or angular depending on the construction and
manufacturer of the engine.

DIMENTION CHECKS TO BE CARRIED OUT ON V ENGINE

CONNECTING ROD

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BEARINGS
Most modern day main and connecting rod bearings are of the shell variety and
consist of a hard metal shell coated with a soft bearing material usually only
0.005" thick. There are many conditions that the bearing material must
overcome to operate successfully. It must be able to absorb tiny particles of
bearing material resulting from normal bearing wear and this is known as
embedability, together with a resistance to corrosion and the ability to
withstand high operating temperatures and loading. The first bearing materials
to be used as a surface coating were called babbitt. This consisted of an alloy of
tin, copper and antimony another variation used is to substitute lead for tin. The
bearing shells are fitted, by sliding them into position on both the main and big
end seating areas, with a small location tang incorporated on the edge of the
bearing to prevent any movement. Most modern day main and big end
bearings come in standard, +.010 ,- .020, - .030" oversize diameters allowing
the crankshaft to be ground undersize should it need reconditioning.

SHELL AND SLEEVE BEARINGS

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COOLING SYSTEM

Cooling systems can fall into two categories for compression ignition engines
WATERCOOLING AIR COOLING
Both methods of cooling are effective given the right conditions however air
cooling tends to be restricted to smaller horsepower engines.
Cooling systems are required to dissipate the waste heat caused by the
combustion of the fuel. Approximately one third of the fuels heat energy is
transformed into useful work with an equal amount being lost in the exhaust
gasses, and the final amount must be absorbed by the cooling system. Without
any cooling system the engine would soon overheat and the lubrication would
cease to perform its function resulting in seizure.

CLOSED COOLING SYSTEM

The closed system is the most common system used throughout most P.D.O.
locations. In this system coolant is forced around the engine by means of a
water pump, the coolant circulates around the engine absorbing heat until the
designed operating temperature is reached, at this point a thermostat situated
inside the engine opens allowing the coolant to pass through a radiator where it
is then reintroduced back into the engine to begin the cycle once more.
Although the system is very simple in theory there are many variations on this
theme and a large number of components are subject to the cooling process.

RADIATORS : are used to remove as much heat from the cooling liquid as
possible. Coolant enters the top of the radiator and passes through a number of
very thin tubes which are surrounded by fins. Through conduction the heat
from the liquid is absorbed by the fins and when we introduce a fan to suck air
through the radiator the heat is dissipated into the atmosphere. The fan can
either be driven by the engine or mounted away from the engine together with
the radiator or fin fan cooler as they are more commonly known.

THERMOSTAT : allows the engine to reach it's optimum running temperature

by means of regulating the coolant flow through the radiator. The thermostat
operates by means of the coolant temperature heating up a confined chamber
that contains a wax filled bellows, which is located in the engines cooling
system. As the temperature rises the wax expands and causes the bellows to
extrude, this in turn is connected to a simple valve which is lifted off it's seat by
the action of the bellows. By opening up the thermostat coolant can now pass
through the radiator and be kept at a constant temperature, if the temperature is
reduced below the operating temperature of the thermostat it will close causing
the coolant to be recirculated back through the engine until it gains enough heat
to open the thermostat once again.

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HEAT EXCHANGERS : are used to lower the temperature of a liquid by
means of heat dissipation to another liquid. They are very similar to radiators in
their working principle however instead of using air to cool the liquid down a
separate cool liquid is used. Coolant from the engine flows into the exchanger
and passes through a number of tubes located inside the casing that are a sealed
system. A separate supply of cool liquid is introduced into the exchanger which
circulates around the tubes and absorbs the heat present in the cooling liquid
through heat dissipation, the cooling liquid from the engine is then recirculated
back to the engine and the remaining liquid in the exchanger is either
recirculated through a fin fan cooler or discharged if used in a marine
application. Oil coolers used on the engine operate exactly on exactly the same
principle, with the difference being that the oil is the liquid to be cooled and the
cooling liquid is the engines cooling system liquid supplied straight from the
outlet of the radiator.

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 HEAT EXCHANGER WITH BUILT IN OIL COOLER

AIR COOLING
Air cooling works on the principle that when there is a difference in
temperature between two adjacent bodies, a flow of heat is established from the
higher to the lower temperature. Heat can be transferred by three different
methods
CONDUCTION CONVECTION RADIATION
One third of the heat of combustion is dissipated by the cooling system. Some
of this is transferred through the cylinder walls and piston by direct radiation.
Part is transmitted through the cylinder walls by conduction of heat from the
hot gasses. The turbulence that occurs during compression and combustion
increases the rate of heat transfer to the metal surfaces by brining fresh particles
of hot gasses into each part of the surfaces replacing those who have already
given up their heat. Air cooling of engines consists of adding fins to the areas
most affected by the heat, the size and spacing of the fins are dependent on the
amount of heat to be disbursed, the material from which the fins are
constructed and the speed and temperature of the cooling air. Air cooling has
several distinct advantages over water cooling. Firstly the engines are much
lighter owing to the lack of cooling passageways and additional cooling
ancillary equipment,. they are also much smaller owing to their compact
design. The only disadvantage from air cooling is the noisy operation of the
engine and the limited operating circumstances with relation to the ambient
temperature.
LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
The basic functions of an engine lubricating system are:

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To provide a thin film between all the moving parts of the engine to prevent
metal to metal contact

· To serve as a cooling medium reaching heated areas more directly than the
engines cooling system i.e. on the underside of the piston, or the moving
parts of a bearing.

· To form a barrier (Pressure Seal) between the combustion chamber and the
crankcase.

· To act as a cleaning agent to remove gummy deposits that are the products
of combustion and heat.

· To supply much of the force that is needed to operate the governor which
regulates the speed of the engine.

Most lubrication systems are fitted with a strainer and filter. The strainers
remove all the large particles of dirt, metal, and other foreign material, then the
filters come into operation removing any remaining small particles. The
strainer is usually located on the suction side of the main lube oil pump, and
normally consists of a fine mesh screen.
Oil filters come in many shapes and sizes, paper and cotton are the most
common materials used. It s most important that the correct type and size of
filter is used when carrying out a service, many filters look the same externally
however there internal configurations can vary considerably. As a safety
feature most oil filters are fitted with a by-pass valve, this permits the oil to
bypass the filter should it become clogged although unfiltered oil will damage
the engine no lubrication will present a much larger problem.

TWIN MEDIA OIL FILTER

There are six general areas to which lubricating oil is supplied
Crankshaft and related bearings

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· Pistons and liners
· Camshaft and push rods
· Rocker gear
· Timing gears
· Fuel injection system and governor

Oil is drawn from the sump and passed through the main lube oil pump.
Pressurized oil is the passed through the filters and re introduced back into the
engine block where it passes into passageways to supply oil to the crankshaft
via the main bearings, part of the oil supplied to each main bearing forces it's
way along the length of the bearing and then falls back into the crankcase. The
main supply of oil remaining then passes through the crankshaft via drilled
passageways to supply the big end bearings. The connecting rods that locate on
the big end bearings also have drilled passageways, oil flows through the
passageways lubricating the gudgeon pin with the remainder spurting up to the
underside of the piston via small nozzle's or jets. The camshaft which can be
located either in the engine block or in the cylinder head is supplied oil through
passageways in the block, oil is delivered to each bearing and pushrod guide.
oil is also supplied to the rocker shaft which in turn delivers oil to the valve
assembly via oil flowing over or through the rocker. All the oil supplied to the
rocker gear drains back to the sump via passageways or chambers located in
the head and the block. Both the timing gears and fuel injection pump and
governor are supplied with oil from passageways in the engine block via
external pipework.
One of the most important considerations of the lubrication system is the oil
itself. Modern day oils contain detergents that clean the internal components of
sludge's, and harmful residues. Impurities in the fuel burned in an engine that

- 25 -
contain sulphur can produce acid which in turn can cause serious corrosion
problems. Using a special type of lubricating oil with chemical additives can
neutralize the acid. Additives that are present in the oil to protect the engine
gradually get used up, it is therefore very important to ensure the oil is changed
along with the filters at regular service periods which are usually classified as
running hours.

TYPICAL LUBRICATION SYSTEM LAYOUT

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TURBOCHARGERS AND SUPERCHARGERS

The power developed by the engine is dependent on several factors. Firstly the
quality of the fuel is important and secondly the combustion process of burning
the swirling fuel/air mixture.
By increasing the rate of flow of the air to the engine the fuel can be burned far
more efficiently and as a result the power developed by the engine is increased.
By adding a device that forces air into the cylinders, we can considerably
uprate the horsepower of the engine. Such devices are called
SUPERCHARGERS
The major advantages of supercharging an engine are:
· Increased horsepower.
· Size and cost of engine far less than a naturally aspirated engine.
· Increased fuel economy

By supercharging the output of the engine can be increased by up to 50%,

without increasing loads or stresses. If an inter cooler is added to the air intake
system the power increase is raised considerably more on most supercharged
engines the fuel efficiency is considerably less than that of the normally
aspirated engine especially around the upper half of the load range.

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Superchargers can be divided into two categories, those with a direct drive
from the engine i.e. gear driven from the timing gear train and those that are
driven by a turbine that is powered by the expelled exhaust gasses, these are
referred to as Turbochargers. The operating principle is simple, a turbine
either driven directly from the engine/ exhaust gasses draws in air from the air
intake. The air enters the impeller at the eye (center) and is directed on to a
diffuser, this causes an increase in the velocity of the air through centrifugal
force. Owing to the design of the turbine the velocity of the air is converted
into pressure which is then directed into the cylinders via the inlet manifold.
Both systems of supercharging are very efficient of the two turbocharging is
used more often however the efficiency of the turbocharger is reduced/stopped
if the engine is running at low R.P.M.

1) Heatshield 2) Piston ring

3) Exhaust out 4).Turbine wheel
5) Turbine casing 6).Exhaust in
7) Oil cooling in 8) Compressed air
9 Casing 10) Bearing
11) Oil seal 12) Sleeve
13).Compressor wheel 14) Thrust washer
15) Air in 16).Seal plate
17) Seal ring 18) Bearing housing
19)Oil out 20) Bearing
21) Insulation pad

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 TURBOCHARGER ARRANGEMENT
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
The main requirements for any kind of fuel injection system are :
· Accurate metering of the fuel.
· Correct timing of the fuel injection.
· Correct amount of fuel to be injected.
· Proper atomization of the fuel once it is injected.
· Good distribution of the fuel once it has been injected.

ACCURATE METERING of the fuel delivered for each power stroke is

necessary to supply each cylinder with exactly the right amount of fuel
dependent on the load.
CORRECT TIMING refers to the point at which the fuel is injected in to the
cylinder with regard to the piston position to obtain maximum power from the
engine through good combustion.
CORRECT AMOUNT OF FUEL is designated as the quantity of fuel
injected into the combustion chamber during i degree of crankshaft travel. If
the injection rate is to be lowered, the fuel injector nozzle tip can be altered
using smaller holes to prolong the injection period.
ATOMISATION of the fuel in to a mist pattern must conform to the
combustion chamber design. Some chambers require very fine atomization,
others can operate with a course spray. Proper atomization ensures that each
fuel particle is surrounded by as much oxygen as possible needed for
combustion.
DISTRIBUTION ensures that fuel will penetrate all parts of the combustion
chamber where oxygen is available for combustion.

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FUEL INJECTION ARRANGEMENT

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The two most commonly used systems are :
Multi pump injection
Unit fuel injection

MULTI PUMP INJECTION

The multipump injection system is the most widely used diesel fuel injection
system. It's basic design consists of a plunger pump for each cylinder, which
pumps fuel under high pressure (up to 70, 00 KPA) to each fuel injector. On
most multi cylinder engines all the individual pumps are combined in a single
unit using a single camshaft to actuate the plungers.
The pump operation consists of fuel being supplied to the plunger pumps at
low pressure from a primary pump, constant pressure is maintained to each
plunger by means of a relief valve. The plunger assembly is in direct contact
with the camshaft, as the camshaft turns the plunger assembly is operated
sliding the plunger up the barrel pressurizing the fuel inside. The actual amount
of fuel delivered is metered by the rotation of the plunger in the barrel which is
operated from the fuel pump rack.

SINGLE PUMP ASSEMBLY

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Fuel under pressure from the fuel manifold enters the left hand port and fills the
chamber above the plunger, fuel also flows down the vertical passage on the
plunger to fill the recess in the plunger. As the plunger is lifted by the cam it
covers the inlet port and traps the fuel in the chamber above the plunger,
pressurizing the fuel and pushing it out to the fuel line via the delivery valve.
As the plunger is pushed up to it's maximum position the inlet port is
uncovered allowing the fuel trapped in the plunger recess to return to the fuel
manifold. When this takes place no more fuel is delivered through the delivery
valve and fuel injection stops. Spring tension on the plunger returns it to it's
original position ready for the next delivery. The rack arrangement rotates the
plunger as more fuel is required this is governed by the helix or cutaway area
on the plunger, the more the helix is turned the sooner the spill port is
uncovered. A metered amount of fuel is pumped with each stroke of the
plunger through a steel pipe to the injector

UNIT FUEL INJECTION

The unit injector system combines a high pressure pump and injector all in one
unit, these are generally used on high horsepower diesel engines. The operating
principle is almost identical to the multipump system in the fact it uses a
plunger and barrel. The plunger is operated via a camshaft and rocker arm
arrangement that acts against the plunger pushing it down the barrel then
allowing the plunger to return to it's original position owing to the plunger
spring. The control rack is actuated through a suitable linkage to the engine
governor, allowing each unit to be adjusted independently.
The unit injector is supplied with a continuos supply of low pressure fuel. The
continuos supply of fuel through the injector helps to prevent air pockets that
may form in the system, as well as cooling the injector internal parts. The
return fuel outlet through excess fuel is returned to the fuel tank is adjacent to
the inlet opening of the assembly. When both upper and lower ports are closed
off by the plunger, fuel under the plunger is pressurized due to the downward
motion of the plunger. When sufficient pressure acts on the needle valve to
force it off it's seat the injector delivers a fine spray mist into the combustion
chamber.

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SECTIONAL VIEW OF UNIT INJECTOR

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FUEL INJECTORS
Fuel injectors work on a simple principle much the same as a relief valve. High
pressure fuel from the fuel injection pump enters the injector body, it passes
down the main passage and is directed to the nozzle needle and seat. The
nozzle is held tight on the seat by means of a spring, as soon as the pressure is
sufficient to lift the needle off the seat fuel injection occurs. The timing and
amount of delivery of the fuel is purely dependent on the fuel pump the only
characteristic the injector provides is the type of spray pattern injected into the
cylinder. Spray patterns are created from the design of both the seat and nozzle,
some seats are multi hole and others only have one. The type of pattern
required is very much dependent on the combustion chamber shape and piston
crown design. Injector failure is usually signaled by smoky operation of the
engine through the exhaust, this is generally due to the spray pattern being of
poor quality and not a fine atomized mist causing the combustion process to be
severely reduced with the fuel not burning correctly.

INJECTOR WITH PINTLE TYPE NOZZLE

GOVENORS

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Diesel engine speed control can only be related to the amount of fuel injected
into the engine. The fuel injector pump plungers are regulated by the rack
control device. Pushing the rack in one direction increases the amount of fuel
being delivered while if we push it in the opposite direction the amount will be
decreased. Most diesel engines are fitted with a governor that produces the
mechanical movement of the rack in relation to the engine speed.
The mechanism that regulates a governor is the centrifugal action of rotating
weights (flyweights). In most governors, the centrifugal force is balanced at all
times by the force exerted by compressing a coiled spring, this type of governor
is termed a mechanical. Some governors balance the centrifugal force against a
force developed by the engines oil pressure, these are termed hydraulic. There
are two basic types of governor :
MECHANICAL HYDRAULIC
These governors can be classified into performing the following functions.
· Load limiting governors are designed to limit the load that an engine will
take
· Variable speed governors are often used where the engine speed will be
maintained regardless of the load.
· Limiting speed governors limit only the minimum and maximum speeds of
an engine. The speeds in between are controlled manually.
· Constant speed governors are used for general applications to keep an
engine at a constant speed regardless of the load

BASIC TERMS

Speed droop is a decrease in speed of the engine from a no-load to a full-load

condition and is usually expressed as a percentage.

Hunting is the continual surge of the engine from a too low to too high speed.
The governor overcorrects in trying to stabilize the speed. Hunting is very
common to mechanical governors and is often caused by incorrect adjustment
or wear of mechanical parts

Sensitivity denotes the amount of speed change that the engine must make
before the governor will make a correction.

Promptness refers to the length of time the governor requires to react to a

change in engine speed.

An Isochronous governor is a device that maintains engine rpm at a specific

figure regardless of the engine load. It is used on many different engine
governors; both AC and DC power units are usually equipped with this device.

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MECHANICAL GOVENOR
The illustration above shows the operating principle of a mechanical governor
at both the high and low speed positions. The yoke on which the flyweights are
mounted is connected by gears to rotate with the engine. The inner ends of the
flyweight levers bear against the thrust bearing of the control sleeve, which
operates the fuel regulating system. The speeder spring often referred to as the
governor spring, pushes against the upper end of the control sleeve and tends to
move it downward in the direction of greater fuel supply. The centrifugal force
acting outwards on the flyweights has a tendency to move the control sleeve
upwards against the force of the spring in the direction of less fuel supply.
When the centrifugal force of the rotating flyweights is exactly balanced by the
force of the spring, The control sleeve will assume a set position which in turn
will determine the setting of the fuel regulating device allowing the engine to
run at a constant speed as long as the load does not change.
If the load on the engine decreases, the engine speed will increase because the
engine fuel regulating setting will supply more fuel than needed to reduce the
load. As the speed of the engine increases, the speed of the governor flyweights
increases and that in turn increases the centrifugal force produced by the
flyweights. The increase in centrifugal force will move the control sleeve in the
direction of less fuel supply. If the load on the engine increases the engine will
slow down and the opposite of the process just described will occur, permitting
the governor spring to move the control sleeve in the direction of increased fuel
supply.

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HYDRAULIC GOVENOR
Relay or pilot type governors are used when very close speed control is
required i.e. electric generators where strict frequency control is needed. To
achieve a true constant speed control from a spring type mechanical governor ,
an indirect connection between the fuel control mechanism is utilized. The
usual source of energy for this independent of the spring is oil pressure, which
is supplied from a gear driven pump.

When the engine speed decreases below the control speed, the flyweights move
inward, lowering the pilot valve stem and admitting oil under pressure from the
oil supply into the cylinder behind the power piston. The piston action moves
the control sleeve to the fuel load position. By design the pilot valve is
perfectly balanced and there is little or no load on the spring and flyweight
speed sensing system. A needle valve installed into the line to the oil cylinder
is necessary to throttle the amount of oil entering the cylinder, otherwise the
governor would start hunting (correcting & overcorrecting). A simple device
can be fitted to overcome this problem called a compensator. Hydraulic action
of the governor is achieved by allowing oil from the engines lubrication
system to be fed to an auxiliary oil pump located in the governor. The pump
develops the oil pressure necessary to actuate the governor mechanism. The
governor operates in such a way that the amount of fuel supplied to the engine
is increased by the hydraulically operated piston in the governor and decreased
by the action of the fuel rod spring.
STARTING SYSTEMS
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To start a diesel engine, the crankshaft must be rotated by some external means
compressing the air in the cylinders until sufficient pressure and temperature
are achieved allowing the combustion process to produce a power stroke. Two
important requirements have to be met for this to be achieved :
Enough speed, Enough pressure
If an engine is turned over too slowly the unavoidable leaks that occur past the
piston rings, and the valves will permit some of the air to escape during the
compression stroke. This will lower the pressure and temperature required for
igniting the injected fuel. Heat loss to cold metal walls of the cylinder may also
lower the cylinder temperature, together with the piston rings and cylinder
walls if they are badly worn.
An engine must reach a minimum speed before ignition can occur. The speed
will depend on the size and type of engine, it's condition, and the temperature
of the ambient air. In some engines the starting speed may be as low as 70rpm,
but some small engines may require as much as 3,000rpm before they will
start. Diesel engines generally are started by electric motors, air motors or by
hand on small engines.

ELECTRIC STARTERS
Electric starter motors are the most convenient means of starting an engine.
The power source is supplied by batteries and 6 12 or 24 volt systems can be
used. Electric starting systems use direct current rather than alternating current
because electrical energy in DC form can be stored in batteries and drawn upon
when required.
The starter system comprises of
Storage battery
DC motor
Mechanical engagement between the motor and the engine flywheel
Electric generator to charge the battery
Electric cables & switches
The electric starter motor is a series wound heavy duty DC motor that can carry
a 100% overload for a short time. To prevent overheating of the starter motor
some starting systems have a time relay incorporated to disconnect the power
from the batteries after a 15 second interval. Electric starters are designed to
produce maximum power for a short period of time and should not be operated
for long periods
Mechanical engagement between the starter and the engine crankshaft is
usually made with a spur gear. The pinion on the starter motor shaft engages
with the ring gear which is attached to the flywheel. Most smaller engines are
fitted with an automatic shift mechanism that will engage the pinion and ring
gear when the starter begins. Applying current to the motor causes the friction
clutch and pinion gear assembly to be driven into engagement with the ring
gear. When the engine starts to fire, the peripheral speed of the flywheel
becomes greater than the speed of the pinion and the latter is pushed back,
disengaging from the ring gear
AIR MOTOR STARTERS

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Air motor starters function in much the same way as an electric starter, except
that compressed air is used instead of electricity. The method of drive consists
of an air motor that drives the pinion, and require the following equipment :
Air compressor
Air receiver
Air starter motor
Air motor lubricator
Air control valve
Starting control valve
Air strainer

AIR STARTER MOTOR

Inside the starter is a rotating shaft mounted in a cylinder. The shaft has slots
cut into it in which are fitted vanes, which are free to move in and out of the
slots as the shaft turns. Compressed air is introduced into the inlet side of the
cylinder via the starter valve. Air strikes the vanes which are at a right angle to
the shaft causing the full force of the air to exert pressure on the vanes. This
pressure causes the shaft to turn, and the turning motion of the shaft is
transferred to the flywheel by a starting clutch attached to the starter motor.
The motor is actuated by the turning force of the starter, and as the starter
rotates the gear engages the teeth on the flywheel, transferring the turning
motion of the starter to the engine. Once the engine is started the air is shut off
to the starter motor and it dissengages with the engine. Clean moisture free air
must be supplied to the starter at a required pressure and volume, before the air
enters the starter it passes through a lubricator which saturates the starting air
with oil particles which provide lubrication to the impellers and cylinder.

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 ZIRKU ISLAND TRAINING
TRAINEE
COPY
MECHANICAL TRAINING SECTION

664574869.doc 5/13/23
COMP. REF.: REVISION 01 Page 42 of 41
 ZIRKU ISLAND TRAINING
TRAINEE
COPY
MECHANICAL TRAINING SECTION

664574869.doc 5/13/23
COMP. REF.: REVISION 01 Page 42 of 41