Crystallography – the science of arrangement and bonding of atoms, form geometric patterns and

structure of crystal lattices.

Crystalline – arrangement of atoms/ molecules forms geometric structures.

Amorphous – arrangement of atoms/ molecules with no definite pattern.

Crystal – periodic arrangement of atoms in a given space.

Lattice – arrangement of any particles that forms a crystal.

Unit cell – the smallest part of crystal that is repeated throughout the whole crystal.

Atomic radius – radius of participating atoms in a crystalline structure.

d
r=
2
Unit cell length – length of one unit cell edge.

a= unit cell length

Vc= a 3

Atomic packing factor (APF) – determines the percentage of the total volume that the atoms occupy in a
given structure.

APF = V of atoms

V atoms
APF=
V unit cell
Unit Cell Crystal Structures:

Simple cubic – each corner of the unit cell is defined by lattice point at which an atom, ion, or molecule
can be found in the crystal.

1
total atoms= ( 8 )=1 atom
8
Coordination number = in direct contact in a single atom

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) – unit cell can be imagined as a cube with an atom on each corner, and an
atom in cube’s center.

Face-Centered Cubic – contains the same particles in the centers of the six faces of the unit cell, for a
total of 14 identical lattice point.
Hexagonal Close-Packed – the closest packing of spheres in two dimensions has hexagonal symmetry
where every sphere has six nearest neighbors.

Density Calculations:

Metal - is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance,
and conducts electricity and heat relatively well

Elasticity - is the measure of the amount that the object can return to its original shape after these
external forces and pressures stop.
Plasticity - is when something is stretched, and it stays stretched, the material is said to be plastic.

Most materials have an amount of force or pressure for which they deform elastically.

Plastic deformation - If more force or pressure is applied

Ductile - Materials that have a fair amount of plastic deformation before breaking.

Brittle - Materials that can't stretch or bend much without breaking.

Toughness - The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before
fracture.

Strength and Ductility - The key to toughness

A material with high strength and high ductility will have more toughness than a material with low
strength and high ductility. Therefore, one way to measure toughness is by calculating the area under
the stress strain curve from a tensile test. This value is simply called material toughness and it has units
of energy per volume.

Stress - is the internal resistance, or counterforce, of a material to the distorting effects of an external
force or load. These counterforces tend to return the atoms to their normal positions. The total
resistance developed is equal to the external load.

- Is the force applied to a material, divided by the material’s cross-sectional area.

Strain - a proportional dimensional change (intensity or degree of the distortion) and is measured as the
total elongation per unit length of material due to some applied stress.

- Is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress.

Proportional Limit - It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law.

Young’s modulus - In this limit, the stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant.

Yield Point - is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically.

Two yield points:

(i) upper yield point

(ii) lower yield point

Ultimate Stress Point - It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure
before failure.

Fracture or Breaking Point - It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material
takes place.
Corrosion - is a process through which metals in manufactured states return to their natural oxidation
states. This process is a reduction-oxidation reaction in which the metal is being oxidized by its
surroundings, often the oxygen in air. This reaction is both spontaneous and electrochemically favored.

- Is a process through which metals in manufactured states return to their natural oxidation
states.

Reduction-Oxidation Reaction - the metal is being oxidized by its surroundings, often the oxygen in air.
This reaction is both spontaneous and electrochemically favored.

Types of Corrosion:

Galvanic corrosion - is the most common and impactful form of corrosion. It occurs when two different
metals are in contact in the presence of an electrolyte.

Pitting Corrosion - occurs under certain conditions, which leads to accelerated corrosion in certain areas
rather than uniform corrosion throughout the piece.

Microbial corrosion - commonly referred to as microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is caused by

microorganisms. It applies to both metallic and non-metallic materials with or without oxygen. When
oxygen is absent, sulfate-reducing bacteria are active and produce hydrogen sulfide causing sulfide
stress cracking.

High-temperature corrosion - as its name suggest, is deterioration of a metal due to heating. This can
occur when a metal is subjected to a hot atmosphere in the presence of oxygen, sulfur, or other
compound capable of oxidizing the material.

Crevice corrosion - occurs in confined spaces where access of fluid from the environment is limited such
as gaps and contact areas between parts, under gaskets or seals, inside cracks and seams and spaces
filled with deposits.

These are the two methods of preventing corrosion:

 Barrier Methods
 Sacrificial Methods

Barrier Methods - One of the easiest and cheapest ways to prevent corrosion is to use barrier coatings
like paint, plastic, or powder.

Paint it –Works well for really big pieces

Oil or Grease it –Necessary if the object has moving parts

Electroplating –using electrolysis to cover the iron in a thin layer of another metal

Sacrificial Methods - Sacrificial protection is a corrosion protection method in which a more

electrochemically active metal is electrically attached to a less active metal.
Because the metals have lost electrons to oxygen, they have been oxidized; oxidation is therefore the
loss of electrons. Conversely, because the oxygen atoms have gained electrons, they have been reduced,
so reduction is the gain of electrons.
Polymers are compounds made up of molecules bonded together to form long, repeating chains.
Polymers are classified as natural or synthetic.

Natural Polymers:

 Nucleic acids
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates

Synthetic Polymers

 Polyethylene terephthalate
 Polyvinyl chloride
 Polystyrene
 Polycarbonate
 Nylon

Classification of Synthetic Polymers:

Plasticity

 Thermoplastics
 Thermosets

Thermoplastics – Polymers that can be softened under the influence of heat and hardens upon cooling.

Thermosets – Polymers that harden permanently upon cooling from a viscous liquid, usually a resin.

Building Block (Monomer):

 Homopolymer – Polymers that are formed from one chemical repeating unit.
 Copolymer – Polymers that are formed from two or more chemical repeating unit.
 Block Copolymer – Polymers that are formed from “blocks” of polymerized monomers.
 Alternating polymer – Two monomers are arranged in an alternating sequence.
 Random polymer – two or more monomer are arranged in a random fashion.
 Graft polymer – one or more blocks of homopolymer are grafted as branches onto a main chain,
meaning it is a branched copolymer with one or more side chains of a homopolymer attached to
the backbone of the main chain.

Structure:

 Linear–straight-chained polymers that are formed from its chemical repeating unit.
 Branched–polymers with secondary chains linked to a primary chain polymer (backbone).
 Cross-Linked –polymers that are formed from two or more polymeric chains, linked together by
cross links.

Addition reaction – monomers “line-up” upon polymerization.

Condensation reaction – monomers give off water upon polymerization.

Polymerization consist of 3 stages:

1.Initiation –a starter is introduced in the monomer.

2.Propagation –Monomers will start bonding at each other.

3.Termination –The last monomer will join the polymer chain.