Module 1 - SAPP
5 REASONS TO STUDY STATISTICS
1. To effectively Conduct Research
2. To read Journals
3. To further develop critical and analytic thinking skills
4. To be an informed consumer
5. To know when to need to hire a statistician
STATISTICS
Definition: A branch of science which deals with the collection,
organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
data.
A body of techniques and procedures dealing with the
collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of information that can be stated numerically.
The backbone of (Quantitative) Research.
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics - are used to organize or summarize a
particular set of measurements. These deal with organizing
and summarizing observations so that they are easier to
comprehend. The census of households conducted by the
Philippine Statistics Authority every five years represents an
example of how descriptive statistics are generated. The
information that is gathered concerning gender, race, income,
etc. is compiled to describe the population of the Philippines
at a given point in time. Collection, Organization, Presentation,
and Analysis are part of descriptive statistics.
Inferential statistics - use data gathered from a sample to
make inferences or generate conclusions about the larger
population from which the sample was drawn. Opinion polls
and television ratings systems represent some uses of
inferential statistics. For example, a limited number of people
are polled during an election and then this information is used
to describe voters as a whole. Interpretation falls under
Inferential Statistics.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
“Research is a procedure for carefully finding accurate
solutions to important and relevant questions by the use of
scientific method of gathering and interpreting information.
Doing research is a multidimensional skill. Carrying out
successful research must exceed the bounds of printed paper,
and leap out to influence opinions and opinion shapers.”
Step 1. Formulate the research problem (this could be your
general or specific objective)
• S – pecific
• M - easurable
• A – attainable
• R – ealistic
• T – ime bound
2. Define the Population of the Study
• Population – all subjects under investigation – the set of all
elements of interest in a particular study
• Sample - a subset of the population
3. Identify the variable/s of the study
• Variable – measurable characteristic or attribute of the
subject that is the focus of the study that can take on different
values
This is NOT a problem if a census is conducted –if a census is
conducted, then the conclusion is straightforward.
However, if only a sample was taken from the population for
the study, the conclusion should NEVER be about the sample;
it should still be about the population, hence, its form will be
quite different from the anticipated conclusion as in the
example above (inferential statistics can provide a template
for specific types of objectives).
ANALYTIC GOALS - Directed toward finding out from the data
one or more of the following attributes of characteristics of the
group being studied
Each state objective can be differentiated according to the
following classification. This will guide the researcher to
anticipate the type of analysis and interpretation that is
required of the objective.
1. Central Tendency - general characteristic of the group.
a. To determine the mean weekly allowance of USLS College
Freshmen for the second semester, AY 2021 – 2022. (MEAN)
b. To determine the percentage of USLS CBA students who
prefer a Samsung over a Realme cellphone for the second
semester, AY 2021-2022. (MODE)
2. Variance in the Group - how individual members of the
group vary from the average characteristic of the group.
a. To determine the age range of the students in this class.
b. To determine if the final grades in this class are similar.
3. Difference within the Group/between Groups - whether or
not subgroups of the group/two separate groups being studied
are different or similar on certain traits investigated (special
case: comparison between/among two or more groups with
regards to a particular variable).
a. To compare the mean number of Coke Sakto bottles
consumed in December 2021 between the male and female
USLS students.
b. To determine if there is a significant difference in the mean
number of text messages sent in a day among the students
from the five different colleges of USLS for the second
semester, AY 2021-2022.
4. Relationships within the Group - if relationship between
certain variables covered in the study exists.
a. To establish if there is a significant relationship between
choice of cellphone brand and the college a USLS student
belongs to for the second semester, AY 2021-2022.
b. To determine if relationship status and final grades in
Statistics are independent for the second semester, AY 2021-
2022.
5. Prediction - establishing a mathematical/statistical model to
predict future outcomes.
a. What factors influence a graduate’s ability to land a job
within one year after graduation?
b. What is the estimated sales of a particular restaurant for
next week if the present conditions hold?
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
1. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
- limited to the description of the particular group
being studied. A conclusion cannot be applied to
cases outside the study group
2. INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
- limited to the description of the particular group
being studied. Application of the findings or
conclusions from a small group to a large group
from which the smaller group was drawn
AVOID any one of these two possible procedural ERRORS:
1. You did a population study but you used inferential statistics
to arrive at the conclusion.
2. You did a sample study but you did not use inferential
statistics to arrive at the conclusion.
Note: Inferential Statistics is applied only in order to generate
conclusions about the population BASED ON SAMPLE DATA.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. Qualitative or Categorical - Attributes are in terms
of categories or levels - the descriptions that you give
a variable that help to explain how variables should
be measured, manipulated and/or controlled.
Example: Determine the Categories or Levels of each of the
following Variables: Sex (Male;Female)
Categories - Do NOT have/possess an intrinsic order; they are
all considered equal
Levels - Possess intrinsic or inherent order from one "category"
to the next (Ex. Good, Average, Poor)
Characteristics of Categorical Variable:
- Exhaustive - should cover all possible answers
(oftentimes, the use of "Others, please
specify_____" serves the purpose of including all
possibilities, especially those categories with
small frequencies). This will prevent the
respondent from being confused about what
answer to tick (✓) or mark with an 🄧 since
his/her desired response is not among the given
options.
Mutually Exclusive - should make sure that the
categories do not overlap in order to ensure that the
respondents provide only one answer. This will
prevent the respondent from being confused as to
which category to tick (✓) or mark with an 🄧 if there
is more than one possible answer. This holds true
even for multiple response questions.
2. Quantitative or Numerical
- The variable has numerical properties which are
the values by which the said variables can be
measured, manipulated and/or controlled. The
attributes are in terms of counts (discrete) or
measurements (continuous)
Discrete - ‣ uses the process of counting to generate data.
values of attributes are in terms of whole numbers only.
Examples: [1] Number of t-shirts owned [2] Number of books
read
Continuous - uses the process of measuring to generate data
(with the use of a measuring instrument). values of attributes
may have fractional or decimal parts.
Examples: [1] Weight of a package [2] Volume of water [3]
Temperature
NOTES:
• For discrete variables, the value of a number remains the
same regardless of the variable:
5 chairs vs 5 students.
See here that the value of 5 is the same for both.
• For continuous variables, the value of a number depends on
the unit of measurement, even if the same variable is being
measured:

5 inches vs 5 feet.

See here that the length measuring 5 inches is shorter than the
length measuring 5 feet.

Functions of the Variables

❧ Not an intrinsic property of the variable; it depends on the

role of the variable in a study.

❧ Important if the investigation is about cause & effect.

1. Independent Variables

‣ sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable

‣ is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in

order to observe the effect this has on a dependent variable

‣ what the researcher (or nature) manipulates - a treatment or

a program or a cause

2. Dependent Variables

- sometimes called an outcome variable

‣ is a variable that is dependent on an independent variable(s)

‣ what is affected by the independent variable - the effects or

outcomes

EXAMPLE:

Study/Problem: The Effects of a New Educational Program on

Student Achievement

What are the Independent and Dependent Variables?

Independent - The Program ; Dependent - Measures of

Achievement

Note: a variable may function as an independent variable in

one study and a dependent variable in another.