2019

2. a) (i) A – Divergent/constructive plate boundary

C – Convergent/destructive plate boundary

(ii) Fold mountains

(iii) Ridge, volcanoes

(iv) Soufriere St. Vincent

b) (i) Sills - Horizontal sheets of magma that lie parallel to the bedding planes of rocks. They are formed
by magma flowing horizontally between two rock layers and roughly parallel to the surface. Magma
solidifies between beds of sedimentary rocks. Sills change over time where it becomes exposed to the
surface by denudation, that is, the overlying surfaces are eroded.

Dykes - are vertical intrusions of magma lying at an angle or cutting across the structure of the rocks. They
are formed by magma moving upwards, vertically towards the surface, cutting across the bedding planes
of rocks and solidifies. Dykes often occur in groups called swarms for example the southern tip of St. Lucia.
Some dykes are formed in a circular pattern and are known as ring dykes. They are normally small but
long and wide.

(ii) A continental plate meets an oceanic plate at a convergent plate margin. The plates are of different
densities. The plates move towards each other due to hot convection currents in the mantle. “When the
two plates meet, the oceanic plate subducts. As the oceanic plate moves downwards, water is driven off
and rises into the overriding plate. This lowers the melting point and promotes the formation of magma
in the lower crust. The magma collects in a magma chamber. It then rises up through cracks in the
continental crust to the surface to form volcanoes.” These volcanoes are explosive due to high silica
content and viscosity of magma. They form steep sided cones.

c) The shape of a basic lava cone is different from an acid lava cone due the characteristics of the lava, the
temperature, consistency and ability to solidify quickly. Basic lava is found at constructive /Divergent plate
margins. The lava is rich in iron and magnesium but low in silica. Very hot with temperatures of 1000-
2000˚C. Lava is runny (fluid), flows in thin sheets. When it cools forms igneous rocks called basalt. As the
lava is fluid or runny it takes a long time to solidify so, it forms broad gently sloping volcanic cones with
wide craters. These volcanoes do not have great heights.
Acid lava cones are found at Destructive/Convergent plate margins. The lava is rich in silica. Low
temperatures of 800-1000˚C. Lava is viscous or thick. Since lava is viscous or thick it does not flow far on
the surface before solidifying and forms steep sided cones with narrow craters. The volcano has great
height.

d) Earthquakes form at convergent plate boundaries. At these plate boundaries two plates slide towards
each other. The denser oceanic plate is subducted under the continental plate. The lighter plate rubs
against the other causing friction, vibrations and a release of energy. This energy results in intense tremors
and vibrations, which we feel as earthquakes. Earthquakes originate from the subduction zone.

Earthquakes form at transform plate boundaries. At transform boundaries two plates slide past each
other. As they do so, the plates grate and rub as their edges are not smooth. Sometimes the plates
interlock resulting in a build-up of pressure. Eventually the plates snap, releasing the built-up energy
resulting in intense tremors and vibrations producing an earthquake. The most severe earthquakes occur
at transform margins.

3. a) (i) 4 years
(ii) 30-34 years
(iii) 25-29 and 30-34
(iv) 15-19
(v) 50-54
(b) (i) This is the first stage of the production process and makes direct use of natural resources. It is the
extraction of raw materials from the earth. These raw materials have lower economic value as they are
not processed. Primary activities do not involve processing or changing of the natural resource. Activities
include fishing, quarrying and farming.

CXC’s model answer which you can add to.

(ii) Economic: Due to economic factors, many Caribbean nationals have migrated. One such factor is
employment. Many persons are either unemployed or receive low wages. Teachers and nurses are such
persons. This causes them to not enjoy high standards of living in their home countries and so they migrate
to places where high wages enable them to do so. Laos University graduates find it hard to get jobs and
migrate to places where they can do so. This leads to ‘brain drain’ in which skilled and educated persons
are lost from the Caribbean.
 Social: Social factors have led to many persons migrating from the Caribbean. Such factors include
limits in education and healthcare offered in the Caribbean. As it relates to education, course
options are somewhat limited as certain courses such as specialized types of medicine are not
offered and due to the few universities, there are limited places. Healthcare is limited as certain
types of specialized surgery and treatment for certain diseases are not offered.

 Political: In countries such as Haiti or Cuba, political strife and dictatorships have forced many to
flee their home countries in search of a safe haven, free from the repression of their homeland.
While most of these refugees go to neighbouring, less tyrannical countries, a significant portion
leave the Caribbean altogether for countries such as the US, in search of asylum and the freedom
of such countries.

c) Size of farms: Large-scale farming also called commercial plantations have large rams where the
average farm size has increased. In Jamaica, multinational companies have ownership of large
plantations. The largest is 1400 holdings consisting 20 hectares each make up 54% of Jamaica’s
farmland. 60% of the farms are less than 1 ha. and 17% are between 1-2 ha. Large holdings are located
in flat better land and although family farms are less common are located in poorer marginal areas.
However small-scale farming such as peasant farms are less than 1.2 hectares. In Jamaica most farms
are less than 0.4 hectares. The size makes it difficult to plough the land as mechanization cannot be
used, therefore yields are low; farmer unable to grow a variety of crops at a commercial scale
therefore reduced production and profits. Most peasant farmers are landless. They do not own their
land and they cultivate in marginal areas.

Farming practices: Although a variety of crops are cultivated in Jamaica, sugarcane is by far the most
important crop in terms of land use and production. Monoculture dominates large-scale holdings in
Jamaica. Large concentrations of sugarcane are grown in the south and west along the coast. On the
other hans in small-scale farming farmers grow a variety of crops from ground provisions to vegetable
and tree crops. Most of the crops are for subsistence and the surplus is sold. Over cultivation and lack
of fertilizer use result in soil erosion and infertility. Some soil conservation practices include crop
rotation, drip irrigation, contour ploughing and terracing, mulching, shelter belts and hillside ditching.

Labour supply: On large-scale farms the high dependence on machinery and technology reduces the
need for a large labour force. About 40 full time workers may be operational on a commercial farm.
Specialized labour may still be utilized for preparation of fields, harvesting and processing operations.
 People are also needed to operate machinery. On small-scale farms, the source of labour is family
who supply large inputs of labour. Usually less than 10 persons as farms are small. Farming is labour
intensive: application of fertilisers, weeding, harvesting

Technology: On large farms high capital input for maintenance of estate and the purchase of
machinery, fertilizers, tractors, sprinklers, aerial spraying. The use of machinery reduces the need for
a large labour force. There is a high-energy use from unsustainable use of fossil fuels. Use of the
internet is undertaken for administration and communication on farms. Large-scale commercial farms
are capital intensive and technology dependent. Investment is also channeled towards scientific
research and improved technology to achieve higher yields and pest eradication. There is a likely
growth area for ethanol production for fuel. On small farms however, there is a low level of
technology. Simple traditional tools are used – cutlass, hoe, fork, dibble. Few (tractor) or no machinery
is used. Lack of capital affects farmers’ ability to purchase machinery.

4. a) (i) 27%

(ii) 52%

(iii) Other

(iv) The greatest source of pollution occurs from the manufacturing sector. There are many
industries, which manufacture goods resulting in air pollution.

(b) 1. Temperature: Coral reefs develop in warm seawater with optimum temperature range between
18 and 30 degrees. Cold water slows the growth but if the water is too warm they can be bleached.

2. Sunlight: The water must be clean, clear and well oxygenated. Clear water allows sunlight to penetrate.
Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis. It allows the microscopic plants that coral polyps feed on to make
their food. These microscopic plants live in the tissue of the polyps where they get nutrients and
protection. In exchange, the corals have a ready food supply. (They share a symbiotic relationship).

(c) 1. Coral reef frameworks can serve as physical buffers for ocean waves and currents. As waves
pass over a reef structure, their energy can be reduced by which can lessen their impact as they
reach the shore. This not only protects the coastline from erosion and risk of flooding but
prevents damage to and/or loss of sea grass beds, mangrove forests, coastal settlements and
infrastructure.

2. Coral reefs play an important role in the supply of sediments or sands to beaches. As marine
organisms such as fish, snails, sponges, worms and urchins feed and bore into a reef frame work,
they remove and/or excrete small calcium carbonate sediments. These sediments can become
suspended in the ocean water where they may then be carried and deposited ashore by waves.

c) 1. Pollution: Coral reefs are affected by land and water pollution from agriculture. Raw sewage,
pesticides and fertilisation causes several diseases in corals such as white band, black band and white pox.
Inorganic fertilizers – algae growth, eutrophication, blocks out sunlight. Sewage (animal waste) contains
a lot of toxins make the sea water dirty, making it hard for sunlight to reach the coral for them to grow.
Agriculture also contributes to coral degradation in the Caribbean by the use of chemicals such as
pesticides and weedicides on farms. The rain can cause excessive chemicals to run off into the ocean and
kill the polyps and the coral reef can eventually die.
2. Land clearance: Land has been cleared for agriculture, shifting cultivation on slopes. Large areas of land
have also been cleared for commercial plantations and cattle ranching. Soil is left barren and uncovered
for long periods exposed to agents of wind and water. Sediments from the land run-off into the sea when
it rains, it prevents sunlight penetration for coral to grow. Sedimentation from clearance, slash and burn,
poor irrigation– clouds water and makes it murky. Sediments can also choke the corals.

ONLY 2 points needed.

d) Marine Protected Areas: Protected area measures increase protection of the coral reefs and ensures
the sustainability of the reefs by conserving biodiversity and species protection. Buccoo Reef has been
designated a protected area since 1973. The Glover’s Reef Marine Reserve established in 1993, lies at the
heart of the Mesoamerican reef, the largest coral reef system (with roughly 800 coral patch reefs across
135 square miles) in the Western hemisphere. Glover’s Reef is a critical nursery and feeding ground for
sea turtles, sharks and rays, and numerous fish species. A reserve manager oversees a marine biologist
and several rangers in charge of enforcing the restricted fishing (the main threat to the ecosystem’s
health). A 2006 assessment found the zoning prohibitions on fishing within the marine reserve were an
effective tool to protect the resource. Within the Conservation Zone, conch and lobster are in higher
densities. With stakeholders actively supporting the marine reserve and demonstrating that they have a
stake in its success, the MPA is likely to continue to be effective.

Education and Awareness: Public education and awareness campaigns targeting locals and visitors and
reinforcing the importance of healthy reefs is practiced in many countries. Ridge to Reef initiative increase
sound community knowledge and environmental management to increase environmental stewardship.
Initiatives include kindergarten to tertiary level, community groups and stakeholders. Under Ridge to Reef
plans also aim to reduce point source pollution and involve reforestation programmes.

Coastal monitoring of water quality and mapping. Restoration of lowland watershed and watershed
protection in the Buccoo Reef area. This reduces vegetation clearance and sedimentation by keeping the
area vegetated.

Mooring buoys – prevent use of anchors for boats that damage reefs. 18 inch mooring buoys were
imported from Florida.