Unit 6

Miscellaneous Measurement
• Force/Pressure Sensors: Piezoelectric, strain gauges
• Flow sensors: Electromagnetic, Ultrasonic, hot-wire
anemometer
• Level Sensors: Capacitive, Optical, Conductive
• Measurement of speed/velocity: Stroboscope, Noncontact
type of tachometers
• Vibration sensor: Accelerometer
• Color sensor and its applications
• Selection of sensor/transducers
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Flow sensors

• Types: positive displacement, electromagnetic, ultrasonic, differential

pressure, Coriolis mass flow meter, vortex.
• Most commonly used in chemical industries.
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 Positive displacement flow meter

• Used to move a fixed amount of liquid from one place to other.

• A fixed amount of liquid entering through inlet port will be transferred to outlet
port.
• Consist of two rotating gears.
• When two gear rotates, they create negative draft which allow liquid to enter.
Entered liquid is entrapped and pushed/moved further towards outlet. varsha Gaikhe
Capabilities
Advantages
• Independent of temperature,
viscosity, density.
• Very precise measurement.
• Due to gears highly viscous and
dirty fluids can easily moved.
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Disadvantages
• Expensive: for large pipes.
• Less accuracy: low viscus fluid.
• Damage gears: in case of sudden
change of flow or jerks.
• Not suitable for sticky fluids
(jamming of gears).
• Wear and tear: moving parts.
• Pressure drop (obstructed flow)
Electromagnetic flow meter
• Working principle:
faraday’s law of
electromagnetic
induction.
• Whenever magnetic flux
linked with circuit
changes, it induces emf.
Due to induced emf
electric current flows.
• Magnitude of induced
emf is directly
proportional to rate of
change of magnetic flux

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Capabilities
Advantages Disadvantages
• Independent of temperature, • Suitable only for conductive
viscosity, density. fluids.
• Large measuring range. • Complicated installation.
• Independent of temperature,
viscosity, density.
• No pressure drop (nothing can
obstruct the flow).

Advantages Slurry, viscus liquid

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Ultrasonic type flow meter
• Working principle: doppler effect.
• Sensor uses sound waves.
• When there is no flow, frequency of
sound waves transmitted and
reflected/received remains same.
• When there is a flow, frequency of
sound waves transmitted and
reflected/received changes.
• Change in frequency is used to
measure the fluid flow.
• As fluid flow faster, frequency shift
increases linearly.

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Capabilities

Advantages Disadvantages
• No moving parts. • Affected by temperature, viscosity,
• Highly accurate. density.
• Non contact type, thus applicable • Expensive.
to any type of liquid. • Dirt and sticky substances affect
• Suitable for viscous and slurry. performance.
• Suitable for high and low flow due • No pressure drop (flow is not
to high sensitivity. obstructed).
• No pressure drop (nothing can
obstruct the flow).
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 Hot wire anemometer

Sensing element
Platinum or
tungsten Lead 1

Lead 2
Ceramic

Whetstone bridge
• Hot wire is used to determine flow rate of a wind or gas.
• Hot wire is placed at the tip of leads. Leads are placed inside ceramic tube. Leads connect
hot wire to the whetstone bridge.
• When hot wire comes in contact with gas or wind, its temperature decreases due to which
its resistance varies.
• The amount of heat transferred is function of flow rate of fluid.
• Change in resistance causes deflection in whetstone bridge circuit.
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 • With the help of bridge circuit
constant current is supplied to hot
wire anemometer.
• Constant voltage (same voltage
drop in bridge arms) is maintained
across the bridge.
• Due to fluid flow heat transfer
takes place from sensing element
to fluid, thus the temperature and
resistance of hot wire changes.
• Due to change in resistance,
current changes, voltage changes,
bridge unbalances and
galvanometer shoes deflection.
• Constant temperature hot wire
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anemometer
Capabilities
Advantages Disadvantages
• Cheap • Liquid flow can contaminate the probe.
• Frequency response is high. • Probe breakage.
• Small size. • Noise due to circuit elements and
• Good resolution (smallest change can be surroundings.
detected). • Temperature changes affects result.
• Turbulent flows can be measured easily. • Turbulent flow intensity is restricted to
• Accuracy is good. low and medium.
• Good signal to noise ratio (less
disturbance).
• Installation is easy.

Liquids and gas flow rate

Advantages Research purpose
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 Level sensors
• Level detection plays an important role in controlling pumping.
• This can range from preventing overflow to controlling multiple tanks.
• Level affects pressure and flow rate of fluid.

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Indicates when fluid is present at certain point varsha Gaikhe Indicates continuous fluid level as it rises or fall
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 Capacitance level sensor
• To detect and maintain level of conductive fluid only
(fuel: bio, diesel, oil, water, coolant, salt water, AdBlue).
• In process industries fluid is stored in tank or vessels
where we can put sight glass to check level physically
but to deliver data to control room we need electrical
signal, thus capacitance level sensors are used.
• It consist of probe (aluminum, stainless steel, carbon
fiber). One terminal of power source is connected to
probe and another terminal is connected to metal vessel.
!"#$#%&'"% %)*+&,*& ∗).#'$,//"*0 ,'#,
• Capacitance = C=
!"+&,*%# 1#&2##* /')1#
• When no fluid in vessel, C=0 as dielectric constant is
zero.
• With increase in fluid level, dielectric constant will
increase and capacitance will change.
• Control valve will be opened and closed based on output
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Application: water treatment facility that has storage tank.
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 Optical level sensors
• Consist of transmitter and receiver placed inside glass tube.
• LED transmit the light, glass wall reflects it and receiver receives if fluid is absent.
• If fluid is present then due to different refractive index of fluid light is diverted and will not
reach at receiver.
• Sensor measures physical quantity of light. Light rays are converted into an electrical signal.
• No moving parts, not affected by high pressure or temperature, small size.
• Frequent cleaning of glass tube is required, contact type.
• Low level indicator: to prevent run dry condition.

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Conductive type level sensor
• Fluid levels are detected by looking at the connection between two immersed probes.
• Probes senses connection via the fluid or small amount of current that is being applied.
• Conductive liquids: wastewater, clear water, coolants, beverages, chemicals.
• Conductivity of liquid is used for level detection.
• Sensor generally consists of two electrodes. Low voltage AC supply is provided to these electrodes.
• When conductive liquid comes in contact with electrode, the circuit completes and output signal (flow of
current) is generated.
• TELE conductive level sensor consist of 3 probes (1- reference probe, 1- low level detection, 1- high level
detection).
• Current can pass through conductive liquid
• Advantages: simple design, no moving parts, low cost, sealed vessel will not affect performance.
• Disadvantages: contact type, probe erodes, possibility of sparking (not suitable for flammable fluid), only
point detection, applicable only for conductive fluids. varsha Gaikhe
Ultrasonic level sensor
• Non contact type, low cost and easy to install device.
• Measure distance and detect presence or absence of object without
making any physical contact.
• Mostly used to measure the level of hot corrosive and boiling liquids
and other solid objects.
• Frequency of ultrasonic wave = 40- 200Khz

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 Capabilities
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to install. • Accuracy depends on the quality of
• Non contact type, no physically echo. Negative effect of
moving parts hence less environment.
maintenance. • Not convenient if tank depth is high
or echo is absorbed or dispersed.
• Unsuitable for tank with too much
smoke or high density moisture.
Liquids and gas flow rate • Changes in process temperature
Advantages Research purpose will change the speed of ultrasonic
wave, thus the temperature
compensation is essential.

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Vibration sensor
• Performance of any measuring instrument may get affected by vibrations,
thus the measurement of vibration is important for measuring instruments in
case of research and laboratory.
• Vibration measurement is carried out on rotating or reciprocating machine
parts such as power station turbines and generators.
• Vibration measurement is carried out for design, analysis and trouble
shooting purpose.
• Vibration: Object moves or displaces about its mean position.

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• Generally the nature of vibration is sinusoidal thus we can define it in terms
of amplitude or vibration.
• X = Xm sin 𝝎t where, X= sinusoidal displacement, Xm = amplitude and 𝝎 =
frequency
• By differentiating displacement with time we get velocity, thus
• V = Xm 𝝎 sin 𝝎t and maximum velocity, Vo = Xm 𝝎
• Thus, V = Vo sin 𝝎t
• By differentiating velocity with time (double differentiation of
displacement) we get acceleration, a = -Xm 𝝎2 sin 𝝎t
• maximum acceleration, ao = -Xm 𝝎2
• Any sinusoidal variation can be measured by measuring peak values of
displacement, velocity, acceleration, frequency.
• If we any one value we can measure vibration by using electronic devices
(differentiation and integration).
• Any transducer which can measure displacement, velocity, acceleration can
be used to measure vibrations.
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• Transducers which are used to measure vibrations are called as seismic
transducer or seismic accelerometers.
• They measure amplitude (displacement), velocity and acceleration,
frequency.
• Displacement of seismic mass inside housing is proportional to the
magnitude of vibration.
• Two modes: displacement mode and acceleration mode. Depends on
type of spring and mass is used.
• displacement mode: large mass & soft spring. B

• acceleration mode: small mass & stiff spring.

K

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 Accelerometer
• A dynamic sensor.
• It can measure acceleration along one, two or three orthogonal axes.
• Used in one of the three modes:
1. Inertial measurement of velocity and position.
2. Inclination, tilt or orientation in 2/3 dimensions.
3. Vibration or impact sensor.
• Most accelerometers are based on MEMS (micro electro-mechanical
sensors)
Ø Based on the displacement of a small mass etched into the silicon surface
of the IC and suspended by small beams.
ØAs an acceleration is applied, a force develops (F=m*a) that displaces the
mass.

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Accelerometers
• Potentiometric accelerometers: due to change in resistance output
signal (voltage) changes
• LVDT accelerometers: measure change in displacement by measuring
change in output voltage.
• Piezoelectric accelerometers

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 Change in potential or resistance
is proportional to vibration.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited resolution.
2. Good accuracy for low
frequency (less than 50Hz)
vibrations.
3. Error can occur due to
sliding contact.
LVDT Accelerometer
• Core act as mass.
• Rods act as spring
• Vibrations are provided to reed.
• Magnitude of differential output voltage is an indication
of vibration.
• Advantage: offer lower resistance for movement, thus
provide better resolution, non contact type, no friction,
small mass thus higher frequency applications.
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 Advantages: small size and weight,
Piezoelectric accelerometer high natural frequency thus used for
high frequency applications.
• When piezoelectric crystal is compressed it
produces voltage.
• Due to vibration seismic mass produce
displacement.
• Displacement of mass exerts force/pressure
on piezoelectric crystal.
• Crystal compresses (deform) and produces
output voltage.
• output voltage is proportional to applied
force which is proportional to vibration
produced.
• Vibration-displacement of mass-force on
crystal- deformation- output voltage.

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