*UNIT 1 - ENDOCRINE SYSTEM POSTERIOR HORMONE

DEFINITION – Ductless glands consist of group of 1. Oxytocin

secretory cells which facilitate diffusion of hormone Target tissues:
into the blood or lymph  Uterine smooth muscle – increase
COMPONENTS OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS distention of sensory stretch receptors in
1. 1 pituitary gland uterine cervix
2. 1 pineal gland  Mammary gland – suckling generates
3. 1 thyroid gland sensory impulse to breast to contract &
4. 4 parathyroid glands ejecting milk
5. 1 thymus gland 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
6. 2 adrenal glands  Reduce urine output
7. Pancreatic islets  Promote reabsorption of H2O by kidney
8. 2 ovaries (F) tubules (< H2O lost as urine)
7. 2 testes (M)  Conserve H2O for body
PITUITARY GLAND (hypophysis) PINEAL GLAND
HYPOTHALAMUS - specialized centre in brain, 1. Melatonin – hormone that brain produces in
functions as master coordinator of hormonal actions response to darkness (no direct access to sunlight)
in body (above hypophysis) - sunlight prohibits production, so melatonin is
*attached by infundibulum produced at night when no sunlight
FUNCTION OF HYPOTHALAMUS THYROID GLAND
1. Control the anterior pituitary gland DEFINITION – Vital hormone gland plays a major role
(adenohypophysis) in metabolism, growth & development of body.
2. Control of posterior pituitary gland THYROID HORMONE
(neurohypophysis) 1. Thyroxine (T4)
ANTERIOR HORMONE  Control energy for body function
1. Growth hormone (GH) 2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
- > at night during sleep  Basal metabolic rate & heat production
- peaks in adolescence & decline with age  Regulate metabolism of carb, prot & fat
 Stimulate growth 3. Calcitonin
 Stimulate division of cells in bones &  Blood Ca >, calcitonin releases
muscle  Act on bone & kidney to < blood Ca (Ca2+)
 Stimulate protein synthesis REGULATION OF SECRETION OF THYROID HORMONE
 Regulate metabolism < level of T3, T4 in blood
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) II
 Secrete Thyroxine (T4) Release of TRH from Hypothalamus to APG
 Secrete Triiodothyronine (T3) II
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) TSH releases from APG into blood & go to TG
- > at 8am, < at midnight II
- associated with sleep pattern T3, T4 releases into blood
- adjustment of changes takes several days (shift II
work, jet lag) T3, T4 level > in blood
 Increase conc. of cholesterol & steroid II
(insomnia effect) within the adrenal cortex Inhibit releasing of TRH & TSH
4. Prolactin (PRL) REGULATING SECRETION OF CALCITONIN
- > during sleep > level of Ca in blood
- emotional stress > production II
 Stimulate lactation Stimulate TG to secret Calcitonin to:
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 (F) Stimulate secretion of progesterone (i) Deposit Ca in bone
(thicken endometrium wall to allow the (ii) Excrete Ca in urine
plant of fertilized egg) (iii) Reduce absorption Ca in intestine
 (M) Stimulate testes to secret testosterone PARATHYROID GLAND
6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) DEFINITION – Gland that helps maintain right balance
 (F) Stimulate secretion of estrogen by of Ca in blood & tissues that depends on Ca for
ovaries (protect women from heart attack proper functioning by releasing hormone
when menopause
PARATHYROID HORMONE
 (F) Stimulate ovulation
1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
 (M) Stimulate production of sperm in testes
 Regulate Ca level in blood
 Stimulate osteoclast activity & reabsorption
of Ca from bones
REGULATING SECRETION OF PTH HORMONE
Blood Ca < stimulate
II
Secretion of PTH to:
(i) Bone breakdown to release Ca2+
(ii) Kidney conserves Ca2+ by increasing absorption
(iii) Intestine increase absorption of Ca2+
THYMUS GLAND (behind sternum)
DEFINITION – A gland acts as lymphoid organ needed
early in life for normal immune function
THMUS GLAND HORMONE
1. Thymosin
 Develop lymphoid system (mature immune
response in cells to protect from invading)
ADRENAL GLAND (suprarenal gland)
Consists of 2 parts:
(i) Cortex (outer)
(ii) Medulla (inner)
ADRENAL MEDULLA HORMONE
Secrete 2 catecholamine hormone:
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
 Constricts peripheral blood vessel but dilate
coronary artery to > BP & CO
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
 Constrict all peripheral blood vessel to > BP
ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONE
1. Glucocorticoid (cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone)
 Glucose metabolism - prot & fat metabolize
to glucose in liver (gluconeogenesis)
 Protein metabolism - catabolize tissue prot
into glucose
 Inflammation & immunity - suppress
inflammation response
 Stress - coping w stress
2. Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
 Regulate blood volume
 Regulate BP
 Regulate Na & K level
3. Sex hormone
 Secret androgen (M) & estrogen (F)
 > androgen in F causes masculinisation
 > estrogen in M causes gynaecomastia
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM (RAAS)
DEFINITION – Critical regulator of blood volume,
electrolyte balance & systemic vascular resistance
MECHANISM OF RAAS
Renin released in kidney
II
Angiotensinogen in liver converts to Angiotensin I
II
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) from lung
converts Angiotensin I converts to Angiotensin II
II
Angiotensin II acts directly on blood vessels,
stimulating vasoconstriction
II
Angiotensin II also acts on adrenal gland to stimulate
aldosterone
II
Aldosterone acts on kidney to stimulate reabsorption
of H2O and NaCl
Result:
(i) > H2O reabsorption to reduce hydration
(ii) > blood volume
(iii) > BP to avoid hypotension
(iv) Reabsorption of Na, excrete > K
PANCREAS
Islet of Langerhans - groups of pancreatic cells
TYPES OF CELLS
1. Beta cells: Secret insulin
2. Alpha cells: Secret glucagon
3. Delta cells: Secret somatostatin
INSULIN
- Stimulate when BP is >
- Hypoglycemic agent
 Stimulate skeletal muscle fibers to take up
glucose & convert into glycogen
 Stimulating liver cells to take up glucose
from blood & convert into glycogen
(glycogenesis)
 Stimulate adipose tissue to uptake of
glucose & synthesis fat (lipogenesis)
GLUCAGON
- Stimulate when BP is <
 Mobilizing glucose & fatty acid from their
storage to > blood glucose
 Stimulate liver to break down glycogen into
glucose (glycogenolysis)
REGULATING MECHANISM
(< blood glucose) (> blood glucose)
II
(Pancreas secret insulin by Alpha) (Glucagon by Beta)
II
(Liver releases glucose into blood) (Fat cells take in
glucose from blood)
II
(Achieve normal blood glucose level)
SOMATOSTATIN
 Inhibits secretion of insulin & glucagon
GONADS
Sex hormone - Steroids that control sexual maturity
& reproduction
TYPES OF SEX HORMONE
M – Testosterone
F – Estrogen & Progesterone
ESTROGEN
1. FSH stimulate ovarian follicle to secrete
 Conversion of girls to sexually-mature
women - breast, further development of
uterus & vagina, broadening pelvis, growth
of pubic & axillary hair, increase adipose
tissue
 Maturation of ovarian follicle for
menstruation
PROGESTERONE
1. LH stimulate corpus luteum to secret after
ovulation
 Induces swelling of endometrium for
implantation of fertilized ovum
TESTOSTERONE
Can be classified as:
1. Anabolic effect
 growth muscle mass & strength
 > bone density & strength
 stimulation of linear growth & bone
maturation, > H & W
2. Androgenic effect
 deepening voice
 growth beard, axillary hair, chest & pubis
 maturation sex organs (penis, scrotum)
 production spermatozoa
 skin thickens & oily
REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION
1. Feedback control
(i) -ve feedback control
(ii) +ve feedback control
-VE FEEDBACK CONTROL
- Increase blood hormone levels inhibit further
secretion of hormone
T4 <
II
Stimulate pituitary gland
II
TSH secreted
II
Thyroid gland increased production
II
T4 released

+VE FEEDBACK CONTROL

- Occurs naturally when product of a reaction leads to
an increase in that reaction
- Releases oxytocin stimulates contractions during
labour & delivery
UNIT 2 - URINARY SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF URINARY SYSTEM
1. 2 Kidneys
 Secretes urine
2. 2 Ureters
 Propels urine from kidney > urinary bladder
by peristaltic contraction MAIN FUNCTION OF KIDNEY
3. 1 Urinary bladder 1. Formation & secretion of urine & waste products
 Collect urine & temporarily stored 2. Water balance & urine output
 Transitional epithelium allows expansion 3. Electrolyte balance
(distensible) 4. Produce & secrete of renin (enzyme controls BP)
 Detrusor muscle allows squeeze out urine 5. Production & secretion of erythropoietin (hormone
4. 1 Urethra controls RBC production)
 Urine is excreted > external FUNCTION OF KIDNEY
 Internal urethral sphincter (involuntary) 1. Excretory
 External urethral sphincter (voluntary)  Waste product
2. Regulatory
 Body H2O volume
 Electrolyte
 BP
 Body fluid osmolality
 Acid-base
3. Metabolic
 Activation Vit D
 Produce renin
 Produce erythropoietin
GROSS STRUCTURE 3. Secretion
1. Fibrous capsule - Unwanted substance is excreted out
2. Cortex - Secretion of H+ is important in maintaining
3. Medulla homeostasis of blood pH
4. Hilum COMPOSITION OF URINE
5. Renal pelvis 1. H2O (96%)
6. Papilla of medulla 2. Urea (2%)
7. Minor calyx 3. Uric acid
8. Major calyx 4. Creatinine
NEPHRON 5. NH3
6. Na
7. K
8. Cl
9. PO43-
10. SO4-
11. Oxalates, C2O42-
ABNORMAL COMPOSITIONS
1. Albumins
2. Glucose
3. RBC (erythrocytes)
4. WBC (leukocytes)
5. Ketone bodies
6. Casts
7. Microbes & Drugs
CHARACTERISTICS OF URINE
1. Amount
 1200-1500mls
2. Colour
- Normal
 Straw
 Amber
1. Blood vessels - Abnormal
(i) Afferent arteriol  Dark amber (concentrated urine)
 Entering glomerulus  Cloudy (infectious process)
(ii) Glomerulus  Dark orange (drugs)
 Clusters of capillaries from afferent  Red/dark brown (blood due to disease
(iii) Efferent arteriol process)
 Exit glomerulus 3. Appearance
2. Renal tubules  Clear & no sediment)
(i) Proximal convoluted tubule 4. Odour
(ii) Loop of Henle  Faint aromatic/ammonia
(iii) Distal convoluted tubule 5. Urine test
*Functional units of kidney  pH 4.5-8
*Most components in cortex  Specific gravity 1.010-1.025
 Glucose, ketone bodies & blood: absent
WATER BALANCE & URINE OUTPUT
H2O in body <
II
Blood osmotic pressure >
II
Hypothalamus receives message
PROCESS OF URINE FORMATION II
1. Simple filtration Stimulate posterior pituitary gland
- Occurs in glomerulus & glomerular capsule II
- Process assisted by difference pressure Secretes ADH
between capillaries & glomerulus capsule II
2. Selective reabsorption > reabsorption of H2O in kidney
- Occurs while passes thru convoluted II
tubules, LOH & collecting tubule Blood volume >
- Reabsorb content to maintain fluid & BLOOD PRESSURE RGULATION
electrolyte balance & pH of blood Low BP
- Active transport II
 Stimulate kidney UNIT 3 - CNS
II ORGANS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Secrete renin 1. Brain
II 2. Nerves (12 pairs)
Angiotensinogen 3. Spinal cord (31 pairs)
II GROUP OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Angiotensin I 1. Central nervous system (CNS)
II - Consists brain & spinal cord
Angiotensin II (potent vasoconstriction) 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
II - Consists all nerves outside brain & spinal cord
> BP *Nerve: Bundle of axon fibres located outside CNS,
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ADOLSTERON SYSTEM (RAAS) carry messages between CNS & various part of body
Renin released in kidney COMPONENTS IN PNS
II 1. Sensory nerves/afferent
Angiotensinogen in liver converts to Angiotensin I 2. Motor nerves/efferent
II 3. Mixed
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) from lung FUNCTIONAL PARTS OF PNS
converts Angiotensin I converts to Angiotensin II 1. Sensory division
II 2. Motor division
Angiotensin II acts directly on blood vessels, (i) Voluntary: somatic nervous system (movement of
stimulating vasoconstriction voluntary muscle)
II (ii) Involuntary: autonomic nervous system
Angiotensin II also acts on adrenal gland to stimulate (functioning of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle &
aldosterone glands)
II - sympathetic
Aldosterone acts on kidney to stimulate reabsorption - parasympathetic
of H2O and NaCl FUNCTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Result: 1. Homeostasis
(i) > H2O reabsorption to reduce hydration - Performs a regulatory & coordinating role that
(ii) > blood volume ensures homeostasis is maintained
(iii) > BP to avoid hypotension 2. Sensory Input
(iv) Reabsorption of Na, excrete > K - Several receptors to body temperature, taste &
MICTURITION smell (see, hear, smell, taste, touch)
Process of emptying the urinary bladder called 3. Integration
voiding & urination - Brain & spinal cord process info & integrate the
MECHANISM OF MUCTURITION activity of organ system
Filling of urinary bladder (200mls>) 4. Control of Muscle & Glands
II - Movement & body posture (respiratory system,
Stimulation of stretch receptor in the wall circulatory system, nervous system, genitourinary
II system, digestive system, musculoskeletal system)
Impulses send to spinal cord 5. Mental Activities
II - Brain is the origin & centre of intelligence & mental
Spinal cord receives & send message to brain processes like thinking & emotions as the result
II MENINGES
Signal returns to stimulate contraction of bladder & 1. Protective structure that protein the brain
relaxation of internal urethral sphincter 2. 3 layers of connective tissue that enclose the brain:
II (i) Dura meter
Signal sends back impulses to stimulate relaxation of (ii) Arachnoid
external urethral sphincter (iii) Pia meter
II DURA METER
Micturition occurs - Outermost layer, thickest & toughest part
TERMINOLOGY ARACHNOID
1. Anuria - Lack of urine - Middle layer, loosely attached to pia meter by
2. Oliguria - Less than 500mls per day weblike fibres
3. Polyuria - Large amounts > 2500mls per day - To allow for movement of cerebrospinal fluid
4. Nocturia - Pass urine frequently at night PIA METER
5. Glycosuria - Presence of sugar in urine
- Innermost layer, made of connective tissue covers
6. Haematuria - Presence of blood in urine
brain & spinal cord
7. Pyuria - Pus in urine
- To hold blood vessels that supply nutrients & O2 to
8. Dysuria - Pain while pass urine
brain & spinal cord
9. Urgency - sudden feeling of voiding
CEREBROSPINAL FLUIDS (CSF)
10. Enuresis – Involuntary urination beyond the age
- Formed in choroid plexuses
- Characteristics: - Regulate secretion of glands (heart rate, peristalsis,
 clear, colourless (all lymphocyte w/o urination)
neutrophil) 2. Control pituitary gland & production of hormone
 small amount protein, glucose (3.3-4.4), Na, 3. Regulate emotional & behavioral patterns
K, Ca, Cl 4. Regulate eating & drinking
 no RBC Feeding centre: promote eating
 pH 7.31 Satiety centre: fullness
 pressure 70-18-mmH20 Thirst centre: sensation of thirst
 130-150mls 5. Control body temp
FUNCTION OF CSF 6. Regulate circadian rhythms & state of
1. To keep brain tissue buoyant, as cushion or “shock consciousness
absorber” BRAIN STEM
2. To act as vehicle for delivering nutrients to brain & - Regulate heart rate, breathing, BP, swallowing,
removing waste digestion
3. To flow between the cranium & spine & 1. Midbrain - Acts as pathway for impulses to be
compensate for changes in intracranial blood volume conducted between brain & spinal cord
BRAIN 2. Pons (bridge) - Connects cerebellum to rest of
Sections of brain: brain
1. Cerebrum 3. Medulla oblongata - Connects brain to spinal cord
2. Cerebellum MIDBRAIN
3. Diencephalon Relay station for auditory & visual information (eye
4. Brain stem movement, body movement)
Cerebrum PONS
- Largest section in brain Deal with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder
- Processes thoughts, judgement, memory, prob control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement,
solving & language facial expression, facial sensation & posture
- Outer layer is cerebral cortex, composed of folds of MEDULLA OBLONGATA
grey matter Centre of cardiac, respiratory, vomiting, vasomotor &
- Divided into left & right halves called cerebral deals with autonomic, involuntary function
hemispheres & each has 4 lobes VITAL CENRE OF MEDULLA OBLONGATA
TYPES OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 1. Cardiac centre - Adjust heart rate & contraction
1. Gray matter strength to meet body needs
- highly evolved 2. Vasomotor centre - Regulate BP by effecting
- arranged in folds (up: gyri & down: sulci) changes in blood vessel diameter
2. White matter 3. Respiratory centre - Acts with centre in pons to
- connect w grey matter area as one regulate rate, rhythms & depth of breathing
CORPUS COLLOSUM SPINAL CORD
- Largest white matter - Protected by cerebrospinal fluid
- To facilitate communication between right & left by - Inner core contains grey matter & outer cord is
electrical impulses myelinated white matter
LOBES OF CEREBRUM PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Frontal Lobe: Control motor function, personality 1. Olfactory Nerve (I)
& speech  Sensory nerve
2. Parietal Lobe: Receive & interpret nerve impulse  Transmit smell impulses from receptors in
from sensory receptors & interpret language nasal mucosa to brain
3. Occipital Lobe: Control vision 2. Optic Nerve (II)
4. Temporal Lobe: Control hearing & smell  Sensory nerve
CEREBELUM  Transmit visual impulses from eye to brain
- Aids in coordinating voluntary body movements & 3. Oculomotor Nerve (III)
maintaining balance & equilibrium  Motor nerve
- Refines muscular movement that’s initiated in  Contracts eyeball muscle
cerebrum 4. Trochlear Nerve (IV)
DIENCEPHALON  Motor nerve
1. Thalamus  Contracts eyeball muscle
- Regulating consciousness, sleep & alertness 5. Trigeminal Nerve (V)
- Damaged thalamus leads to permanent coma  Mixed nerve
2. Hypothalamus  Transmit pain, touch & temp impulses from
- Master coordinator face & head to brain (sensory func)
- Maintain homeostasis  Contract muscle of chewing (motor func)
MAIN FUNCTION OF HYPOTHALAMUS 6. Abducens Nerve (VI)
1. Control of autonomic nervous system (ANS)  Motor nerve
- Regulate contraction of smooth & cardiac muscle  Contract eyeball muscle
7. Facial Nerve (VII)
 Mixed nerve
 Transmit taste impulse from tongue to
brain (sensory func)
 Contract muscle of facial expression &
stimulate secretion of salivary & lacrimal
glands *tears production (motor func)
8. Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII)
 Sensory nerve
 Transmit hearing & balance impulses from
inner ear to brain
9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX)
 Mixed nerve
 Transmit taste impulse & general sensation
from tongue & pharynx to brain (sensory
func)
 Contract swallowing muscles in pharynx &
stimulate secretion of salivary glands
10. Vagus Nerve (X)
 Mixed nerve
 Transmit sensory impulses from viscera
(heart, smooth muscle, abdominal gland),
pharynx, smooth muscle to brain
 Secret digestive juices, contract swallowing
muscles of pharynx & larynx, slow down
heart rate & modify muscular contraction
of smooth muscle
 Control vomiting & nausea
11. Spinal Accessory Nerve (XI)
 Mixed nerve
 Transmit sensory impulses from pharynx &
larynx to brain
 Contract muscles of pharynx, larynx & neck
12. Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)
 Motor nerve
 Contract muscle of tongue
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Involuntary/unconscious bodily function
(i) Sympathetic (thoracolumbar outflow)
 Tends to predominate in stressful situation
(ii) Parasympathetic (craniosacral outflow)
 Tends to predominate during rest
*Work in opposite matter to maintain homeostasis
SYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY
- Preparing body for stressful/emergency situations
- Fight-or-flight system
Stimulate responses to meet emergency & inhibits
visceral activity that can be delayed momentarily
- Emergency, > RR, PR & blood flow to skeletal muscle
(provide energy to function)
- < activity in digestive tract
PARASYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY
- Under ordinary/relax condition
- Rest-and-digest system / Energy-conserving-system
- Bring body system back after emergency by slowing
RR, PR, BP, blood flow to skeletal muscle
- > activity in digestive tract
UNIT 3.1 - NERVE CONDUCTION
NEURON - Basic structural unit of nervous system
*Amitotic: neuron is destroyed & can’t be replaced
because neurons don’t go through mitosis
FUNCTION OF NEURON
1. Transmit electrical nerve impulses
2. Carry info from one part of body to another part
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
1. Cell body (soma)
- Contains Nissl bodies for protein synthesis
- Forming grey matter of nervous system
2. Axon
- Carrying nerve impulses away from cell
 Schwann’s Cell - Produce myelin
 Nodes of Ranvir - Bare section at regular
interval, nerve impulses jump between
these gap
 Myelin sheath - Lipid-rich insulting layer
wrap around axon, increase velocity of
conduction
 Axon terminal - Synaptic knob
4. Dendrites - Nerve fibres carry impulses toward cell
MECHANISM OF NERVE CONDUCTION
1. Saltatory Conduction
- Impulse pulse from one NOR to the next
- Occurs in myelinated fibres
2. Simple Propagation
- Impulse conduction in unmyelinated fibres
FATORS AFFECTING VELOCITY & SPEED OF IMPULSE
1. Myelination: presence of myelin, > impulse (jump
forward, don’t need to go through the process)
2. Axon diameter: > diameter, > impulse
CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
SYNAPSE - Junction of the axon terminal and body
cell
* Neurotransmitter: enhance the synapse process
FUNCTION OF SYNAPSE
1. Communication medium between each neuron at
the junction
2. Passing the electrical/chemical signal to another
neurons & targeted cells
MECHANISM OF CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
Electrical impulse will Ca2+ neurotransmitter vesicles
to presynaptic membrane
II
Vesicle membrane fuse with the presynaptic
membrane releasing neurotransmitter in synaptic
cleft (Exocytosis process)
II
Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across synaptic
cleft & bind with receptor
II
Neurotransmitter makes postsynaptic cell to fire an
action potential
UNIT 3.2 - REFLEX ARC
REFLEX ARC - Functional unit of nervous system
 A type of conduction pathway
 A one-way street because it allows
impulses to travel in only 1 direction
*Reflex: automatic, involuntary response to change
inside/outside body
COMPONENTS IN SIMPLEST REFLEX ARC
1. 2 neurons
2. Have 3 or more neurons in the conduction
pathway
5 BASIC COMPONENTS IN REFLEX ARC
1. Receptor
 Sense organ in skin, muscle or organ
2. Sensory neuron
 Carries impulses towards CNS
3. Centre
 Carries impulses within CNS
4. Motor neuron
 Carries impulses away from CNS
5. Effector
 Structure by which animal responds
(muscle, glands, organ) FUNCTION
MAINTAINING HOMESTASIS 1. Sclera
1. Adjustment to HR, RR & BP  Maintains eyeball’s shape & protect from
2. Involving coughing, sneezing & reactions to painful injury
stimuli 2. Cornea
WITHDRAWAL REFLEX  Refracts light to focus on retina
3. Choroid
DEFINITION - An automatic response of the spinal
 Its vasculature is the major supply for the
cord that is critical in protecting the body from
outer retina to cool/warm the retina
harmful stimuli.
4. Ciliary body
MECHANISM OF WITHDRAWAL REFLEX
- Ciliary muscle
Arrival of stimulus & activation/receptor
- Secretory epithelial cells
II
 Gives attachment to the suspensory
Activation of a sensory neuron
ligament & attached to lens
II
 Change thickness of the lens by contraction
Information processing on CNS
& relaxion of the ciliary muscle
II
 Secrets aqueous fluid into anterior segment
Activation of a motor neuron
by secretory epithelial cells
II
5. Iris
Response by effector
- Circular smooth muscle fibre (bright light-constrict)
UNIT 4 - EYE
- Radiate smooth muscle fibre (dim light-dilate)
STUCTURAL OF EYES
 Regulates amount of light entering eye by
Consists 3 layers of tissue:
adjusting the size of pupil
1. Outer fibrous layer
6. Retina
 Sclera
Consists of sensory muscle:
 Cornea
 Cones (active in day)
2. Middle vascular layer (uveal tract)
 Rods & cones (active in night to adapt with
 Choroid
dark environment)
 Ciliary body * Small yellow spot in the middle retina called
 Iris “macula lutea” & the small dimple in centre of it
3. Inner nervous layer called “fovea”
 Retina  Fovea: Area of highest visual resolution
(sharpness of vision)
 Area when optic nerve leaves the eye (optic
disc/blind spot)
 Light-sensitive nerve cells are rods & cones
(photoreceptor)
7. Optic nerve
 Carry visual messages from retina to brain
 Takes images that have been projected
 onto retina and converted into neural FLOWING OF TEARS
impulses & channels impulses into visual Lacrimal gland
pathway on route to brain as interpreted as II
images Lacrimal ducts
8. Optic disc (blind spot bcz no rods/cones) II
 Allowing all nerve endings of retina enter Surface of eyeballs
the optic nerve II
INTERIOR OF EYES Lacrimal canaliculi
1. Anterior segment II
(i) Anterior chamber Lacrimal sac
(ii) Posterior chamber II
Both contains aqueous humour Nasolacrimal duct
 Supply nutrients & O2 to cornea & lens II
 Maintain shape of eyeball Nasal cavity
 Maintain intraocular pressure (IOP) PHYSISOLOGY OF VISISON
2. Posterior segment Light wave travels & reflects on retina. B4 reaches
Contains vitreous body (humour) retina, it has to pass thru cornea, aqueous humour,
 Support retina against choroid & prevent lens & vitreous humour which is in where refraction
walls of eyeballs from collapsing occurs
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RODS & CONES II
CONES To bring perfect image to retina, lens has to adjust
 Sense colour & need more light to work (accommodation)
 Most helpful in normal/bright light II
 Has 3 types of cones: red, green, blue to When focusing on near object, ciliary muscle
help see different range of colour contracts, it’s pulled forward & inward, tension on
RODS suspensory ligament < & lens become thicker
 Sense in black, white & shades of grey & II
only telling the form/shape that the object When focusing distant object, ciliary muscle relaxes,
has tension on suspensory ligament > & lens become
 Can’t tell difference between colours but thinner
it’s super-sensitive & allows to see in the II
dark Once image received by retina, optic nerve fibres
ACCESSORY ORGANS convert image to neural impulses & transmit to
occipital cortex in brain via visual pathway
1. Eyebrows
II
 Protect anterior aspect of eyeball from
Real image is formed on retina & it’s upside down &
sweat, dust & other foreign body
reversed
 Shae the eye from direct sunlight
II
2. Eyelids & eyelashes
Brain then correctly interprets the image in an
 Secrets oily material by meibomian gland &
upright position
spread over conjunctiva by blinking to delay
UNIT 5 - EAR
evaporation of tears.
FUNCTION OF EAR
 Protect eyes from injury
1. Hearing
 Distribute tears film across the cornea to
2. Equilibrium
provide lubrication & keep eye moist
3. Lacrimal apparatus DIVISION OF EAR
 1 lacrimal gland & ducts: Secrets tears 1. Outer ear
 2 lacrimal canaliculi: Superior & Inferior to 2. Middle ear
drain lacrimal fluid 3. Inner ear
 1 lacrimal sac: Drain tears into nasolacrimal OUTER EAR
duct (i) Auricle (pinna) – rich blood supply
 1 nasolacrimal duct: Transmit tears from  Collects sound waves
surface of eyes to nasal cavity (ii) Auditory canal
4. Conjunctiva  Secretion of cerumen (wax) contains
 Lubricate eye by produce mucus & tears lysozyme & immunoglobulin
FUNCTION OF TEARS  Protect tympanic membrane by wax, hair
1. Protection & curvature of meatus
- washing away irritating materials MIDDLE EAR
2. Prevent infection (i) Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
- bactericidal enzyme, lysosome prevents bacterial  Separate auditory canal from middle ear
infection (oval-shaped)
3. Prevent dryness (ii) Eustachian tube (auditory/pharyngotympanic
- oiliness delays evaporation & prevents drying tube)
  Maintain pressure on both sides of - Hair cells located on top of basilar membrane
tympanic membrane  Send impulses to vestibulocochlear nerve
 Drain any accumulated secretions, infection (VIII) & reaching brain
& debris in middle space
(iii) Auditory ossicle
- Malleus (hammer)
- Incus (anvil)
- Stapes (stirrup)
INNER EAR
1. Bony labyrinth
(i) 1 vestibule
 Filled with fluid called perilymph
 Sense organ for equilibrium & balance
Consists 2 sacs:
- Utricle
- Saccule
(ii) Semicircular canals
 Maintain posture & balancing
 No auditory function
(iii) Cochlea
Consists of transverse sections:
- Scala vestibuli
- Scala media (basilar membrane)
- Scala tympanic
 Air conduction
 Bone conduction

2. Membrane labyrinth
 Located with body labyrinth, filled with
fluid called endolymph
ORGAN OF CORTI (spiral organ)

MECHANISM OF HEARING
Sound wave vibration in the air
II
Concentrates the waves by ears
II
Cause vibrations of tympanic membrane
II
Vibration transmits from malleus, incus & stapes thru
mechanical movement
II
Mechanical movement push the oval window in &
out
II
Fluid pressure excites membrane in cochlear which
 contains basilar membrane
II
Organ of corti transforms mechanical motion into
nerve impulse
II
Impulses transmit to brain & interprets as sound
PHYSIOLOGY OF EQUILIBRIUM
Centre of equilibrium is located in brain which is
cerebellum
STRUCTURE THAT INVOLVED
1. Semicircular canals (kinetic)
2. Vestibule (static)
TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM
1. Static Equilibrium
- equilibrium is maintained in fixed position (posture)
2. Kinetic Equilibrium
- equilibrium is maintained while moving position
*semicircular canals involved, it’s contained
endolymph & each canal has dilated end called
ampulla that contains hair cells
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
Head tilts forward
II
Gravity pulls otoliths (saccule + utricle) & membrane
down
II
Hair cells bends & stimulate nerves impulse
II
Nerve impulses carried to brain by vestibular nerve
II
Brain interprets as a change in head position
KINETIC EQUILIBRIUM
Head rotates/moves, cupula displaced by endolymph
II
Movement hair cells generate impulses
II
Impulses carry by vestibular nerve to brain
II
Brain interprets as a change in head position