Worked Example

Contents
Data for Boeing 747
Other Condition Data

Data for several aircraft are presented in :cite:`Heffley:1972wb` and, honestly, this is a good
exercise in showing you what a tremendous amount of being an engineer is - extracting data
from old reports and doing stuff with it.

Data for Boeing 747

Data are given on Page 217 of the aforementioned report for the B-747 in power approach
configuration.

Configuration Information

h = SL

V ∞ = 165KTAS

2
S = 5500f t

b = 195.68f t

c̄ = 27.31f t

θ0 = 0

note that the trim theta is not actually given, but assumed to be zero
Nondimensional Stability Derivatives

Longitudinal Lateral-Directional

−1
C L = 1.11 Cy = −0.96rad
β

−1
C D = 0.102 Cℓ = −0.221rad
β

−1 −1
C L α = 5.70rad C n β = 0.150rad

−1
CD = 0.66rad Cℓ = −0.45
α p
^

−1
C m α = −1.26rad Cn = −0.121
p
^

−1
CL = −6.7rad Cℓ = 0.101
α̇ r
^

−1
Cm = −3.2rad Cn = −0.30
α̇ r
^

−1
CL = 5.40 C ℓδ = 0.0461rad
q
^ a

−1
Cm = −20.8 C nδ = 0.0064rad
q
^ a

−1
CL = −0.81 Cy = 0.175rad
M δr

−1
Cm = 0.27 Cℓ = 0.007rad
M δr

−1 −1
C Lδ = 0.338rad C nδ = −0.109rad
e r

−1
Cm = −1.34rad
δe

Note that in :cite:`Heffley:1972wb`, the derivatives with respect to angular rates are erroneously
given units of /rad, when they clearly are non-dimensional rates. The derivatives with respect to
aerodynamic angles correctly are given units of /rad.
import numpy as np
from IPython.display import display, Math, Latex, Markdown

# Condition and geometry information

rho = 0.002377 # slugs/cubic feet
# rho = rho * 32.174 # to lb / cubic feet
rho = 0.0765 # lb/ft^3
U0 = 165 # Knots
U0 = U0 * 1.68781 # to feet/second
S = 5500 # square feet
b = 195.68 # feet
c = 27.31 # feet
theta_0 = 0
m = 564000 # lb

Iyy = 32.3e6 # slug-ft^2

Ixx = 14.3e6
Izz = 45.3e6
Ixz = -2.23e6

SIunits = False

if SIunits:
# Conversion factors
ft_to_metre = 0.3048
lb_to_kg = 0.453592
slug_to_kg = 14.5939

MOIconvert = slug_to_kg*ft_to_metre**2

# Constants
a = 340 # sonic velocity in m/s
g = 9.80665 # acceleration due to gravity
rho = 1.225 # density in kg/m^3

# Convert
U0 = U0 * ft_to_metre
S = S * ft_to_metre**2
b = b * ft_to_metre
c = c * ft_to_metre
m = m * lb_to_kg
Ixx = Ixx * MOIconvert
Iyy = Iyy * MOIconvert
Izz = Izz * MOIconvert
Ixz = Ixz * MOIconvert

else:
a = 1125.33 # sonic velocity in ft/s
g = 32.174

# Convert mass moments of inertia to consistent units --> INTO lb-ft^2 FROM slug-
ft^2
Ixx = Ixx * g
Iyy = Iyy * g
Izz = Izz * g
Ixz = Ixz * g

# Store the derivatives in two dictionaries

B747_lon_ders = {'C_L': 1.11, 'C_D': 0.102, 'C_L_a' : 5.7, 'C_D_a' : 0.66, 'C_m_a' :
-1.26,
'C_L_da' : -6.7, 'C_m_da' : -3.2, 'C_L_hq' : 5.4, 'C_m_hq' : -20.8,
'C_L_M' : -0.81,
'C_m_M' : 0.27, 'C_L_de' : 0.338, 'C_m_de' : -1.34}

B747_lat_ders = {'C_y_b' : -0.96, 'C_l_b' : -0.221, 'C_n_b' : 0.150, 'C_l_hp' :

-0.45, 'C_n_hp' : -0.121,
'C_l_hr' : 0.101, 'C_n_hr': -0.30, 'C_l_da' : 0.0461, 'C_n_da' :
0.0064, 'C_y_dr' : 0.175,
'C_l_dr' : 0.007, 'C_n_dr' : -0.109}

# Put the dictionaries into the local namespace

# This might seem a bit convoluted but it enables us to store values of derivatives
in the dicionary, above,
# and then put them all into the global namespace.
#
# It's fairly easy to get (key: value) pairs into a dictionary from a text file or
xls so this will be handy
# later.
locals().update(B747_lon_ders)

# Note that without doing the dictionary --> local namespace, the we'd have to write:
# Xu = q * S / m / U0 * (2 * B747_lon_ders["C_D"] + M * B747_lon_ders["C_D_M"])
 # Convert to dimensional form
q = 0.5 * rho * U0**2
M = U0 / a

Xu = -q * S / m / U0 * (2 * C_D) # No C_D_M term so assumed zero

Xw = q * S / m / U0 * (C_L - C_D_a)
Xq = 0 # No CDq term given in the table so assumed zero
Zu = -q * S / m / U0 * (2 * C_L + M * C_L_M)
Zw = -q * S / m / U0 * (C_D + C_L_a)
Zdw = q * S * c / m / 2 / U0**2 * C_L_da # This is a NEW term for us, but since it
was given as C_L_da, must be included
Zq = -q * S * c / 2 / m / U0 * C_L_hq
Mu = q * S * c / Iyy / U0 * M * C_m_M
Mw = q * S * c / Iyy / U0 * C_m_a
Mdw = q * S * c**2 / 2 / Iyy / U0**2 * C_m_da
Mq = q * S * c**2 / 2 / Iyy / U0 * C_m_hq
Mq = q * S * c**2 / 2 / Iyy / U0 * C_m_hq
Zde = -q * S / m * C_L_de
Mde = q * S * c / Iyy * C_m_de

print(f"Xu = {Xu:1.4f}")
print(f"Xw = {Xw:1.4f}")
print(f"Zu = {Zu:1.4f}")
print(f"Zw = {Zw:1.4f}")
print(f"Zdw = {Zdw:1.4f}")
print(f"Zq = {Zq:1.4f}")
print(f"Mu = {Mu:1.4f}")
print(f"Mw = {Mw:1.4f}")
print(f"Mw = {Mw:1.4f}")
print(f"Mdw = {Mdw:1.4f}")
print(f"Mq = {Mq:1.4f}")

print(f"Zde = {Zde:1.4f}")
print(f"Mde = {Mde:1.4f}")

Xu = -0.0212
Xw = 0.0467
Zu = -0.2098
Zw = -0.6027
Zdw = -0.0341
Zq = -7.6596
Mu = 0.0001
Mw = -0.0019
Mw = -0.0019
Mdw = -0.0002
Mq = -0.4373
Zde = -9.7779
Mde = -0.5746

Some units have dimensions of [T −1

] and hence have the same value in either unit system.
Expand the below to see this. Other derivatives do not.
 # Demonstration of the equality of some derivatives in both unit systems:
SIunits = {"Pressure": "Pa", "Mass": "kg", "Area" : "m^2", "Speed" : "m/s"}
USunits = {"Pressure": "lbs/ft^2", "Mass": "lbs", "Area" : "ft^2", "Speed" : "ft/s"}

# Conversion factors
ft_to_metre = 0.3048
lb_to_kg = 0.453592
slug_to_kg = 14.5939

for SIUNIT in [False, True]:

if SIUNIT:
UNITS = SIunits
else:
UNITS = USunits

# Convert to some temporary variables to not overwrite the original values

if SIUNIT:
u0 = U0 * ft_to_metre
s = S * ft_to_metre**2
c2 = c * ft_to_metre
mass = m * lb_to_kg
rho = 1.225
qinf = 0.5 * 1.2255 * u0**2
else:
qinf = q
u0 = U0
s = S
c2 = c
mass = m

if SIUNIT: print("Using SI Units:")

else: print("Using US Customary Units:")
print(f"Dynamic pressure, q = {qinf:1.4f} {UNITS['Pressure']}")
print(f"Wing area, S = {s:1.0f} {UNITS['Area']}")
print(f"Mass, m = {mass:1.0f} {UNITS['Mass']}")
print(f"Trim forward speed, U0 = {u0:1.1f} {UNITS['Speed']}")

testXu = -qinf * s / mass / u0 * (C_L * 2 + C_L_M * M)

testZq = -qinf * s * c2 / 2 / mass / u0 * C_L_hq

print(f"Gives a value for Xu = {testXu:1.4f}, and a value for Zq of

{testZq:1.4f}\n")

Using US Customary Units:

Dynamic pressure, q = 2966.5143 lbs/ft^2
Wing area, S = 5500 ft^2
Mass, m = 564000 lbs
Trim forward speed, U0 = 278.5 ft/s
Gives a value for Xu = -0.2098, and a value for Zq of -7.6596

Using SI Units:
Dynamic pressure, q = 4414.9750 Pa
Wing area, S = 511 m^2
Mass, m = 255826 kg
Trim forward speed, U0 = 84.9 m/s
Gives a value for Xu = -0.2098, and a value for Zq of -2.3348

Now the system matrix can be constructed:

u̇ Xu Xw 0 −g ⋅ cos Θ e u 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ẇ Zu Zw U0 −g ⋅ sin Θ e w Zδ
e

= ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
+ ∗
[δ e ]
q̇ Mu Mw Mq M q M
θ δe

⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
θ̇ 0 0 1 0 θ 0

well…almost - you’ll see two things that need to be performed:

1. The starred terms need to be made from the products of the stability derivatives.
2. We have a Z term from conversion of the stability derivatives, but no corresponding
q

place to put it.

The first problem is easy. From Equations (74)

 Mustar = Mu + Mdw *
Mwstar = Mw + Mdw *
Mqstar = Mq + Mdw *
Mthetastar = -Mdw *
Mdestar = Mde + Mdw

import sympy as sp
Zu
Zw
Zq

[A lon ] =

⎢⎥
g * np.sin(theta_0)
* Zde

Now we’ve got all the terms, we don’t know where to put Z . The answer should be obvious - it

Alon = np.matrix([[Xu, Xw, 0, -g*np.cos(theta_0)],

[Zu, Zw, U0 + Zq, -g*np.sin(theta_0)],
[Mustar, Mwstar, Mqstar, Mthetastar],
[0, 0, 1, 0]])

print("The system matrix for longitudinal motion is ")

⎣
−0.021191

−0.20979

0.00015355

0
0.046745

−0.6027

−0.0017943

0
q

goes where the U term is - it doesn’t replace it, but is added to it. So:

display(Math('[A_{lon}] = ' + sp.latex(sp.Matrix(Alon).evalf(5))))

# Get the eigenvalues - this is my own checking I got the matrix correct. It'll make
sense later.
eigs, _ = np.linalg.eig(Alon)

print("The eigenvalues are:", eigs)

print("The coefficients of the CE are:", np.poly(Alon))

The system matrix for longitudinal motion is

270.83

−0.43544

1.0

The eigenvalues are: [-0.52829455+0.69158467j -0.52829455-0.69158467j

-0.00137077+0.14113918j
-0.00137077-0.14113918j]
The coefficients of the CE are: [1.
0.01508872]
1.05933064 0.7802033 0.02312592

The same can be performed for the lateral-directional matrix:

−32.174

0
⎦
⎤
 # Put the non-dimensional derivatives into the local namespace
locals().update(B747_lat_ders)

Yv = q * S / m / U0 * C_y_b
Yp = 0
Yr = 0
Lv = q * S * b / Ixx / U0 * C_l_b
Lp = q * S * b**2 / 2/ Ixx / U0 * C_l_hp
Lr = q * S * b**2 / 2/ Ixx / U0 * C_l_hr
Nv = q * S * b / Izz / U0 * C_n_b
Np = q * S * b**2 / 2 / Izz / U0 * C_n_hp
Nr = q * S * b**2 / 2 / Izz / U0 * C_n_hr

print(f"Yv = {Yv:1.4f}")
print(f"Yp = {Yp:1.4f}")
print(f"Yr = {Yr:1.4f}")
print(f"Lv = {Lv:1.4f}")
print(f"Lp = {Lp:1.4f}")
print(f"Lr = {Lr:1.4f}")
print(f"Nv = {Nv:1.4f}")
print(f"Np = {Np:1.4f}")
print(f"Nr = {Nr:1.4f}")

# Do the sadme with the control terms

# 'C_l_da' : 0.0461, 'C_n_da' : 0.0064, 'C_y_dr' : 0.175,
# 'C_l_dr' : 0.007, 'C_n_dr' : -0.109}
Yda = 0
Ydr = q * S / m * C_y_dr
Lda = q * S * b / Ixx * C_l_da
Ldr = q * S * b / Ixx * C_l_dr
Nda = q * S * b / Izz * C_n_da
Ndr = q * S * b / Izz * C_n_dr

Yv = -0.0997
Yp = 0.0000
Yr = 0.0000
Lv = -0.0055
Lp = -1.0971
Lr = 0.2462
Nv = 0.0012
Np = -0.0931
Nr = -0.2309

And put into the system matrix for lateral-directional motion

Yv 0 −U 0 g ⋅ cos θ 0 0
⎡ ⎤
∗ ∗ ∗
Lv Lp Lr 0 0

∗ ∗ ∗
A = Nv Np Nr 0 0

0 1 tan θ 0 0 0

⎣ ⎦
0 0 sec θ 0 0 0
 # Making the starred terms

I2 = Ixz / Ixx

# Lstarred terms
Lvstar = Imess * (Lv +
Lpstar = Imess * (Lp +
Lrstar = Imess * (Lr +
Ldrstar = Imess * (Ldr
Ldastar = Imess * (Lda

# Nstarred terms
I2 = Ixz / Izz
Nvstar = Imess * (Nv +
Npstar = Imess * (Np +
Nrstar = Imess * (Nr +
Ndrstar = Imess * (Ndr
Ndastar = Imess * (Nda

[A lat ] =

The eigenvalues are: [ 0.

-0.08023692+0.74204291j

⎢⎥
Imess = Ixx * Izz / (Ixx * Izz - Ixz**2)

Transient Longitudinal Response

I2 *
I2 *
I2 *
+ I2
+ I2

I2 *
I2 *
I2 *
+ I2
+ I2
Nv)
Np)
Nr)
* Ndr)
* Nda)

Lv)
Lp)
Lr)
* Ldr)
* Lda)

Alat = np.matrix([[Yv, 0, -U0, g*np.cos(theta_0), 0],

[Lvstar, Lpstar, Lrstar, 0, 0],
[Nvstar, Npstar, Nrstar, 0, 0],
[0, 1, np.tan(theta_0), 0, 0],
[0, 0, 1/np.cos(theta_0), 0, 0]])

print("The system matrix for lateral-directional motion is ")

display(Math('[A_{lat}] = ' + sp.latex(sp.Matrix(Alat).evalf(5))))

print("The eigenvalues are:", np.linalg.eig(Alat)[0])

print("The coefficients of the CE are:", np.poly(Alat))

The system matrix for lateral-directional motion is

−0.099723

−0.0057348

0.0014622

+0.j
0

-0.08023692-0.74204291j -0.04646794+0.j
The coefficients of the CE are: [1.
0.03180283 0.

np.pi*2/.7420

8.467904726657125
]
0

−1.0909

−0.039417

1.0

0
−278.49

0.28442

−0.24488

1.0

-1.2285872 +0.j

]
32.174

0
0

0
⎤

1.43552897 0.81876855 0.71945085

Note that we’ve not made either of the control matrices yet - and there’s a good reason for that.
If we consider the linearised model of the aircraft created, the stability of the aircraft (i.e., its
response to a perturbation) will be governed by the system matrix.

In the first instance, it is desired to understand the stick fixed stability and understand what will
happen to the aircraft if no inputs are made.

Consider what the two matrices developed actually show us; if the aircraft is disturbed from a
given condition, then if the disturbance is a symmetric state variable (u, w, q, θ), then the output
is a time rate of change of all other symmetric variables.

The control matrices tell us how the aircraft responds due to control input. Therefore, if we’re
interested in aircraft response in the absense of pilot or control-system input, then we’re only
interested in the A matrices themselves. The A matrices give the open loop response of the
aircraft.
Since these are ODEs, we could write a means to time-march through the solution - but there
are some handy inbuilt tools in Python to look at the responses of state-space systems to
different inputs.

You will probably need to install these to work on your system - look here.

But if we create the B matrix, it can be used to excite the aircraft with unity impulse input. For
this reason, it makes sense to make the two control matrices with derivatives that have been
scaled by a factor of π

180
to allow a unity degree control input.

import control
import control.matlab

# We will make a B matrix to enable us to use the control system toolbox by _exciting
the aircraft_ through
# Elevator input. Turn from Zde in 1/radians to 1/degree to put a useful input in.
Blon = np.matrix([[0], [np.radians(Zde)], [np.radians(Mdestar)], [0]])

# Turn the matrices into a state space object

LonSS = control.StateSpace(Alon, Blon, np.eye(Alon.shape[0]), np.zeros(Blon.shape))

# Look at the first 100 seconds response to a unit impulse in the only
Time, [u, w, q, theta] = control.impulse_response(LonSS, T=np.linspace(0, 200,
10000))

# u, w, q, theta = u[0], w[0], q[0], theta[0]

# Convert q and theta

q = np.degrees(q)
theta = np.degrees(theta)

from plotly.subplots import make_subplots

import plotly.graph_objects as go

fig = make_subplots(rows=2, cols=2, subplot_titles=("Forward Speed", "Heave

Velocity", "Pitch Rate", "Pitch Attitude"))

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = u, showlegend=False), row=1, col=1)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = w, showlegend=False), row=1, col=2)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = q, showlegend=False), row=2, col=1)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = theta, showlegend=False), row=2, col=2)

# Make a label based upon the units

if SIunits:
speedlabel = "m/s"
else:
speedlabel = "ft/s"

fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=1)

fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"u / ({speedlabel})", row=1, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"w / ({speedlabel})", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="q / (deg/s)", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="θ / deg", row=2, col=2)

Forward Speed Heave Velocity

4 4
w / (m/s)
u / (m/s)

2 2

0 0

0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Time Time

Pitch Rate Pitch Attitude

 Pitch Rate Pitch Attitude
4 4

q / (deg/s)

θ / deg
2 2

0 0

0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Time Time

As much as a pain as the non-dimensional to dimensional procedure is, it is useful in that you
can take fully non-dimensional data and then use whatever unit system you prefer, and you’ll
get results in those units.

Note that there is a flag to convert between US Customary (ugh) and SI units in the code above.
You can see that there’s some very annoying fiddly bits that have to be performed with the US
Customary units to ensure consistency - that is, the mass moments of inertia are given in slugs-
ft^2, but the masses etc. are presented in lbs. This can cause some dimensional moments of
inertia to be about thirty-two times too large, which has a large effect on the end result.

My strong advice is if you’re required to do anything in US Customary units, to convert to SI at

the start, and then convert to US Customary at the end. There’s just too many pitfalls in the US
Customary system.

 Other inputs?

If you wanted to look at the transient response of the aircraft to control inputs other
than one degree, what could we do with the output to explore this?

Discuss this on the slack space.

Response characteristics
We’ll spend the next module understanding the actual characteristics of the aircraft in terms of
dynamic response, but we can start to intuit some of this now:

There are two phases to the aircraft response - a short-term response that is heavily
damped, affecting mainly heave (i.e., angle of attack) and pitch rate, and a long-term
response that is lightly-damped, affecting mainly speed and pitch attitude, but also
showing in the other state variables.

Non-state variables can be explored - we could go back and change the state variable w for α,
for example, and then explore the change in AoA. This would require calculating a new set of
stability derivatives (many sources use α in place of u). Instead, perturbational angle of attack
can be determined from the linear relationship

alpha = np.degrees(w/(U0+u))

fig = go.Figure()
fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = alpha, showlegend=False))

fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time")
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="$\\alpha/\\text{deg}$")

3
 2

−1
0 50 100 150 200

Time

You will see that the angle of attack is affected much more by the short-term response than the
long-term response.

Transient Lateral Response

A similar exercise can be performed for the lateral response

# We will make a B matrix to enable us to use the control system toolbox by _exciting
the aircraft_ through
# Elevator input. Turn from Zde in 1/radians to 1/degree to put a useful input in.
Blat = np.matrix([[Ydr, Yda], [Ldrstar, Ldastar], [Ndrstar, Ndastar], [0, 0], [0,
0]])
Blat = np.radians(Blat)

# Turn the matrices into a state space object

LatSS = control.StateSpace(Alat, Blat, np.eye(Alat.shape[0]), np.zeros(Blat.shape))

# do this twice, for rudder and then aileron

Time, [v, p, r, phi, psi] = control.impulse_response(LatSS, T=np.linspace(0, 200,
10000), input=0)

# v, p, r, phi, psi = v[0], p[0], r[0], phi[0], psi[0]

# Convert p, r, and phi

p = np.degrees(p)
r = np.degrees(r)
phi = np.degrees(phi)

from plotly.subplots import make_subplots

import plotly.graph_objects as go

fig = make_subplots(rows=2, cols=2, subplot_titles=("Sideslip Velocity", "Roll Rate",

"Yaw Rate", "Roll Attitude"))

fig.update_layout(title=f"Unit Rudder Input", title_x=0.5)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = v, showlegend=False), row=1, col=1)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = p, showlegend=False), row=1, col=2)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = r, showlegend=False), row=2, col=1)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = phi, showlegend=False), row=2, col=2)

# Make a label based upon the units

if SIunits:
speedlabel = "m/s"
else:
speedlabel = "ft/s"

fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=1)

fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"v / ({speedlabel})", row=1, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"p / (deg/s)", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="r / (deg/s)", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="φ / deg", row=2, col=2)
fig.show()
 Unit Rudder Input

Sideslip Velocity Roll Rate

4 4

p / (deg/s)
v / (m/s)

2 2

0 0

0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Time Time

Yaw Rate Roll Attitude

4 4
r / (deg/s)

φ / deg
2 2

0 0

0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Time Time

# Second time - aileron

Time, [v, p, r, phi, psi] = control.impulse_response(LatSS, T=np.linspace(0, 200,
10000), input=1)
# v, p, r, phi, psi = v[0], p[0], r[0], phi[0], psi[0]

# Convert p, r, and phi

p = np.degrees(p)
r = np.degrees(r)
phi = np.degrees(phi)

from plotly.subplots import make_subplots

import plotly.graph_objects as go

fig = make_subplots(rows=2, cols=2, subplot_titles=("Sideslip Velocity", "Roll Rate",

"Yaw Rate", "Roll Attitude"))
fig.update_layout(title="Unit Aileron Input", title_x=0.5)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = v, showlegend=False), row=1, col=1)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = p, showlegend=False), row=1, col=2)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = r, showlegend=False), row=2, col=1)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = phi, showlegend=False), row=2, col=2)

# Make a label based upon the units

if SIunits:
speedlabel = "m/s"
else:
speedlabel = "ft/s"

fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=1)

fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"v / ({speedlabel})", row=1, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text=f"p / (deg/s)", row=1, col=2)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="r / (deg/s)", row=2, col=1)
fig.update_xaxes(title_text="Time", row=2, col=2)
fig.update_yaxes(title_text="φ / deg", row=2, col=2)
fig.show()

Unit Aileron Input

Sideslip Velocity Roll Rate

4 4
 p / (deg/s)
v / (m/s)
2 2

0 0

0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Time Time

Yaw Rate Roll Attitude

4 4
r / (deg/s)

φ / deg
2 2

0 0

0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200

Time Time

Getting eigenvalues from the graph data

This bit wont make much sense until you watch the corresponding lecture…
# Just plot the roll attitude
fig = go.Figure()
fig.update_layout(title="Roll Attitude", title_x=0.5)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = phi, showlegend=False))

# Estimate the spiral mode

lam_sp_est = 1/50 * np.log(0.02/0.19)
print(f"Estimated spiral eigenvalue = {lam_sp_est:1.4}")

dphi_est = 0.19
sp_est = dphi_est * np.exp(lam_sp_est*Time)

fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = sp_est, name="Estimated Spiral Mode", showlegend=True))

# Now estimate the dutch roll

import scipy.signal as sig
peaks_all = sig.find_peaks(phi)[0]

phi_dr = np.zeros(peaks_all.shape)

for i, p in enumerate(peaks_all[:4]):
fig.add_trace(go.Scatter(x = [Time[p]], y = [phi[p]], mode='markers+text',
text=f"{Time[p]:1.3f},{phi[p]:1.3f}", showlegend=False))

# Get the value without the spiral mode

phi_dr[i] = phi[p] - dphi_est * np.exp(lam_sp_est * Time[p])

fig.show()
fig.update_traces(textposition='top right')

# Estimate the damping in the Dutch Roll

lam_real_DR = 1/(Time[peaks_all[2]] - Time[peaks_all[1]]) *
np.log(phi_dr[2]/phi_dr[1])

# remove the spiral completely from the data

just_dr = phi - sp_est
fig.add_trace(
go.Scatter(x = Time, y = just_dr, name="Estimated Dutch Mode", showlegend=True))

# And the imaginary part is simply the damped natural frequency

lam_imag_DR = 2 * np.pi / ((Time[peaks_all[2]] - Time[peaks_all[1]]))
print(f"Estimated spiral eigenvalue = {lam_sp_est:1.4}")
print(f"Estimated DR eigenvalue {lam_real_DR:1.4}±{lam_imag_DR:1.4}j\n")

# Compare to those from the data - first get the spiral

lat_eigs = np.linalg.eig(Alat)[0]
real_eigs = lat_eigs[lat_eigs.imag == 0] # Gets just the real eigenvalues but they're
still returned as complex numbers
real_eigs = real_eigs[real_eigs != 0]
the_spiral_index = np.argmin(np.abs(real_eigs)) # Finds which has the least damping -
this must be the spiral
spiral_eigenvalue = real_eigs[the_spiral_index].real # Returns it without the zero
imaginary part
print(f"Compared with those from the A matix - spiral = {spiral_eigenvalue:1.4f}")

# Now get the DR

DR_eigs = lat_eigs[lat_eigs.imag != 0]
print(f"Compared with those from the A matrix - Dutch Roll = {DR_eigs[0]:1.4f}")

Estimated spiral eigenvalue = -0.04503

 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
/var/folders/0v/8nfbybxs74j_lw48tf2yr5pw0000gn/T/ipykernel_1194/1786823230.py in
<module>
18 # Now estimate the dutch roll
19 import scipy.signal as sig
---> 20 peaks_all = sig.find_peaks(phi)[0]
21
22 phi_dr = np.zeros(peaks_all.shape)

~/opt/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/scipy/signal/_peak_finding.py in
find_peaks(x, height, threshold, distance, prominence, width, wlen, rel_height,
plateau_size)
930 """
931 # _argmaxima1d expects array of dtype 'float64'
--> 932 x = _arg_x_as_expected(x)
933 if distance is not None and distance < 1:
934 raise ValueError('`distance` must be greater or equal to 1')

~/opt/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/scipy/signal/_peak_finding.py in
_arg_x_as_expected(value)
261 value = np.asarray(value, order='C', dtype=np.float64)
262 if value.ndim != 1:
--> 263 raise ValueError('`x` must be a 1-D array')
264 return value
265

ValueError: `x` must be a 1-D array

Other Condition Data

The data as presented in the original report are only tabulated for a couple of aircraft conditions
for the Boeing 747, with the remainder of the data presented in graphical form. Thankfully,
someone has already done the hard work of extracting those data from the graph and
presenting in tabular form (it wasn’t me, the following is taken from Caughey’s online course
notes, borrowed with thanks).

The condition number confers to the Mach/SL diagram on Page 212 of the original report.
 Condition Condition Condition Condition Condition
Derivative 2 5 7 9 10

h /ft 0 20,000 20,000 40,000 40,000

M 0.25 0.50 0.80 0.80 0.90

α / ∘
5.70 6.80 0.0 4.60 2.40

W /lb 564,032 636,636 636,636 636,636 636,636

I xx /(slug-ft 2
14.3 x 10 6
18.4 x 10 6
18.2 x 10 6
18.2 x 10 6
18.2 x 10 6

I yy /(slug-ft 2
32.3 x 10 6
33.1 x 10 6
33.1 x 10 6
33.1 x 10 6
33.1 x 10 6

I zz /(slug-ft )
2
45.3 x 10 6
49.5 x 10 6
49.7 x 10 6
49.7 x 10 6
49.7 x 10 6

I xz /(slug-ft 2
-2.23 x 10 6
-2.76 x 10 6
0.97 x 10 6
-1.56 x 10 6
-0.35 x 10 6

CL 1.11 0.68 0.266 0.66 0.521

CD 0.102 0.0393 0.0174 0.0415 0.0415

C Lα 5.7 4.67 4.24 4.92 5.57

CD
α
0.66 0.366 0.084 0.425 0.527

C mα -1.26 -1.146 -629 -1.033 -1.613

CL
α̇
6.7 6.53 5.99 5.91 5.53

Cm
α̇
-3.2 -3.35 -5.4 -6.41 -8.82

C Lq 5.4 5.13 5.01 6 6.94

Cm
q
-20.8 -20.7 -20.5 -24 -25.1

C LM 0 -0.0875 0.105 0.205 -0.278

CD
M
0 0 0.008 0.0275 0.242

Cm
M
0 0.121 -0.116 0.166 -0.114

C Lδ
e
0.338 0.356 0.27 0.367 0.3

Cm
δe
-1.34 -1.43 -1.06 -1.45 -1.2

C yβ -0.96 -0.9 -0.81 -0.88 -0.92

Cl
β
-0.221 -193 -0.164 -0.277 -0.095

Cn
β
0.15 0.147 0.179 0.195 0.207

C lp -0.45 -0.323 -0.315 -0.334 -0.296

 Condition Condition Condition Condition Condition
Derivative 2 5 7 9 10

Cn
p
-0.121 -0.069 0.0028 -0.042 0.023

C lr 0.101 0.212 0.0979 0.3 0.193

Cn
r
-0.3 -0.278 -0.265 -0.327 -333

Cl
δa
0.0461 0.0129 0.012 0.0137 0.0139

Cn
δa
0.0064 0.0015 0.0008 0.0002 -0.003

Cy
δr
0.175 0.1448 0.0841 0.1157 0.062

C lδ
r
0.007 0.0039 0.009 0.007 0.0052

Cn
δr
-0.109 -0.1081 -0.099 -0.1256 -0.091

By Harry Smith
© Copyright 2022.

Aircraft Flight Mechanics by Harry Smith is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Based on a work at www.aircraftflightmechanics.com.