Sildes - Non Linear

Nonlinear vibrations: an overview
Vibration Mechanics
Contents
• Introduction
• Effects of nonlinearity in dynamics
• Harmonic distortions
• Jump phenomena
• FRFs and frequency shifts
• Practical example: negative stiffness oscillator
• Equation of motion
• Linear, nonlinear and chaotic motion
Dario Anastasio
dario.anastasio@polito.it
Nonlinear vibrations: when?
Most physical systems are inherently
nonlinear in nature
Some engineering examples:

Navier-Stokes, planetary motion, rigid body
rotation, friction, bolted connections, contact
dynamics, impacts, nonlinear materials, large-
amplitude vibrations …
All the world is a nonlinear system

He linearized to the right
He linearized to the left
Till nothing was right
And nothing was left
S. Billings – University of Sheffield
2
Nonlinear vibrations: so what?
Two ways:
1. Linearization
• It may work for small amplitude vibrations
• Easy and well established
• Be aware that:
•! Classic linear tools may fail or give wrong results
•! High-amplitude response regimes can be missed
2. Treat it as a nonlinear system

• Nonlinear theory, modeling, system identification
• Not so easy
• Research ongoing
• High potentialities
3
Nonlinear vibrations: introduction
Let’s consider first a linear SDOF oscillator:
𝑘 Equation of motion: 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑡

𝑓(𝑡)
𝑐 𝑚
𝑘
𝑦, 𝑦,ሶ 𝑦ሷ Natural frequency: 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑚
Properties of linear vibrating systems:

• Superposition principle
• Invariance of the FRF
• Invariance of the modal parameters
• Uniqueness of the solution
4
Let’s consider first a linear SDOF oscillator:
𝑘 Equation of motion: 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑡

𝑓(𝑡)
𝑐 𝑚
𝑘
𝑦, 𝑦,ሶ 𝑦ሷ Natural frequency: 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑚
Properties of linear vibrating systems: Example: step response

• Superposition principle 𝐹
• Invariance of the FRF 𝐹, 𝑡≥0 𝐹1
𝑓 𝑡 =൝
• Invariance of the modal parameters 0, 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹2
• Uniqueness of the solution
𝐹3
The steady-state response is:
𝑌 = 𝐹/𝑘
𝑌3 𝑌2 𝑌1 𝑌
5
Let’s make it nonlinear:
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡) Equation of motion: 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ + 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑘3 𝑦 3 = 𝑓 𝑡
𝑚
𝑘3
Natural frequency: 𝜔𝑛 = ?
𝑐 𝑦, 𝑦,ሶ 𝑦ሷ
Properties of nonlinear vibrating systems:

• NO superposition principle
• NO invariance of the FRF
• NO invariance of the modal parameters
• NO uniqueness of the solution
→ Stable and unstable solutions, jumps, frequency shifts, harmonic distortions, chaos…
6
Properties of nonlinear vibrating systems:
• NO superposition principle
• NO invariance of the FRF
• NO invariance of the modal parameters
• NO uniqueness of the solution
Example: step response of a clamped-clamped beam1
• The behaviour is linear up to some point.

• For large delflections (larger than the thickness of the beam), the
bounday conditions restrict the axial straining of the neutral axis.
• This introduces a hardening stiffness – a nonlinearity that violates the
principle of superposition.
1 K. Worden, G.R. Tomlinson, Nonlinearity in structural dynamics: detection, identification and modelling, 2001. 7
S.H. Strogatz, R.F. Fox, Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: With Applications to Physics, Biology, Chemistry and Engineering, 1995. 8
Nonlinear vibrations: harmonic response
Example: undamped harmonic response of a nonlinear SDOF system
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑚 Equation of motion: 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑘3 𝑦 3 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡 (no damping)
𝑘3
𝑦, 𝑦,ሶ 𝑦ሷ
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡 → 𝑦 𝑡 =?
Trial solution (linear): 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑌𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡
Substituting: −𝑚𝑌𝛺2 𝑒 𝑖𝛺𝑡 + 𝑘𝑌𝑒 𝑖𝛺𝑡 + 𝑘3 𝑌 3 𝑒 𝑖3𝛺𝑡 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝛺𝑡
The term 𝑒 𝑖3𝛺𝑡 = cos 3Ω𝑡 + 𝑖 sin 3Ω𝑡 has a frequency content of 3Ω, not excited by the input!
Something is wrong: the trial solution did not consider this term.
→ The linear trial solution is not feasible.
9
Nonlinear vibrations: harmonic response
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑘3
New trial solution: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑌1 𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡 + 𝑌3 𝑒 𝑖3Ωt
Substituting: … + 𝑘3 [𝑌13 𝑒 𝑖3𝛺𝑡 + 𝑌33 𝑒 𝑖 3⋅3 𝛺𝑡 +𝑌 2 𝑌

1 3 𝑒𝑖 2+3 𝛺𝑡
+ 𝑌1 𝑌32 𝑒 𝑖 1+3⋅2 𝛺𝑡 ]
= 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝛺𝑡
~3Ω ~9Ω ~5Ω ~7Ω
Even worse: now the system response contains frequency contents of Ω, 3Ω, 5Ω, 7Ω, 9Ω.
What is the right solution then?
10
Nonlinear vibrations: harmonic response 1st nonlinear symptom:
harmonic distortion
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑘3
What is the right solution then?
To include all the harmonics, i.e. the integer multiples of the fundamental frequency Ω:
𝑦 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑌𝑗 𝑒 𝑖 𝑗Ω 𝑡
𝑗=1
→ Complex behavior even for a simple SDOF system.
11
harmonic distortion
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡) Equation of motion: 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑘3 𝑦 3 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡 (no damping)
𝑚
𝑘3 ∞
𝑦, 𝑦,ሶ 𝑦ሷ Solution: 𝑦 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑌𝑗 𝑒 𝑖 𝑗Ω 𝑡
𝑗=1
The PSD of the output would generally look like:
HARMONICS of the
excitation frequency
(not excited)
12
harmonic distortion
Example: harmonics in music
Look at the spectrum of a A3 note (220 Hz) played on a piano
220 440 660 880 …
13
harmonic distortion
Example: measurements on a fatigue test machine
• Mechanical device subjected to a cyclic load (fatigue test)
𝐹𝐶𝐶 (𝑡)
• Measured signals: base displacement 𝑥(𝑡) and force 𝐹𝐶𝐶 (𝑡)
Load cell
Device
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡
The output contains harmonics of the

fundamental frequency (cyclic load).
→ What is the source?

The device under test exhibited a strong
nonlinear behaviour due to hystereis
(friction) and clearances in the joints.
14
harmonic distortion
NOTE: What does it mean that the output signal contains also the harmonics of the fundamental frequency?
→ Consider a signal sin(Ω𝑡) (dashed-dotted black line) and try to add one of its harmonics (red line):
15
harmonic distortion
We have seen that the response of a nonlinear system to a harmonic excitation contains harmonic distortions. These
distortions are usually determined by the presence of harmonics of the excitation frequency.
However, this is not a general rule: nonlinear systems may also exhibit sub-harmonics of Real system
the excitation frequency (i.e. ΩΤ2 , 𝛺Τ3 , 𝛺Τ4 , …), or frequency contents not directly
related to the excitation. U-shaped Rods
This last scenario happens in the case of a chaotic response. frame
Let us consider a double-well oscillator. The equation of motion is:
𝑚𝑧ሷ + 𝑐 𝑧ሶ + 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑏ሷ = 𝑓(𝑡) Moving
Model mass
Where 𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑏 𝑡
𝑚: moving mass (kg)
𝑐: viscous damping coefficient (Ns/m) Shaking
𝑘3 : cubic stiffness coefficient (N/m3) table
𝑘2 : quadratic stiffness coefficient (N/m2)
𝑘1 : linear stiffness coefficient (N/m)
𝑔: gravity acceleration (m/s2)
𝑏:ሷ acceleration of the base (m/s2)
16
Experimental double-well oscillator
Equation of motion (undamped): 𝑚𝑧ሷ + 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑓(𝑡) ℱ 𝑧 (N)
Restoring force: ℱ 𝑧 = 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔
𝑧 (m)
∗
The positions z where the restoring force is
null are the equilibrium positions of the
system.
2 2 𝑚𝑔
𝐸𝑞. 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⟺ 𝐹 z∗ = 0 ⟺ z ∗ 𝑘3 z ∗ + 𝑘2 z ∗ − 𝑘1 = −𝑚𝑔 ⟺ 𝑘3 z ∗ + 𝑘2 z ∗ − 𝑘1 = −
z∗
Parabola Hyperbola
3 solutions: z−∗ , z0∗ , z+∗ .
These positions can be stable or unstable.
Oscillations can be: z−∗

• Around one equilibrium position (in-well motion) z+∗
• Across the equilibrium positions (cross-well motion)
z0∗
17
Experimental double-well oscillator 2nd nonlinear symptom:
unstable solutions and
multiple equilibria
Equation of motion (undamped): 𝑚𝑧ሷ + ℱ 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑡)
ℱ 𝑧 = 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔
1 1 1
The potential is: 𝒰 𝑧 = ‫ ׬‬ℱ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 4 𝑘3 𝑧 4 + 3 𝑘2 𝑧 3 − 2 𝑘1 𝑧 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧
The positions z ∗ where the

Unstable restoring force is null are the
equilibrium equilibrium positions of the system.
position
𝐸𝑞. 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⟺ 𝐹 z ∗ = 0
3 solutions: z−∗ , z0∗ , z+∗ .
These positions can be stable or

Double-well potential unstable.
Negative Positive
equilibrium position equilibrium position
18
multiple equilibria
ℱ 𝑧 = 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔
1 1 1
Is it possible to define the natural frequency of the system?
Let us consider the small oscillations 𝑥 𝑡 around a generic equilibrium position, called z ∗ :
𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + z∗ → 𝑧ሷ 𝑡 = 𝑥ሷ 𝑡 → 𝑚𝑥ሷ + ℱ 𝑥 𝑡 + z ∗ = 𝑓 𝑡
Taylor expansion of ℱ 𝑥 𝑡 + z ∗ :
ℱ 𝑥 𝑡 + z∗ ≅ ℱ z∗ + ℱ ′ z∗ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑥(𝑡)
ℱ z ∗ = 0 by definition
ℱ ′ z ∗ = 3𝑘3 𝑧 2 + 2𝑘2 𝑧 − 𝑘1 ȁ𝑧=z∗ = 3𝑘3 z ∗ 2 + 2𝑘2 z ∗ − 𝑘1 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞
19
multiple equilibria
ℱ 𝑧 = 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔
1 1 1
Is it possible to define the natural frequency of the system? Only for small oscillations around the equilibrium position
… ℱ 𝑥 𝑡 + z ∗ = ℱ ′ z ∗ ⋅ 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 ⋅ 𝑥 → Linearized equation of motion around z ∗ : 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑡
Natural frequency: ℱ ′ z∗−

Around z−∗ : 𝜔𝑛,− =
𝑚
ℱ ′ z∗
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
ℱ ′ z∗+
Around z+∗ : 𝜔𝑛,+ = 𝑚
20
Experimental double-well oscillator: harmonic response
Oscillations around the negative equilibrium position
• Sine input:
𝑚𝑧ሷ + 𝑐 𝑧ሶ + 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺𝑡
𝑓0 = 𝑚𝛺2 𝑏0 , 𝑏0 = displacement of the base
• Excitation frequency: Ω = 9 × 2π rad/s
• Initial conditions:
𝑧 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑧−∗
ቊ
𝑧ሶ 𝑡 = 0 = 0
What kind of motion do we obtain changing f0 ?
21
𝑚𝑧ሷ + 𝑐𝑧ሶ + 𝑘3 𝑧 3 + 𝑘2 𝑧 2 − 𝑘1 𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝛺2 𝑏0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺𝑡
Case 1: 𝑏0 = 1 𝑚𝑚
• Small oscillations
• Linear behavior
22
• Linear behavior
23
• Linear behavior
24
• Linear behavior?
25
• Nonlinear behavior?
26
• Nonlinear behavior:
Harmonics
Harmonic distortions
The system responds also at

2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω, 5Ω… when excited just at
Ω.
27
Digital image correlation with slow-mo camera
• Cross-well motion
28
• Cross-well motion
Deterministic chaos
Chaos is aperiodic long-term behavior in a deterministic
system that exhibits sensitive dependence on initial
conditions.1
What happens if we slightly change the initial conditions?
In a common (linear or nonlinear) system such a small

difference would not make any difference in the response.
In a chaotic system it does.
1 S.H. Strogatz, R.F. Fox, Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: With Applications to Physics, Biology, Chemistry and Engineering, 1995. 29
3rd nonlinear symptom:
chaos
Case 3: 𝑏0 = 6 𝑚𝑚 – Deterministic chaos
Simulation with different initial conditions
Previous initial conditions:

𝑧 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑧0 = 𝑧−∗
ቊ
𝑧ሶ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑧ሶ0 = 0
New initial conditions:

𝑧 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑧0 = 0.99998 × 𝑧−∗
ቊ
𝑧ሶ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑧ሶ0 = 0
→ Completely different responses!
30
chaos
How to understand chaos?
Poincaré maps
A Poincaré map is the intersection of a periodic orbit in the state space of a continuous dynamical system with a
certain lower-dimensional subspace, called the Poincaré section, transversal to the flow of the system.1
Practically, for a harmonically forced system:

• Take one sample for each period of the periodic input
• Take the corresponding samples on the output and plot the phase diagram
• Change the initial point and do it again
1 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincaré_map
31
chaos
Poincaré maps
• Take one sample for each period of the periodic input;

• Take the corresponding samples on the output and
plot the phase diagram;
• Change the initial point (phase-synchronization angle,
φ) and do it again.
32
chaos
Poincaré maps

33
chaos
Poincaré maps

34
chaos
Poincaré maps
The Poincaré representation

overcomes the sensitive
dependency on the initial
conditions: chaotic systems
are not periodic, but they are
recurrent.
35
Another chaotic system: the double pendulum
Simulation with different initial conditions
I.C. 1
2
𝜃1 𝑡 = 0 = 𝜃2 𝑡 = 0 = 𝜋,
ቐ 3
𝜃ሶ1 𝑡 = 0 = 𝜃ሶ 2 𝑡 = 0 = 0
I.C. 2
2
𝜃1 𝑡 = 0 = 𝜃2 𝑡 = 0 = 𝜋 − 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 ,
ቐ 3
𝜃ሶ1 𝑡 = 0 = 𝜃ሶ 2 𝑡 = 0 = 0
→ Completely different responses!
See: https://www.mathworks.com/help/symbolic/animation-and-solution-of-double-pendulum.html
36
Another chaotic system: the Lorenz attractor
The American mathematician and meteorologist Edward Lorenz is considered as the founder of modern chaos theory.
The sensitive dependence on initial conditions shown by some nonlinear systems is also referred to as “butterfly effect”. It
can be expressed by the title of his conference: "Does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?“
Phase plane with 𝜌 = 10 Phase plane with 𝜌 = 28

Lorenz system:
𝑥ሶ = 𝜎 𝑦 − 𝑥
𝑦ሶ = 𝑥 𝜌 − 𝑧 − 𝑦
𝑧ሶ = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝛽𝑧
➢3 equilibrium positions 𝑧 𝑧
Simulations with 𝛽 = 3/8 and 𝜎 = 10
𝑥 𝑥
See https://itp.uni-frankfurt.de/~gros/Vorlesungen/SO/simulation_example/
37
Nonlinear vibrations: sine-sweep response
Example: sine-sweep with linearly increasing frequency 𝜴 and amplitude 𝒇𝟎
Linear system Peak at the

resonance frequency
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑚
𝑘3
38
Nonlinear vibrations: sine-sweep response
Nonlinear system
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑚
𝑘3
39
Nonlinear vibrations: sine-sweep response 4th nonlinear symptom:
jumps
Linear system Peak at the

𝑘 resonance frequency
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑐 𝑚
Nonlinear system Jump
𝑘
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑚
𝑘3
40
jumps
Nonlinear system
𝑘 • Jump phenomenon around the resonance frequency: sudden change in the response
𝑓(𝑡) amplitude
𝑚
𝑘3 • This phenomenon is input-amplitude dependent, and it originates from the existence of
𝑐 𝑦, 𝑦,ሶ 𝑦ሷ multiple solutions in nonlinear systems.
41
jumps
Jump phenomenon in an experimental nonlinear beam
Jump
(down)
D. Anastasio, S. Marchesiello, G. Kerschen, J.P. Noel, Experimental identification of distributed nonlinearities in the modal domain,
42
Journal of Sound and Vibration (2019).
jumps
Jump phenomenon in a double-well oscillator
Jump
Jump Jump Jump
(down)
(up) (up) (down)
D. Anastasio, A. Fasana, L. Garibaldi, S. Marchesiello, Nonlinear Dynamics of a Duffing-Like Negative Stiffness Oscillator: Modeling and Experimental Characterization,
43
Shock and Vibration (2020).
jumps
Jump phenomenon in a double-well oscillator
Harmonics
Fundamental
frequency of the
excitation
Sub-harmonics
D. Anastasio, A. Fasana, L. Garibaldi, S. Marchesiello, Nonlinear Dynamics of a Duffing-Like Negative Stiffness Oscillator: Modeling and Experimental Characterization,
44
Shock and Vibration (2020).
jumps
System with hardening nonlinearity

➢ The nonlinearity causes an increase in the system stiffness
Hardening
Sweep-up  jump-down
(Sweep-up) Sweep-down  jump-up
Jump-down
(Sweep-down)
Jump-up
45
jumps
System with softening nonlinearity

➢ The nonlinearity causes a decrease in the system stiffness
Softening
(Sweep-down)
Jump-down
Sweep-up  jump-up
Sweep-down  jump-down
(Sweep-up)
Jump-up
46
Nonlinear vibrations: random
Nonlinear random vibrations: homogeneity test and FRF distortions
Homogeneity is said to hold if 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑦 𝑡 implies 𝛼𝑥 𝑡 → 𝛼𝑦 𝑡 for all 𝛼. In the frequency domain, the process 𝛼𝑥 𝑡 →
𝛼𝑦 𝑡 reads 𝛼𝑋 Ω → 𝛼𝑌 Ω .
X Ω 𝛼X Ω
It follows that the FRF 𝐻 Ω = 𝑌 = 𝛼𝑌 = 𝐻(Ω).
Ω Ω
➢The FRFs of the system are invariant under changes of 𝛼 or effectively of the level of excitation, if the system is linear.
The homogeneity test is usually applied in dynamic testing to FRFs where the input levels are usually mapped over a range
encompassing typical operating levels.
➢If the FRFs for different levels overlay, linearity is assumed to hold. Note that homogeneity is a weaker condition than
superposition.
The test can be performed when the system undergoes random excitation with several levels of amplitude by estimating the
FRFs using linear tools:
𝑆𝑥𝑦 𝑆𝑦𝑦
𝐻1 = , 𝐻2 =
𝑆𝑥𝑥 𝑆𝑦𝑥
47
Let’s consider the nonlinear beam of slide 13, this time under random excitation:
• Random (Gaussian) input with different RMS values
• FRF estimation via linear tools
𝑆𝑥𝑦 𝑆𝑦𝑦
𝐻1 = , 𝐻2 =
𝑆𝑥𝑥 𝑆𝑦𝑥
Forcing input:
Electromagnetic shaker (hanged)
Instrumentation:
8 mono-axial accelerometers
1 load-cell (shaker head)
What kind of FRF do we obtain changing the input RMS?
48
Let’s consider the nonlinear beam of slide 13, this time under random excitation:
• Random (Gaussian) input with different RMS values
• FRF estimation via linear tools
What kind of FRF do we obtain changing the input RMS?
49
5th nonlinear symptom:
Nonlinear vibrations: random FRF distortions
Input RMS
• The estimation of the FRF using linear tools (H1 , H2 ) is influenced by the nonlinearity, making it look like very noisy.
• The resonance frequency shifts when increasing the amplitude of the input if the system is nonlinear.
• The FRFs and the resonant frequencies (assuming that they can be defined) are not invariant!
50
Nonlinear random vibrations: about the coherence function
The coherence function 𝛾 2 𝜔 estimates the

power transfer between input and output of a
linear system.
Ideally, for a linear system without noise

𝛾 2 𝜔 = 1.
In real systems, the coherence represents the

fraction of the output power linearly
dependent on the input power, for each
frequency.
→ Both noise and nonlinearity affect the
coherence.
→ It cannot be used alone to detect a
nonlinear behavior.
51
Nonlinear random vibrations: Argand-Gauss plane
Check also what happens when representing

the FRF in the Argand-Gauss plane
Lowest excitation level:

✓ Three circles
✓ Not very much distorted
✓ “Classic” representation
52
Nonlinear random vibrations: Argand-Gauss plane
Check also what happens when representing

the FRF in the Argand-Gauss plane
Highest excitation level:

➢ Circles???
➢ Too much distorted
➢ Definitely not “classic”
→ Nonlinear behavior
53
Nonlinear random vibrations: F-16 ground tests
Input RMS
Impacts at the wing interface

generate a nonlinear behaviour.
→ Frequency shifts in the FRFs
Benchmark data from:

J.P. Noël and M. Schoukens, F-16 aircraft benchmark based on ground vibration test data, 4TU.ResearchData, Dataset, doi: 10.4121/12954911. 54
Nonlinear vibrations: impulse response
Hammer tests
The cases discussed so far require a persisting source of excitation and the measure of the input.
➢ What about free-decay responses?
For certain type of nonlinearities, free-decay data can be used to detect a nonlinear behavior by inspecting the spectrograms
of the outputs.
But:
• The structure must have a low damping, otherwise the free-decay would be too short;
• The nonlinearity must cause frequency shifts (such as hardening or softening types) to be visualized;
• The energy of the impulse response must be high enough.
55
Example: response of a SDOF system with softening-hardening nonlinearity
56
Example: response of a SDOF system with softening-hardening nonlinearity
The natural The natural

frequency frequency shows
remains almost relevant shifts at
constant. the beginning,
Harmonics are then it stabilizes.
weakly present. Harmonics are
more visible.
57
Nonlinear vibrations: final considerations
The properties of linear systems do not hold for nonlinear ones
The kind of response obtained in nonlinear dynamical systems changes with the different inputs, as well as the
nonlinear phenomena involved (jumps, harmonics, frequency shifts, chaos,…)
Nonlinear systems can suddenly switch between low and high amplitude motions
Frequencies not excited by the input can be present in the system response, possibly creating internal resonances
Quick ways to check for a possible nonlinear behavior

Random input:
Harmonic response:
Check for changes in the FRFs (for instance frequency
Check for harmonic distortions
shifts) with different input RMS values
Sine-sweep: Impulse response:

Check for jump phenomena Check for time-frequency variations.
58

Sildes - Non Linear

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Nonlinear vibrations: an overview

Some engineering examples:

All the world is a nonlinear system

S. Billings – University of Sheffield

2. Treat it as a nonlinear system

𝑘 Equation of motion: 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑡

Properties of linear vibrating systems:

𝑘 Equation of motion: 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑐 𝑦ሶ + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑡

Properties of linear vibrating systems: Example: step response

Properties of nonlinear vibrating systems:

Example: step response of a clamped-clamped beam1

• The behaviour is linear up to some point.

Trial solution (linear): 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑌𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡

Substituting: −𝑚𝑌𝛺2 𝑒 𝑖𝛺𝑡 + 𝑘𝑌𝑒 𝑖𝛺𝑡 + 𝑘3 𝑌 3 𝑒 𝑖3𝛺𝑡 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝛺𝑡

New trial solution: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑌1 𝑒 𝑖Ω𝑡 + 𝑌3 𝑒 𝑖3Ωt

Substituting: … + 𝑘3 [𝑌13 𝑒 𝑖3𝛺𝑡 + 𝑌33 𝑒 𝑖 3⋅3 𝛺𝑡 +𝑌 2 𝑌

~3Ω ~9Ω ~5Ω ~7Ω

What is the right solution then?

What is the right solution then?

→ Complex behavior even for a simple SDOF system.

The PSD of the output would generally look like:

Look at the spectrum of a A3 note (220 Hz) played on a piano

220 440 660 880 …

The output contains harmonics of the

→ What is the source?

These positions can be stable or unstable.

Oscillations can be: z−∗

The positions z ∗ where the

3 solutions: z−∗ , z0∗ , z+∗ .

These positions can be stable or

Is it possible to define the natural frequency of the system?

… ℱ 𝑥 𝑡 + z ∗ = ℱ ′ z ∗ ⋅ 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 ⋅ 𝑥 → Linearized equation of motion around z ∗ : 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑡

Natural frequency: ℱ ′ z∗−

What kind of motion do we obtain changing f0 ?

The system responds also at

What happens if we slightly change the initial conditions?

In a common (linear or nonlinear) system such a small

Case 3: 𝑏0 = 6 𝑚𝑚 – Deterministic chaos

Simulation with different initial conditions

Previous initial conditions:

New initial conditions:

→ Completely different responses!

Case 3: 𝑏0 = 6 𝑚𝑚 – Deterministic chaos

How to understand chaos?

Practically, for a harmonically forced system:

Case 3: 𝑏0 = 6 𝑚𝑚 – Deterministic chaos

• Take one sample for each period of the periodic input;

Case 3: 𝑏0 = 6 𝑚𝑚 – Deterministic chaos

• Take one sample for each period of the periodic input;

Case 3: 𝑏0 = 6 𝑚𝑚 – Deterministic chaos

• Take one sample for each period of the periodic input;

Case 3: 𝑏0 = 6 𝑚𝑚 – Deterministic chaos

The Poincaré representation

→ Completely different responses!

Phase plane with 𝜌 = 10 Phase plane with 𝜌 = 28

Simulations with 𝛽 = 3/8 and 𝜎 = 10

Linear system Peak at the

Example: sine-sweep with linearly increasing frequency 𝜴 and amplitude 𝒇𝟎

Linear system Peak at the

Nonlinear system Jump

Example: sine-sweep with linearly increasing frequency 𝜴 and amplitude 𝒇𝟎

Jump phenomenon in an experimental nonlinear beam