ДЕРЖАВНИЙ ВИЩИЙ НАВЧАЛЬНИЙ ЗАКЛАД

«УЖГОРОДСЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ»

ФАКУЛЬТЕТ МІЖНАРОДНИХ ВІДНОСИН
КАФЕДРА ПРИКЛАДНОЇ ЛІНГВІСТИКИ

Реєстраційний № _____________
Дата___________

КУРСОВА РОБОТА
з дисципліни «Теорія та практика перекладу»
на тему:
«НАУКОВО–ТЕХНІЧНІ ТЕКСТИ В АНГЛІЙСЬКІЙ МОВІ.
ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ»

Студентки 4 курсу
Заочна форма навчання
Спеціальність «Прикладна лінгвістика»
Боднар Мілена
Керівник: Мегеш Наталія Олександрівна

Національна шкала_________
Кількість балів: Оцінка ECST _________

Члени комісії: _____________________________________

(підпис) (прізвище та ініціали)
_____________________________________
(підпис) (прізвище та ініціали)

Ужгород – 2021
2
 STATE UNIVERSITY
«UZHHOROD NATIONAL UNIVERSITY»
FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS
APPLIED LINGUISTICS DEPARTMENT

Registration №_________
Date_________

YEAR PAPER
in the discipline: “Theory and practice of translation”
“SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TEXTS IN ENGLISH. TRANSLATION
FEATURES”

4th yeаr student

Аpplied Linguistics Depаrtment
Bodnar Milena
Reseаrch аdvisоr: Megesh Natalia Olexandrivna

Nаtiоnаl Grаding Scаle _______

Scоre: ECST Grаde ______
Cоmitee members: __________________________________
(signаture) (initiаls, surnаme)
__________________________________
(signаture) (initiаls, surnаme)
__________________________________
(signаture) (initiаls, surnаme)

Uzhhоrоd – 2021
3
 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………….……......5
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC AND
TECHNICAL TEXTS IN ENGLISH…………………………………………...7
1.1 Lexical characteristics of scientific and technical
texts…………………………………………………………………………….......7
1.2 Grammatical characteristics of scientific and technical
texts………………………………………………………………………………..10
CHAPTER 2. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION OF
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TEXTS……………………………………15
2.1 Current issues of translation of scientific and technical
texts…………………………………………………………………………..……15
2.2 Peculiarities of translation of English scientific and technical
texts…………………………………………………………………………….....18
CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………………………27
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………..29
ANNEXES………………………………………………………………………..32

4
 INTRODUCTION
Scientific and technical texts belong to the field of scientific communication,
where participants perform cognitive functions and focus on the consistent and
dynamic accumulation and reproduction of information. The means of
implementing these functions and the unit of scientific communication is a single
act of communication, which can be considered a scientific and technical text.
According to Radzievskaya T. «The communication of communicants in this act is
formed due to the different amount of information about a certain subject that the
communicants (subject and addressee) possess) the addressee in the act of
notification acts as a disregard that wants to receive information... the object of the
act of notification can only be new information from the sender's point of view and
at the same time reliable, factual – such that it is only taken into account».
So, the role of the addressee is played by an authoritative person (an
authoritative publication), who provides the addressee, who is not knowledgeable
in a particular field of knowledge, with the necessary information. One of the most
important sources of information is the scientific and technical text (NTT)-
monographs, textbooks, scientific publications, articles, abstracts, etc.
The main task of scientific and technical translation is to convey the
information provided to the reader in an extremely clear and accurate manner. This
is achieved by a logically justified presentation of factual material, without
explicitly expressed emotionality. The style of scientific and technical literature
can be defined as formal and logical. It should be noted that the broad and
intensive development of the scientific style has led to the formation of numerous
genres within its framework, such as: article, monograph, textbook, patent
description( description of the invention), abstract, abstract, documentation,
catalog, reference book, specification, instruction, advertising (which also has the
characteristics of a journalistic style). Each genre has its own individual style
features, but they do not violate the unity of the scientific style, inheriting its
common features and features.

5
 Among the urgent problems of modern translation studies, an important
place is occupied by the development of such an industry as the translation of
scientific and technical texts, since in connection with the accelerating scientific
and technological progress, this type of translation activity is becoming more and
more popular. But, unfortunately, the degree of study of this topic is far from the
desired completeness, in particular, the techniques and methods of translating the
accompanying technical documentation are not sufficiently studied.
The relevance of the topic of this work is due to the increasing importance of
the translation of scientific and technical literature as a way of exchanging and
disseminating information in the world community.
Based on the relevance, the purpose of the research conducted in this work
was determined, which is to study the features of the translation of scientific and
technical texts.
The object of research of this work is scientific and technical texts.
The subject of this research is the peculiarities of translation of technical
texts.
In accordance with the purpose of the work, the following tasks were
formulated, the solution of which is aimed at a comprehensive disclosure of the
topic and achieving the goal:
− analyze the stylistic features of scientific and technical texts;
− consider the lexical features of scientific and technical texts;
− identify the main difficulties in translating scientific and technical texts.
In the course of the study, the comparative, comparative–translation method
and component analysis were used.
Scientific and technical monographs, articles from scientific and technical
publications, and electronic English–Ukrainian and Ukrainian–English
terminological technical dictionaries were used as the research material.
The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, and a list
of the literature used. The total volume of the work is 37 pages.

6
 CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC AND
TECHNICAL TEXTS IN ENGLISH
1.1 Lexical characteristics of scientific and technical texts

Scientific style is an attribute of different fields of science. This is a style

that is used in scientific discussions, when writing monographs, scientific articles,
abstracts, etc. The scientific text is characterized by a strict logic of presentation.
Another typical feature of the scientific style is semantic accuracy.
This accuracy can be achieved by careful selection of words, extensive use
of terms and special vocabulary. Another characteristic of scientific language is its
generality. Therefore, we find many abstract concepts in scientific texts.
In any language, the vocabulary is considered the main building material of
the text. As for the vocabulary of scientific speech, it can be divided into three
main groups: common words, general scientific words and terms.
In the scientific style, commonly used words are usually used in their main
meaning. When describing scientific phenomena, they prefer to use general
scientific vocabulary. Words that belong to the category of general scientific
vocabulary are assigned to certain concepts. They are terminological in nature, but
are not considered terms. Practice shows that it is the term that most adequately
and accurately expresses scientific thought. Each field of science and technology
develops its own terminology, which corresponds to the subject and method of
work. A certain number of terms are used only within a certain style. However,
very often special meanings of common words are used as terms. For example,
such a lexical unit as a hypergraph is widely used in texts on computer
technologies. This word is difficult to find outside the scientific and technical
literature. At the same time, in these texts, such words as dead (disabled), ripple
(ripple), etc., which have common meanings, are quite often found as terms.
So, the term accurately and unambiguously names an object or phenomenon
and reveals its content. Gorelikova S. believes that the term is unambiguous within
a certain classification system, since it has an exact definition and clear semantic
7
boundaries. But we know that the English language has developed such a
phenomenon as synonymy, including lexical: the same concept can be expressed in
different words. For example, the verb to say can be replaced with verbs such as to
assert, to state, to declare, to reply; instead of to clean, the verb to purify is used.)
[2].
We often observe how the same term in different sublanguages expresses
different concepts. The term valve, for example, stands for an electronic lamp in
radio engineering texts, a valve in heat engineering, a valve in motor engineering,
instrument engineering, and hydraulics. Therefore, functioning in various spheres,
the term can be multi-valued. Lexical ambiguity gives speech flexibility and
liveliness and allows you to express the most subtle shades of thought. However,
in terminological systems, polysemy is considered a disadvantage. Because science
does not allow for ambiguity, but requires a well-defined meaning for a particular
concept.
However, not all terms meet this requirement even within the same
specialty: for example, «utility» in computer vocabulary is translated as a service
program, utility, parameter. This fact makes it difficult to accurately understand the
text. But when describing a specific subject situation in a certain scientific and
technical field, the terms do not allow their incorrect interpretation.
Linguists express different points of view about the nature of the formation
of term systems. According to Karaban V., «terms do not arise, do not appear, but
are created...», while, in her opinion, «term – making in our time is entirely a
conscious language activity»
Other researchers, including F. P. Sorokoletov, believe that the language of
term systems is formed according to the laws of natural language.
Some terms consist of a single base word, while others are a terminological
one the group. This group includes some basic word, as well as one or more left or
right (prepositional) definitions. Definitions are intended to clarify or change the
meaning of the term:
− computer-aided design system/ computer-aided design system;
8
 − very high-speed integrated;
− circuit / ultra-high-speed integrated circuit.
The study of the lexical features of scientific and technical literature leads to
the conclusion that the most productive way of the appearance of scientific terms is
word formation. Having studied the various points of view of scientists on the
nature of the formation of term systems, the author believes that all the features of
this phenomenon should be taken into account. Depending on what terminology
field we are dealing with, we can observe how different mechanisms of term origin
are activated; in some cases, this happens according to the laws of natural
language, in others – as a result of term creation. It should also be noted that the
basis of the scientific text is the common vocabulary. Thanks to this, the language
of science retains its connection with the general literary language and does not
turn into a language understood only by specialists.
Among the linguistic characteristics that distinguish scientific and technical
texts from other types of text, most authors name the following: the complexity of
syntactic constructions, lexical, syntactic and compositional stereotyping.
subordination of aesthetic properties to the author's pragmatic attitudes and
intentions, regulated nature of the use of emotional possibilities, the predominance
of objectivity in the presentation, the combination of the non-subjective (non-
personal) the method of presentation with the expression of the subjective opinion
of the scientist( author), the widespread use of symbols of formulas, tables, etc. [6].
All these features are observed in English-language scientific texts.
As A. L. Pumpyansky notes, the most characteristic features of the English-
language scientific and technical text, which have received quite detailed coverage
in the linguistic literature and recorded in the analysis of the research material, are
the following:
1) complex syntactic constructions are represented in scientific and technical
texts mainly by complex sentences;
2) the complexity of the syntactic structure of the sentence can occur due to
the use of gerundial, participial and infinitive constructions;
9
 3) among the grammatical constructions in the English-language text, the
passive one prevails;
4) the use of syntactic and lexical cliches, special stable expressions that
create the logic of the narrative, ensure the coherence of the text (on the one hand,
on the other hand, for example, as we have seen, etc.) is noted [11].

1.2 Grammatical characteristics of scientific and technical texts

According to V. I. Karaban, grammatical difficulties in translating English-

language scientific and technical texts into Ukrainian are primarily caused by
grammatical differences in the original (English) and translation (Ukrainian)
languages, differences in their structure, in the set of their grammatical categories,
forms and constructions.That is why the translator of English-language scientific
and technical literature should be well acquainted with the grammatical features of
the source and target languages, the basics of translation theory in general and
scientific and technical translation in particular, as well as with translation
correspondences in the field of grammar and vocabulary, translation
transformations, methods of translation of various language and speech
phenomena, because, according to T. R. Kiyak, all this is part of the general
competence of the translator [4].
Since the translation of English-language scientific and technical texts must
fully comply with the generally accepted norms of the Ukrainian language,
grammatical transformations become an integral part of the translation act.We will
focus in more detail on the factors that cause the need to apply these
transformations, that is, on grammatical difficulties in translation.
Following V. I. Karaban, we divide all grammatical difficulties that arise
when translating English-language scientific and technical texts into Ukrainian into
the following groups:
− difficulties caused by differences in the structure of languages, in the
set of their grammatical categories, forms and constructions;
10
 − difficulties associated with different content volumes of similar forms
and constructions in two languages;
− difficulties caused by the presence of grammatical phenomena in the
language of the original text, which have functional characteristics
that differ from the corresponding grammatical phenomena of the
translation language;
− difficulties associated with grammatical phenomena that have
different frequency characteristics and are caused by discrepancies in
the linguistic and stylistic norms of texts in the original and translated
languages [4].
The belonging of English and Ukrainian to different branches of the Indo –
European family of languages (English – to Germanic, Ukrainian – to Slavic), as
well as to various structural types of languages (English – mainly analytical, where
grammatical relations in a sentence are transmitted by free grammatical
morphemes, and Ukrainian – synthetic, where grammatical meanings and relations
are transmitted using flexion-related grammatical morphemes), is the largest
complex of grammatical problems of translation. So, in the original language
(English) there are no adverbs, gender categories of nouns and adjectives, etc., and
in the translation language (Ukrainian) there are no articles that in the English
sentence signal the features of information distribution, there are also no gerund
and tense forms of verbs of the groups Continuous and Perfect, complex subject
and additional infinitive constructions.
The gerund is the most peculiar impersonal form in the English verb system,
it has no analogues in other languages. From the point of view of the comparative
typology of the Ukrainian and English languages, the gerund is an alomorphic
impersonal verb form, and therefore cannot be compared or contrasted with any
Ukrainian impersonal verb forms.V. N. Komissarov refers the gerund to non-
equivalent grammatical units, that is, those units that do not have regular
correspondences in the translation language. However, the absence of a similar
match for the gerund in Ukrainian is not an obstacle to establishing equivalence
11
relations between statements in the original language and the translation language.
This only means that it is impossible to use a similar form or literal translation and
therefore requires the use of transformational translation. It should also be noted
that English is characterized by grammatical homonymy, that is, the same verbs
can be semantic, auxiliary, semi-auxiliary or emphatically restrictive, such as the
word «todo». This also causes significant difficulties during translation, because
you need to choose the translation method depending on the function performed by
the word [26].
In English scientific and technical texts, passive state forms and non-
personal verb forms, participial turns and specific syntactic constructions, first-
person singular personal pronouns and monomial infinitive and nominative
sentences are used much more often than in Ukrainian ones. For example, the
forms of the passive state of the verb-predicate are translated in several ways
depending on the lexical and syntactic characteristics of the sentence: one of the
three indefinite-personal forms of the verb, the indefinite form of the verb, the
active state form of the verb-predicate, when the agent of the action indicated by
the predicate is expressed in the appendix.
So, in order to avoid the so-called grammatical literalism, that is, inadequate
literal translation, it is necessary to apply translation grammatical transformations,
as a result of which the literal translation adapts to the norms of the translation
language (Ukrainian) and becomes adequate. Grammatical transformation is
understood as a change in the grammatical characteristics of a word, phrase, or
sentence in translation. There are five main types of grammatical transformations:
permutation (permutation) – changing the order of words in a phrase or sentence;
Substitution (Substitution) – changing the grammatical features of word forms;
addition–increasing the number of words, word forms or sentence members during
translation, removing a complex transformation.
As a conclusion, it should be noted that the analysis of various features of
reproduction of grammatical phenomena of English-language scientific and
technical texts in Ukrainian, as well as methods of their translation, should be
12
carried out in the context of the sentence, since, firstly, the sentence is such a
language object that lends itself to systematic consideration, and, secondly, it is in
the sentence that the absolute majority of grammatical phenomena are reflected.
Since grammar is closely related to vocabulary, a significant number of
translation transformations are mixed in nature, that is, when translating, it is
necessary to simultaneously make both lexical and grammatical changes. That is
why we see the prospect of research in the analysis of lexical transformations that
are used in the translation of English-language scientific and technical literature.

Conclusions to Chapter 1

The texts of the scientific and technical sphere should be given special
attention, since they contain difficulties of significant interest, both for specialists
with experience, and for those who are just going to connect their lives with the
translation of these texts . First, the difficulty is authenticity, since the texts present
a large layer of terminology; it is necessary to understand the processes described
in the original text and with the same reliability and accuracy.
The accuracy of transmitting all the details to the target language. Secondly,
although the terms are unambiguous, but in different fields of science they have
different translation options. In addition to terms, there are also literal terms, word-
terms, and abbreviations-terms.

13
 CHAPTER 2. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION OF
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TEXTS
2.1 Current issues of translation of scientific and technical texts

Translation of a foreign language text is always fraught with many

difficulties, which stand in the way of the translator. When translating, all the
subtleties of the foreign language must be taken into account. The task of the
translator is to feel the style of the article, to convey all the subtleties of the
translated material without distorting the original source. One of the most difficult
types of translation are scientific and technical translations, since the correct
interpretation of the material into another language requires not only linguistic, but
also technical knowledge. Technical translation is the translation of technical texts,
in particular, documents of various specializations, various reference literature,
dictionaries, certificates of conformity of products, operating instructions,
engineering plans, scientific and technical articles, business contracts and other
commercial technical proposals. The technical text cannot be free retelling, even
while preserving the meaning of the translated document. Such a text should not
contain any emotional statements or subjective assessments. The main features of
the translation of scientific and technical texts are manifested in the mandatory
knowledge of the translator of all terms related to a specific technical field of
translation. A specialist working with a scientific and technical text should
understand not only the meaning of the translated words, but also take into account
all the nuances of them applications. A translator working with a scientific and
technical text should be familiar not only with linguistics, but also with technical
disciplines. When translating scientific and technical literature, you should always
maintain the style of the original document. Usually, all documents of a scientific
and technical nature have the main features. Among them, it is worth noting the
clear and concise nature of the presentation, the strict use of technical terminology,
and the clear logical sequence of information, unambiguity and concreteness in the

14
interpretation of facts. In scientific and technical translation, the variety of epithets,
technical translation from one word, is categorically excluded. The translation
from one language to another must be precise and logical. It is very important not
only to convey the essence of the text, but also to avoid minor inaccuracies [26].
Significant difficulties in translating technical documentation or scientific
papers arise, even if the word has several meanings. To choose something that
does not distort not only the meaning of the translation, but also gives the correct
interpretation of the term for a specific technical case is the skill of the translator.
After all, sometimes technical terminology can put a person with an engineering
education in a difficult position, especially if completely different meanings of the
same word are used in different technical fields. It should be noted that often it is
necessary to take into account regional semantic differences, because the
translation of the same term may sound different for different countries.
Another important problem is the presence of abbreviations or abbreviations
in the texts, which will be discussed later, which are not always clear even to
technical specialists. These abbreviations and abbreviations can become an
insurmountable barrier to high-quality translation. For example, in English
technical literature, all parts of speech are reduced: assembly-assy, without-w/o,
weight to volume – w/v and so on. At the same time, in the Ukrainian technical
documentation it is difficult to find such abbreviations as «documents – docks»,
«information – infa» and others, which is unacceptable from the stylistic point of
view of the Ukrainian language and its inherent scientific and technical style.
Many difficulties arise with the translation of new technical words that have not
yet officially taken root in our country. In this case, the specialist has to search and
choose a variety of suitable thematic Ukrainian words that fully correspond to the
original source.
The difficulty of scientific and technical translation is that the translation
must to be performed in the manner of presentation adopted in this field. Any
deviation from the accepted formulations and terms becomes obvious, so the
replacement of the specified language expressions for synonyms are not allowed. It
15
is generally assumed that the technical literature is characterized by a neutral way
of presenting the material or neutral style, when the author of a scientific and
technical article seeks to exclude the possibility of arbitrary interpretation of the
subject, without using stylistic figures inherent in artistic works, which gives the
speech a lively, imaginative character. However, according to A.V. Fedorov, the
concept of a «neutral style», that is, the style of dry, devoid of imagery,
emotionality – is a relative concept, because the very absence of these properties is
a distinct, although negative, stylistic feature; at the same time, there is also a
positive characteristic feature [20].
Since a scientific and technical text is characterized by a logical, formal,
almost mathematical presentation of the material, this presentation can be called
formally logical. Many people criticize this style of presentation, forgetting that
technical texts are intended for specialists with appropriate knowledge, and for
which deviation from the usual way of presenting the material makes it difficult to
understand the facts.
The style of the language is understood as a complex interweaving of two
factors – that Ya. I. Retsker gave the first definition of style. According to him,
«style is a lexical and grammatical unity in the variety of texts, which turns out to
be characteristic of a certain category of texts». The style of modern English
technical literature is based on the norms of English written language.
A language with certain specific characteristics in vocabulary, grammar, and
the way the material is presented. The vocabulary uses a large number of special
terms and words of non-Anglo-Saxon origin. Words are selected with great care
for the most accurate transmission of thought. Service words and words that
provide logical connections between the individual elements of utterances have a
great deal of weight. Special importance is given to the abbreviation as a special
type of nominative signs. In grammar, only grammatical norms that are firmly
established in written speech are used. Passive, impersonal, and vaguely personal
constructions are widespread. For the most part, they are used compound and

16
compound sentences that are dominated by the noun, adjective, and non-personal
forms of the verb.

2.2 Peculiarities of translation of English scientific and technical texts

The translation of any text from the source language to another requires
taking into account the original's belonging to a certain functional style with the
language means adopted for it, which do not always coincide with the language
means characteristic of a similar style in the translating language. In particular, the
specificity of the scientific and technical style is determined by its informativeness,
logic, objectivity and, as a result, clarity and comprehensibility. This, in turn,
determines the choice of language options, where, first of all, the leading role of
terminology should be noted. The linguistic nature of terms is determined, firstly,
by their unconditional belonging to the lexical system of the literary language, and
secondly, by their extreme information saturation.
The main requirement for terms is their unambiguity.
However, the terminological quality may not be only the vocabulary
characteristic of the scientific and technical sphere, for example: acetylene,
chronopher, elastomer, fenestration, halogen, but also special meanings of
common words such as bench (workbench), fault (tectonic disturbance, fault),
immersion (the entry of one non-linear body into the shadow of another), key (pin,
key, check), etc. Such phenomena are explained by the fact that terms do not
function simply in the language, but are part of a certain terminology. And if
outside of it the word can be polysemantic, then, falling into the terminological
framework, it acquires unambiguity. Unlike the usual vocabulary, the term does
not need a context and can even be used in isolation, such as in the texts of
technical registers and orders, because its unambiguity is realized within certain
terminological boundaries, which in essence replace its context. Note, that the
same term can be included in different terminologies of the same language. This

17
phenomenon is called inter-scientific terminological homonymy. For example,
assimilation (assimilation) a) in biology means the formation of complex
substances in the body from simpler ones; b) in sociology-the adoption of an ethnic
or racial group of culture to the mining, as a rule, a larger group, the result of
which is the absorption of a smaller group and its culture; c) in psychology-the
assimilation material due to its inclusion in already existing patterns of behavior;
d) in the economy-the acquisition of new securities by investors after their
complete sale by a syndicate of underwriters. A more difficult case for the
translator is the terms that belong to to various scientific fields, change their
meaning when translated. So, the term power in general physics means «energy»,
«power», in optics – «magnifying power of the lens», in mathematics – «degree».
The English system of term formation is characterized by the use of a
number of affixes that are unproductive or completely absent in the common
language. For example, such noun suffixes as-ment (casement – binding) are
widely used sash window),- ance (impedance-wave resistance), -ence
(decalescence – decalactone (absorption of heat in alotropicas transformations of
matter)), the prefix as-, not in common English but use the wider scientific and
technical texts with the participle of the past tense relevance «as purchased after
action, expressed by the participle»: as-brazed – (directly) after high-temperature
soldering; as-grown - (directly) after growing (about the crystal) , etc. In modern
English, much attention is paid to the systematization of new terms for concepts or
objects of a certain class through the development of special rules for their
formation. Thus, chemical terms denoting acids usually end in-ic / - ous (ferric
acid, sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, etc.), the names of salts-in-ite / - ate (sulfi te,
borate, nitrate, etc.). A number of specialized electronic devices are named with
the-tron element, for example: additron, ignitron, skiatron, etc [24].
In addition to one-word terms, word combinations are widely used, which
are created by adding specific features to the base word. As a result, «peculiar
terminological nests» are formed, covering numerous varieties of the designated
phenomenon. For example, the English term radar station (radar, radar; radar
18
installation) is used as the basis for a number of terms that characterize the activity
of this navigation and direction-finding device: radar, barrier, deception radar,
Echo radar, radar fades, glitter radars, radar jamming, etc. Semantic connections
between the components of terminological phrases can be grammatically formed,
which greatly facilitates the task of the translator, allowing you to avoid
inaccuracies in the interpretation of terms. Grammatical design is transmitted using
suffixes (abrasive blade, lime marl, headless screw ).
Prepositions (accommodation inaccuracies to build up by welding, changes
in the direction of fast alkali, etc.), endings (back-to clean the screen, fading
fluctuation fall mass, hydrometric stations, etc.). However, a high percentage of
English scientific-technical terminology is composed of a multi-component terms
that represent a sequence of words without any grammatical relations between
them, for example: next database error step (engineering) – the error the underlying
field; jet the propulsion system deflection (aerospace engineering) - engine-injector
traction system; lever gun welding head-welding) - lever welding gun (for spot
welding); parallel plate electronic multiplier (electronics) - electronic multiplier
with parallel plates, etc. In most cases, the translation of such terms is carried out
in accordance with the rule of translation of the sequence of nouns, when the main
defined word is usually at the end of the string of components, and the others
standing to the left before it are its modifiers (determinants). Thus, the translation
is carried out in the process of transition from the last word to the first, with the
addition of missing semantic elements in the context in accordance with the norms
of the Ukrainain language, for example: ignition of the electric connector of the
switch (motor transport engineering) - connecting thread of the ignition switch;
Jacquard circular knitting machine (tile Tex) - jacquard circular knitting machine;
control machine diagram (KIP and A) - control scheme of the machine; - neutron
capture cross-section (nuclear technology and engineering)-cross-section for
neutron capture; oil rig supply vessel (naval vessels) - vessel providing floating oil
installations; quality assessment methods – quality assessment methods; water
recirculation system (commercial vehicle) – water recirculation system, etc [25].
19
 However, it should be noted that an adequate translation of multicomponent
terms depends to a large extent on the background knowledge of the translator
himself, since there are often cases when some modifiers (definitions) do not refer
to the main defined word, for example: radio wave speed measurement (radio
engineering) - radio wave speed measurement; rear hood cover (automotive
engineering) - rearhood cover; safety speed test (quality control) - speed safety
test; TV image monitor (TV equipment) - TV image monitor; vacuum brake
cylinder-vacuum brake cylinder; etc. In English-language technical texts, there are
synonymous pairs, when translating which it is possible to omit one of the words.
These pairings include: accuracy and accuracy; limitations and limitations;
drawbacks and disadvantages; improve and increase; object and purpose; variable
and volatile. If it is obvious from the context that the synonymous pair expresses a
high degree of quality, then it is permissible to add the adverb very, quite, quite,
enough, extremely, very, extremely, etc. For example: Installation of the
automation equipment must be performed neatly and carefully to assure
dependable operation throughout its service life. The installation of automatic
equipment should be carried out very carefully to ensure its reliable operation
throughout its entire service life.
The English scientific and technical style is also characterized by a number
of grammatical features. For example, the definition of abstract concepts and
natural phenomena occurs through an indication of their properties, i.e. structures
of the type A is B with a composite nominal predicate are used: The X-ray is a
type of radiation that can pass through objects that are not transparent and make it
possible to see inside them; The yard is a unit of linear measure equal to 3 feet
(0.9144 meter) etc. The noun component is often an adjective or prepositional turn:
The water turbine is steel; The wires are copper; This camera is of very high
resolution; etc. The negative form is often formed by the particle non -, used
instead of the usual negation is not: It is a distinctly non-trivial fact that every
bound linear operator T in a refl exive B-space admits a duality theory of type 4;

20
These are non-empirical concepts, logical concepts; Thus, the mechanism of heat
transfer process is non-diffusion one; etc.
The predominance of nominal structures in the English scientific and
technical style allows us to speak about its characteristic nominativity, which is
also manifested in the fact that often the function of the real description of the
action is transferred to the name, and the desemantized verb carries only the
general meaning of processality. For example, in scientific and technical texts,
there is a wide use of so-called «operator verbs» (to assure, to effect, to entail, to
give, to imply, to involve, to lead to, to obtain, to perform, to provide, to result in,
etc.), whose the meaning and translation completely depends on the nouns that
carry the main semantic load in the sentence: to entail losses – to entail losses / to
entail risk – to be associated with risk; to give a lev el – to go into horizontal
flight / to give rise to smth. Generate, cause something; to involve a loss-cause
losses / to involve a selection - assume a choice; to perform an analysis-perform an
analysis / to perform a test – perform a test; etc.
The tendency to nominatively also leads to the replacement of dialects
before a false name combinations: exactly, with precision (in addition, warm
rolling allows you to produce semi-finished products from the finished sheet
improved accuracy.), very easy with the greatest ease / easy way (He designed for
the customer to do this the easy way...) etc. except for the part are determined only
intensifying adverbs, acting in scientific and technical texts as the main modal-
expressive tool. These include: clearly, completely, significantly, substantially,
fairly, significantly, meaningfully - skilfully, noticeably, materially, perfectly,
positively, intelligently, etc.:
The nominative nature of scientific and technical texts does not imply the
absence of personal forms of verbs in them, although according to some estimates
their number is half that of literary works of the same volume. In the works on
linguistics, the predominance of passive forms and forms of the present simple
time in the English scientific and technical style has also been repeatedly noted, for
example: The welding process largely depends on the properties of metals;
21
welding processes are classified according to the heat and pressure sources used;
welding processes include gas welding, arc welding, contact welding, etc. When
translating, special attention should be paid to the use of transitive verbs in special
texts in an intransitive form with a passive meaning: These filters are easily
adapted to the automatic processing of many materials: Steel is well forged; The
device must be checked for adequate wiring; etc., and the problem of representing
rational numbers in full forms is significantly simplified and solved.
Due to the use of the new method, the angular length of the passages for the
working flow of mediators has significantly increased; these effects are noticeably
reduced with the simultaneous administration of a peripheral LAAD inhibitor, etc.
The next specific feature of the scientific and technical style is the desire for
brevity and compactness of presentation, which, in particular, is expressed in a
fairly wide use of elliptical structures, for example: a remote crane a remote-
operated crane; a liquid rocket a liquid-fueled rocket, etc. This trend is also
reflected in the replacement of determinative subordinate clauses with adjectives /
participles / infinitives in the postposition: excellent properties never before
attainable; problems diffi cult with ordinary equipment; the most common welding
process used today; the welding processes widely employed today; edges to be
joined; the temperature to be obtained, etc.
For the English scientific and technical style, there are many cases of
skipping the article, especially the definite one, and where its use would seem to be
absolutely necessary: First uranium mine in the region was… The article is often
omitted before the names of scientific fields: ...in such fields as civil engineering,
telecommunications, standardization..; as well as in technical descriptions and
tools before the designations of specific parts: Armstrong Traps have long-live
parts, valve and seat are heat treated chrome steel…
It should be noted wide use of the plural material nouns (fats (fats),
lubricants (lubricating ve society), sand (sandy soil), wool (fiber), etc.), the use of
the pretext for the expression of species-tribal relations (the oxidizer, liquid
oxygen, fuel, kerosene), the prevalence of the attribute from cetani with the words
22
type, design, sample, brand: passthrough type furnace eliminated the cooling of the
workpiece at a low speed of delivery; also, this service was used for military radio
and telephone equipment miscella the formation of spare parts and batteries
($400,000); this is an example of the problem that had to be addressed at the
software level design, each of the seed fuel elements has 14 cores, which includes
enriched uranium or reactor-grade plutonium, etc.
Consistency and validity of an scientific tion style, also suggest a high
incidence of cause-and-investigative unions and logical connections of the type
since, therefore, it follows that, so, thus, it implies / involves / leads to / results in,
etc. in the scientific and technical the texts, for example: Since we end with F, it
follows that all the even conver gents F are less than F, and all the odd convergents
are greater than F; Here it implies that the energy can pass back and forth from
oscillator to oscillator (mode to mode) as if at random; First, pressure in the system
is pumped out to reach the pressure of liquid vapors (lower level does not make
sense, as it leads to electrolyte boiling); etc [25].
All the above-mentioned lexical and grammatical features have a direct
impact on the communicative nature of scientific and technical materials and
should be taken into account when translating.
Conclusions to Chapter 2

The linguistic and stylistic analysis of the text of the instruction revealed the
presence of lexical and grammatical features characteristic of the scientific and
technical style. Lexical features include the use of terminology, abbreviations,
technical neologisms, and false friends of the translator. It is worth noting that
lexical means of expression are practically not used in the texts of instructions.
Analyzing the grammar of a scientific and technical text cannot be omitted
from the use of firmly established grammatical norms. Also, passive and gerundial
turns, modal, impersonal and not definitely personal constructions are widely
distributed. The connection between the sentences and in the text itself is carried
out by means of cohesion and coherence. Regarding the structural and
compositional analysis of the text of the English-language technical structure, it
23
was revealed that there is a clear structure throughout the text, which tells us about
the uniformity of the text.

24
 CONCLUSIONS

The scientific and technical style is characterized by a logical sequence of

presentation, an ordered system of connections between the parts of the statement,
the authors ' desire for accuracy, conciseness, unambiguity while maintaining the
richness of the content. The style of modern English scientific and technical
literature is based on the norms of the English written language:
1) vocabulary.
2) grammar.
3) the method of presentation of the material. The main task of scientific and
technical literature is to bring certain information to the readers very clearly and
accurately.
a) defining the values of all the components of the term from right to left,
starting with the main component being defined;
b) finding and separating in the general chain of components of possible
terminological phrases that are the defining elements of the main component of the
term in this term (such terminological phrases are also called internal or
secondary);
c) establishing links between all the components of the term, including the
internal links of secondary terminological phrases, taking into account the fact that
these links are not linear (or rather, not always linear), but "score" (as in any phrase
and utterance);
d) synthesis of the semantic content of the entire term around the main
component;
Ukrainian equivalent of the term, the structure of which is determined by the
norms of the Ukrainian language, as well as the norm and usage of a particular
term system.
Often in scientific and technical texts there are various abbreviations:
abbreviations and acronyms. Usually there is also given their interpretation, if it is
not, then the translation of abbreviations is checked by terminology dictionaries.
25
 The translation of scientific and technical texts must correctly convey the
meaning of the original in a form that is as close as possible to the form of the
original. Deviations should be justified by the peculiarities of the Russian
language, the requirements of the style. The translation as a whole should not be
either a literal or a loose retelling of the original, although elements of both are
necessarily present. It is important not to lose the essential information of the
original.

26
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3. Горшунов Ю.В. Прагматика аббревиатуры: автореф. дис. ... д-ра филол.
наук / Ю.В. Горшунов. – М., 2000. – 32 с.
4. Карабан В.І. Переклад англійської наукової і технічної літератури Частина
ІІ: Лексичні, термінологічні та жанрово-стилістичні труднощі. Вінниця :
«Нова книга», 2001. 304 с.
5. Квитко И.С. Термин в научном документе. Львов : Изд-во «Вища школа»,
1976. 125 с.
6. Корунець І. В. Теорія і практика перекладу (аспектний переклад) :
[підручник] / І. В. Корунець. – Вінниця : Нова книга, 2001. – 448 с.
7. Корунець І.В. A Course in the Theory and Practice of Translation / Теорія і
практика перекладу. — К.: Вища освіта, 1986. — 435 с.
8. Корунець І.В. Theory and Practice of Translation. — Вінниця: Нова книга,
2001. — 447 с.
9. Левицкая Т.Р. Теория и практика перевода с английского на русский / Т.Р.
Левицкая, А.М. Фитерман – М.: Изд-во л-ры на иностранных языках,
1963. – 125 с.
10.Наер В.Л. К описанию функционально–стилевой системы современного
английского языка // Лингвостилистические особенности научного текста.
- М.: 1981. С. 3 – 13.
11.Пумлянский А.Л. Введение в практику перевода научной и технической
литературы на английский язык / А.Л. Пумлянский. – М.: Наука, 1965. –
304 с.
12.Рецкер Я.И. Методика технического перевода / Я.И. Рецкер – М.: Дрофа,
2007. – С. 14-20.

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13.Черноватий Л.М. Переклад англомовної технічної літератури. Вінниця :
Нова книга, 2006. 296 с.
14.Шевчук С.В., Клименко І.В. Українська мова за професійним
спрямуванням : Підручник. 2-ге вид., виправ. і доповнен. К. : Алерта,
2011. 696 с.
15.Cabre M. Teresa (Maria Teresa) Terminology : theory, methods, and
applications / M. Teresa Cabre. ed. by Juan C. Sager ; translated by Janet Ann
DeCesaris. John Benjamins Publishing Co. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1999.
249 p.
16.Catford J.C. A linguistic theory of translation. An essay in applied linguistics.
Oxford University Press, 1965. 103 p. 12. Coxhead A. The academic word list.
URL : https://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist.
17.Gardner D., Davies M. Academic vocabulary lists. URL :
https://www.academicwords.info/
18.Gotti M. Investigating specialized discourse 3rd rev. ed. Bern [etc.] : Peter
Lang, cop. 2011. 230 p.
19.Halliday M.A.K., R. Hasan Language, context, and text: aspects of language in
a social-semiotic perspective. Oxford University Press, 1991. 126 p.
20.Hann M. The key to technical translation Vol. 2 Terminology/Lexicography/ by
Michael Hann. John Benjamins Publishing Co. Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
1992. 248 p.
21.Pieńkos J. Podstawy przekładoznawstwa: od teorii do praktyki. Kantor
wydawniczy ZAKAMYCZE, 2003. 494 s.
22.Olohan M. Scientific and Technical Translation: a coursebook. Routledge
Translation and Interpreting Guides, 2016. 253 p.
23.Perham S. Hydrogen giving reduced carbon emissions from vehicles.
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies. № 7. 2012. P. 23–27.
24.Specialist languages in use and translation Edited by Lycuna Wille and Marta
Pikor-Niedziałek. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszówskiego Rzeszów 2014.
178 s.
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25.Text typology and translation Vol. 26 / Ed. by Anna Trosbog. John Benjamins
Publishing Co, 1997. 345 p.
26.Komissarov, V.N. (2001), Sovremennoe perevodovedenie [Modern translation],
EТS, Moscow, Russia.
27.Schweitzer, A.D. (1973), Perevod i lingvistika [Translation and linguistics],
Voenizdat, Moscow, Russia.
28.Ranni D.W. The Elements of Style. (An Introduction to Literary Criticism) /
D.W. Ranni. – London, 1951. Ranni, D.W. (1951), “The Elements of Style”,
London, England.

29
 ANNEXES
Examples of scientific and technical texts
Text 1 GEODESY
The scientific objective of geodesy is to determine the size and shape of the
Earth. The practical role of geodesy is to provide a network of accurately surveyed
points on the Earth’s surface, the vertical elevations and geographic positions of
which are precisely known and, in turn, may be incorporated in maps. When two
geographic coordinates of a control point on the Earth’s surface, its latitude and
longitude, are known as well as its elevation above sea level, the location of that
point is known with accuracy within the limits of error involved in the surveying
processes. In mapping large areas, such as a whole state or country, the
irregularities in the curvature of the Earth must be considered. A network of
precisely surveyed control points provides a skeleton to which other surveys may
be tied to provide progressively finer networks of more closely space points. The
resulting networks of points have many uses, including anchor points or bench
marks for surveys of highways and other civil features. A major use of control
points is to provide reference points to which the contour lines and other features
of topographic maps are tied. Most topographic maps are made using
photogrammetric techniques and aerial photographs. The Earth’s figure is that of a
surface called the geoid, which over the Earth is the average sea level at each
location; under the continents the geoid is an imaginary continuation of sea level.
The geoid is not a uniform spheroid, however, because of the existence of
irregularities in the attraction of gravity from place to place on the Earth’s surface.
These irregularities of the geoid would bring about serious errors in the surveyed
location of control points if astronomical methods, which involve use of the local
horizon, were used solely in determining locations. Because of these irregularities,
the reference surface used in geodesy is that of a regular mathematical surface, an
ellipsoid of revolution that fits the geoid as closely as possible. This reference
ellipsoid is below the geoid in some places and above it in the others. Over the
oceans, mean sea level defines the geoid surface, but over the land areas the geoid
30
is an imaginary sea-level surface. Today perturbations in the motions of artificial
satellites are used to define the global geoid and gravity pattern with a high degree
of accuracy. Geodetic satellites are positioned at a height of 700-800 kilometers
above the Earth. Simultaneous range observations from several laser stations fix
the position of a satellite, and radar altimeters measure directly its height over the
oceans. Results show that the geoid is irregular; in places its surface is up to 100
metres higher than the ideal reference ellipsoid and elsewhere it is as much as 100
metres below it. The most likely explanation for this height 4 variation is that the
gravity (and density) anomalies are related to mantle convection and temperature
differences at depth. An important observation that confirms this interpretation is
that there is a close correlation between the gravity anomalies and the surface
expression of the Earth’s plate boundaries. This also strengthens the idea that the
ultimate driving force of tectonic plate is a large-scale circulation of the mantle. A
similar satellite ranging technique is also used to determine the drift rates of
continents. Repeated measurements of laser light travel times between ground
stations and satellites permit the relative movement of different control blocks to
be calculated.
Notes:
1. The curvature of the Earth – кривизна Землі;
2. Bench mark – опорна відмітка рівня;
3. Сivil features – будівельні роботи;
4. Reference point – початкова точка відліку;
5. Perturbation – відхилення;
6. Artificial satellite – штучний супутник;
7. High degree of accuracy – високий ступінь точності;
8. Reference ellipsoid – референц–еліпсоїд.

31
 Text 2 HISTORY OF SURVEYING
Surveying can be determined as a means of making relatively large-scale,
accurate measurements of the Earth’s surfaces. It includes the determination of the
measurement data, the reduction and interpretation of the data to usable form, and,
conversely, the establishment of relative position and size according to given
measurement requirements. Thus, surveying has two similar but opposite
functions: 1) the determination of existing relative horizontal and vertical position,
such as that used for the process of mapping, and 2) the establishment of marks to
control construction or to indicate land boundaries. Surveying has been an essential
element in the development of the human environment for so many centuries that
its importance is often forgotten. It is an imperative requirement in the planning
and execution of nearly every form of construction. Surveying was essential at the
dawn of history, and some of the most significant scientific discoveries could
never have been implemented were it not for the contribution of surveying. Its
principal modern uses are in the fields of transportation, building, apportionment
of land, and communications. It is quite probable that surveying had its origin in
ancient Egypt. The Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza was built about 2700 BC, 755
feet (230 5 metres) long and 481 feet (147 metres) high. Its nearly perfect
squareness and north-south orientation affirm the ancient Egyptians’ command of
surveying. Evidence of some form of boundary surveying as early as 1400 BC has
been found in the fertile valleys and plains of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile rivers.
Clay tablets of the Sumerians show records of land measurement and plans of
cities and nearby agricultural areas. Boundary stones marking land plots have been
preserved. There is a representation of land measurement on the wall of a tomb at
Thebes (1400 BC) showing head and rear chainmen measuring a grainfield with
what appears to be a rope with knots or marks at uniform intervals. There is some
evidence that in addition to a marked cord, wooden rods were used by the
Egyptians for distance measurement. There is no record of any angle-measuring
instruments, but there was a level consisting of a vertical wooden A-frame with a
plumb bob supported at the peak of the A so that its cord hung past an indicator, or
32
index, on the horizontal bar. The index could be properly placed by standing the
device on two supports at approximately the same elevation, marking the position
of the cord, reversing the A, and making a similar mark. Halfway between the two
marks would be the correct place for the index. Thus, with their simple devices, the
ancient Egyptians were able to measure land areas, replace property corners lost
when the Nile covered the markers with silt during floods, and build the huge
pyramids to exact dimensions. The Greeks used a form of log line for recording the
distances run from point to point along the coast while making their slow voyages
from the Indus to the Persian Gulf about 325 BC. The magnetic compass was
brought to the West by Arab traders in the 12th century AD. The astrolabe was
introduced by the Greeks in the 2nd century BC. An instrument for measuring the
altitudes of stars, or their angle of elevation above the horizon, took the form of a
graduated arc suspended from a hand-held cord. A pivoted pointer that moved over
the graduations was pointed at the star. The instrument was not used for nautical
surveying for several centuries, remaining a scientific aid only. The Greeks also
possibly originated the use of the groma, a device used to establish right angles,
but Roman surveyors made it a standard tool. It was made of a horizontal wooden
cross pivoted at the middle and supported from above. From the end of each of the
four arms hung a plumb bob. By sighting along each pair of plumb bob cords in
turn, the right angle could be established. The device could be adjusted to a precise
right angle by observing the same angle after turning the device approximately
90°. By shifting one of the cords to take up half the error, a perfect angle would
result. About 15 BC the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius mounted a large
wheel of known circumference in a small frame, in much the same fashion as the
wheel is mounted on a wheelbarrow; when it was pushed along the ground 6 by
hand it automatically dropped a pebble into a container at each revolution; giving a
measure of the distance traveled. It was, in effect, the first odometer. The water
level consisted of either a trough or a tube turned upward at the ends and filled
with water. At each end there was a sight made of crossed horizontal and vertical
slits. When these were lined up just above the water level, the sights determined a
33
level line accurate enough to establish the grades of the roman aqueducts. In laying
out their great road system, the Romans are said to have used the plane table. It
consists of a drawing board mounted on a tripod or other stable support and of a
straightedge – usually with sights for accurate aim (the alidade) to the objects to be
mapped – along which lines are drawn. It was the first device capable of recording
or establishing angles. Later adaptations of the plane table had magnetic compasses
attached. Plane tables were in use in Europe in the 16th century, and the principle
of graphic triangulation and intersection was practiced by surveyors. In 1615
Willebrord Snell, a Dutch mathematician, measured an arc of meridian by
instrumental triangulation. In 1620 the English mathematician Edmund Gunter
developed a surveying chain, which was superseded only by the steel tape
beginning in the late 19th century. The study of astronomy resulted in the
development of angle-reading devices that were based on arcs of large radii,
making such instruments too large for field use. With the publication of
logarithmic tables in 1620, portable angle-measuring instruments came into use.
They were called topographic instruments, or theodolites. They included pivoted
arms for sighting and could be used for measuring both horizontal and vertical
angles. Magnetic compasses may have been included on some. The vernier, an
auxiliary scale permitting more accurate readings (1631), the micrometer
microscope (1638), telescopic sights (1669), and spirit levels (about 1700) were all
incorporated in theodolites by about 1720. Stadia hairs were first applied by James
Watt in 1771. The development of the circledividing engine about 1775, a device
for dividing a circle into degrees with great accuracy, brought one of the greatest
advances in surveying methods, as it enabled angle measurements to be made with
portable instruments far more accurately than had previously been possible.
Modern surveying can be said to have begun by the late 18th century. One of the
most notable early feats of surveyors was the measurement in the 1790s of the
meridian from Barcelona, Spain, to Dunkirk, France, by two French engineers,
Jean Delambre and Pierre Méchain, to establish the basic unit for the metric system
of measurement. Many improvements and refinements have been incorporated in
34
all the basic surveying instruments. These have resulted in increased accuracy and
speed of operations and opened up possibilities for improved methods in the 7
field. In addition to modification of existing instruments, two revolutionary
mapping and surveying changes were introduced: photogrammetry, or mapping
from aerial photographs (about 1920), and electronic distance measurement,
including the adoption of the laser for this purpose as well as for alignment (in the
1960s). Important technological developments starting in the late 20th century
include the use of satellites as reference points for geodetic surveys and electronic
computers to speed the processing and recording of survey data.
Notes:
1. Measurement data – дані вимірювань;
2. Apportionment of land – розподіл земель;
3. Boundary surveying – межування земель;
4. Land plot – земельна частка;
5. Nautical surveying – гідрографічна зйомка;
6. Сircumference – окружність;
7. Оdometer – вимірювальне колесо;
8. Plane table – мензула;
9. Vernier – верн’єр;
10. Telescopic sight – візирна труба;
11. Spirit level – спиртовий рівень;
12. Stadia hairs – далекомірні нитки;
13. Аlignment – візування.

35