Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aperiodic signal:
A signal that does not repeat at a definite interval of time is called aperiodic signal.
Continuous domain:
A Continuous time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
P
If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
𝟐𝛑
Fundamental time period 𝐓 = , where Ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec
Ω
AP
Discrete domain:
A Discrete time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑁 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic
R
𝟐𝛑𝐦
Fundamental time period 𝐍 = , where ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec, 𝑚 is
𝛚
smallest positive integer that makes N as positive integer
CO
Energy signal:
The signal which has finite energy and zero average power is called energy signal. The
non periodic signals like exponential signals will have constant energy and so non periodic
U
3
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
𝑇
1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
For Discrete time signals,
𝑁
1 2
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = lim 𝑥(𝑛)
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁
1.2.6 Deterministic and Random signals
Deterministic signal:
A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainity over the signal at any
P
instant of time i.e., its instantaneous value can be predicted. It can be represented by
mathematical equation.
AP
Example: sinusoidal signal
Random signal
Deterministic signal
ST
Continuous domain:
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal if it is defined for t≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for t< 0 or for both
𝑡 < 0 and 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑡 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
When a non-causal signal is defined only for t<0, it is called as anti-causal signal
4
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
Discrete domain:
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for n≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for n< 0
or for both n < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
When a non-causal signal is defined only for n<0, it is called as anti-causal signal
P
1.3 Basic(Elementary or Standard) continuous time signals
AP
1.3.1 Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as
u (t)
𝑢 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 1
R
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
0 t
CO
. r (t)
.
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
ST
3
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
2
0 1 2 3 . . t
Unit ramp signal
5
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
p(t)
:
4.5
𝑡2
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 2
2
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 0.5
0 1 2 3... t
Relation between Unit Step signal, Unit ramp signal and Unit Parabolic signal:
P
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
AP
Unti Parabolic signal is obtained by integrating unit ramp signal
𝑡2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑝(𝑡)
2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑝 𝑡 = = 2𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2
1 1
∏ 𝑡 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤
2
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒
ST
-1/2 1/2 t
𝛿 𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
∞
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
6
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝟎)
−∞
Proof:
∞
P
−∞
Thus proved
Property 2:
AP
∞
𝒙(𝒕)𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕𝟎 )
−∞
Proof:
R
∞
𝑥(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 𝑡0 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 0 = 𝑥 𝑡0
CO
−∞
∵ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 0 = 1
Thus proved
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛺𝑡 + 𝛷 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺𝑡 + 𝛷
ST
2π
where Ω = 2πf = and Ω is angular frequency in rad/sec
T
f is frequency in cycles/sec or Hertz and
A is amplitude
T is time period in seconds
𝛷 is phase angle in radians
t
t
-A
-A
7
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal
Depending on the value of ‘a’ we get dc signal or growing exponential signal or decaying
exponential signal
P
x(t) a=0 x(t) a>0 x(t) a<0
AP
A t A t A t
A A
t t
ST
A A
t t
8
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
P
1.4.1 Step signal
AP
Unit Step signal is defined as
u(n)
𝑢 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
1
. . .
R
0 1 2 3 4 n
2 . . .
1
0 1 2 3 4 n
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 A
. . . . . .
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒
n1 -1 0 1 n2 n
Pulse signal
9
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
𝛿 𝑛 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0
P
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛)
2π
where 𝜔 = 2πf = m and 𝜔 is frequency in radians/sample
AP
N
m is smallest integer
f is frequency in cycles/sample, A is amplitude
Cosinusoidal signal Sinusoidal signal
R
CO
Sinusoidal signal
Cosinusoidal signal
10
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
P
Exponentially decreasing Cosinusoidal signal
Exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal
AP
R
CO
11
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
Response 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡
where 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal, 𝑦(𝑡) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
𝑥(𝑡) T 𝑦(𝑡)
P
The signal 𝑥(𝑛) is transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑛), this transformation can be
expressed as,
AP
Response 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛
where x(n) is input signal, y(n) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
𝑥(𝑛) T 𝑦(𝑛)
Fig 1.85 Representation of discrete time system
R
1.5.2 Linear system and Non Linear system
Continuous time domain:
Linear system:
CO
12
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
P
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + 𝑥(2𝑡)
Static system: AP
Discrete time domain:
R
A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to
present input alone.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛)
CO
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑛) + 𝑥(2𝑛)
1.5.4 Time invariant (Shift invariant) and Time variant (Shift variant) system
ST
13
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
P
AP
1.5.5 Causal and Non-Causal system
Continuous time domain:
Causal system:
A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future
input and future output.
R
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 3𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
A system is said to be causal if impulse response (𝑡) is zero for negative values of 𝑡
CO
A system is said to be non-causal if impulse response (𝑡) is non-zero for negative values of 𝑡
i.e., (𝑡) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
ST
Non-Causal system:
A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
14
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
P
𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 < (𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 < ∞
−∞
If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
AP
Discrete time domain:
A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
Every bounded input yields bounded output.
Impulse response should be absolutely summable
∞
R
𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 < (𝑘) < ∞
𝑘=−∞
CO
If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡; 𝑡 ≥ 0
r(t) r(t+3)
: :
: 4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0 1 2 3 ... t
-3 -2 -1 0 1 ... t
15
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
P
AP
R
CO
𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝑟 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑟(−𝑡 + 2)
U
= 0 + 4 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ −1
= 0 + 3 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0
= 0 + 2 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
ST
= 3𝑡 + 1 − 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
= 3 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3
= 6 + 3𝑡 + 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4
and so on
Fig 1.163
16
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
4. Check whether the following is periodic or not. If periodic, determine fundamental time
period
P
a. 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒕
Here Ω1 = 5, Ω2 = 4
AP
2π 2π 2π
𝑇1 = = =
Ω1 5 5
2π 2π π
𝑇2 = = =
Ω2 4 2
2π
𝑇1 5 = 4 (It is rational number)
= π
𝑇2 5
R
2
Hence 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic
𝑇 = 5𝑇1 = 4𝑇2 = 2𝜋
CO
2πm 2πm m
𝑁1 = = =
ω1 4π 2
𝑁1 = 1 (taking m = 2)
ST
2πm 2πm
𝑁2 = = = 2m
ω2 π
𝑁2 = 2 (taking m = 1)
𝑁 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 1,2 = 2
Hence x(n) ∴ 𝑥(𝑛) is periodic with period 2
17
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1 2
1 −3𝑡 2
1
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷∞ = lim 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇 0 0
−6𝑡 𝑇 −6𝑇 −0
1 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒 1 1 1
= lim = lim − = lim =𝟎 ∵ 𝑒 −∞ = 0, 𝑒 −0 = 1, =0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −6 −6 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 6 ∞
Since energy value is finite and average power is zero, the given signal is an energy signal.
P
6. Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal
𝝅𝒏 𝝅
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒋 +
AP
𝟒 𝟐
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
2 𝒋( + )
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑬∞ = lim 𝑥(𝑛) = lim 𝒆 𝟒 𝟐 = lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = ∞
𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞ 𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁
𝑗 (𝜔𝑛 +𝜃 )
∵ 𝑒 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 = 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛 =−𝑁
R
𝑁 𝑁
1 1 𝝅𝒏 𝝅 2
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷∞ = lim 𝑥(𝑛) 2
= lim 𝒆𝒋( 𝟒 +𝟐 )
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
CO
𝑁
1 1
lim 12 = lim 2𝑁 + 1 = 𝟏
=𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁
Since energy value is infinite and average power is finite, the given signal is power signal
U
𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
ST
+ 𝒕𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
Output due to weighted sum of inputs:
𝑑[𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 ] 2
+ 𝑡 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 … (1)
𝑑𝑡
18
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
1 ≠ (4)
The given system is Non-Linear
P
𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑛2 )
∵ 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛
AP
9. Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒙 𝒕
𝑦 0 = 𝑥 0 + 2𝑥 0 ⇒ present inputs
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 −2 + 2𝑥 −1 ⇒ past and present inputs
𝑦 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 1 ⇒ future and present inputs
R
Since output depends on past and future inputs the given system is dynamic system
𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) ⇒ present input
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
𝑦 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1) ⇒ present input
Since output depends on present input the given system is Static system
U
11. Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕
ST
19
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR, AP/ECE/RMDEC
P
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
𝑦 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1) ⇒ present input
AP
Since output depends on present input the given system is Causal system
−∞
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −4𝜏 1
(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑢(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = =
−4 0
4
−∞ −∞ 0
∞
−∞
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝟑𝒙(𝒏)
Let 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 , 𝑦 𝑛 = (𝑛)
⇒ 𝑛 = 3𝛿(𝑛)
∞
20
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
SUBJECT: EC3354- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
The Fourier representation of signals can be used to perform frequency domain analysis of
signals in which we can study the various frequency components present in the signal, magnitude
and phase of various frequency components.
P
The signal must have a finite number of maxima and minima in the period T.
𝑇
𝑥(𝑡) must be absolutely integrable. i.e., 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
AP
0
The trigonometric form of Fourier series of a periodic signal, 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined
as
∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 → Fourier coefficients of trigonometric form of Fourier series
𝑡 0 +𝑇
ST
1
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
Solution:
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇 = 3 − −1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = =
𝑇 2
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
1 𝑡 0 +𝑇 1 1 3
1 1 3
1
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝑑𝑡 + −1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 −1 −1 𝑡 1 = (1 − (−1 ) − (3 − 1)]
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1 4 4
P
= 2−2 = 𝟎
4
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
AP
𝑡 0+𝑇 1 3
2 2
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + (−1)cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
1 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 3
1 sin 𝑛 2 𝑡 sin 𝑛 2 𝑡
= − = 𝜋 − 𝜋
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛 𝑛
2 −1 2 1
1 2 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
R
= sin 𝑛 − sin 𝑛 −1 − sin 𝑛 3 − sin 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 − sin 3𝑛 + sin 𝑛 = 3sin − sin(2n𝜋 − )
𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
CO
1 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝟒 𝝅
= 3sin − −sin 𝑛 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏
𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝒏𝝅 𝟐
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑡 0 +𝑇 2 1 3
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + − sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
U
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
1 −cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
−cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 3
1 −cos 𝑛 2 𝑡 cos 𝑛 2 𝑡
= − = 𝜋 + 𝜋
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛2 𝑛2
−1 1
ST
1 −2 𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋
= cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 −1 + cos 𝑛 3 − cos 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
1 2 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
= 0+ cos 2𝑛𝜋 − − cos 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 =𝟎
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
Trigonometric Fourier series
∞ ∞
Example 2 Obtain Fourier series of the following full wave rectified sine wave shown in figure
-2 -1 0 1 2 t
Solution:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 ; ∴ 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜 𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎
2𝜋
𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = = 2𝜋
1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = π and A = 1
T 2
P
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
𝑇 1 1
AP
2 2 2 1
2 2 cos 𝜋𝑡 2 2 𝜋 𝟐
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 − =− cos − cos 0 =
𝑇 1 𝜋 0 𝜋 2 𝝅
0 0 0
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
𝑇 1 1
2 2 2
4 4
R
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝜋𝑡 cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 + sin (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 1
0 0 0
1
cos (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 cos (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 2
CO
=2 − −
1 + 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 cos (1 + 2𝑛) 2 cos (1 − 2𝑛) 2 1 1
= − − + +
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛
2 1 1 2 1 − 2𝑛 + 1 + 2𝑛 𝟒
U
= + = =
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛2 𝝅 𝟏 − 𝟒𝒏𝟐
∞ ∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
The Fourier coefficient 𝑐𝑛 can be evaluated using the following formulae
0 1 2 3
Fig 2.26
t
Solution:
2π 2π
𝑇 = 1, Ω0 = T
= 1
= 2π
Consider the equation of a straight line
P
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
= ……… 9
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Consider one period of the given signal Fig 2.26 as shown in Fig 2.27 x(t)
AP
Consider points P,Q as shown in fig 2.27 1 Q[1,1]
Coordinates of point 𝑃 = 0,0
Coordinates of point 𝑄 = 1,1
0 1 t
On substituting the coordinates of points 𝑃 and 𝑄 in eq 9 P[0,0]
𝑥 𝑡 −0 𝑡−0 Fig 2.27
= ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑡
R
1−0 1−0
∵ 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑡)
Evaluation of 𝒄𝟎
CO
𝑇 1 1
1 1 𝑡2 1
𝑐0 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = =
𝑇 0 1 0 2 0
2
Evaluation of 𝒄𝒏
𝑇 1 1 1
1 −𝑗𝑛 Ω 0 𝑡
1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 1 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋
U
0 0 0 0
−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 1
= +0+ 2 2
=𝑗 + 2 2− 2 2
−𝑗𝑛2𝜋 −𝑗 (𝑛2𝜋) 0 𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋
ST
𝑗 1 1 𝑗
= + 2 2− 2 2=
𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛2𝜋
𝑗
𝑐𝑛 =
𝑛2𝜋
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
𝑐1 = , 𝑐2 = , 𝑐3 = , 𝑐−1 = , 𝑐−2 = , 𝑐−3 =
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 −2𝜋 −4𝜋 −6𝜋
Exponential Fourier series
∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝛺 0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
P
2.4 Cosine Fourier series
AP
Cosine representation of 𝑥 𝑡 is
∞
Example 4 Determine the cosine Fourier series of the signal shown in Figure
x(t)
-2π -π 0 π 2π 3π t
U
Solution:
2𝜋
The signal shown in is periodic with period 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = =1
2𝜋
ST
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
P
∴ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝝅(𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 )
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
AP
2 𝑇 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
𝜋
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝜋
= − = − −0 =𝟎
2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛) 0 2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛)
R
Evaluation of Fourier coefficients of Cosine Fourier series from Trigonometric Fourier series:
1
𝐴0 = 𝑎0 =
𝜋
CO
2
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑏𝑛 2 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋(1 − 𝑛2 )
𝑏𝑛
𝜃𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =0
𝑎𝑛
U
x t = A0 + An cos nΩ0 t + θn
ST
n=1
∞
1 2 1 2 2
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = + 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯
𝜋 𝜋(1 − 𝑛 ) 𝜋 𝜋(1 − 4) 𝜋(1 − 16)
𝑛 =1
(𝑛=𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 )
1 2 2 1 2 1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ = − [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ ]
𝜋 3𝜋 15𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 15
𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝐹 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
Conditions for existence of Fourier transform
The Fourier transform 𝑥(𝑡) exist if it satisfies the following Dirichlet condition
1. 𝑥(𝑡) should be absolutely integrable
∞
𝑖𝑒 , 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞
P
AP
2. 𝑥(𝑡) should have a finite number of maxima and minima with in any finite interval.
3. 𝑥 𝑡 should have a finite number of discontinuities with in any interval.
𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
U
−∞
∞
∴ 𝐹[𝛿(𝑡)] = 𝛿(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
ST
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 0
𝐹𝛿 𝑡 = 𝛿 0 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺 0
=1 ∵ 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝛿 𝑡 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0
-T/2 0 T/2 t
Solution:
−𝑇 𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝜋(𝑡) = 𝐴 ; ≤𝑡≤
2 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇
2 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 2 𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 2𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 2𝐴 𝑇
𝐹[𝜋(𝑡)] = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴 = [𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 ] = [ ]= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺
−𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 −
𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 𝑗𝛺 2 𝛺 2
2 2
P
𝑇
2𝐴 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 𝑇
2
= 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝛺
𝛺𝑇 2 𝛺 2
AP
2
2𝜋
𝑥(𝑡).
∞
P
Example 9 Find unilateral Laplace transform for the following signals
AP
𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝜹(𝒕)
∞ ∞
1 for t = 0
X S = x t e−st dt = δ t e−st dt = e−s 0
=1 ∵δ t =
0 0 0 for t ≠ 0
∞
𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 −𝑠𝑡 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡
𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡 1
𝑋 𝑆 =𝐿𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = =
− 𝑠−𝑎 0
𝑠−𝑎
0 0
ST
1
Example 11 Determine initial value and final value of the following signal 𝑋(𝑆) = 𝑠 𝑠+2
Solution:
Initial value
1 1
𝑥 0 = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 = =0
𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞ 𝑠 𝑠+2 ∞
Final value
1 1
𝑥 ∞ = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠+2 2
𝑆 2 +9𝑆+1
Example 12 Find inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑋 𝑆 = . Find ROC for 𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > 0
𝑆[𝑆 2 +6𝑆+8]
𝑖𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 < −4 𝑖𝑖𝑖) − 2 > 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > −4
Solution:
ROC
P
𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 > 𝟎
AP
jΩ
ROC lies right side of all poles
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
8 8 4
-4 -2 0 σ
𝒊𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 < −𝟒
R
jΩ
ROC lies left side of all poles
CO
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
-4 -2 0 σ 8 8 4
jΩ pole s=-4
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
8 8 4
ST
-4 -2 0 σ
10
When continuous time system satisfies the properties of linearity and time invariant
then it is called an LTI-CT (Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time) System.
P
Impulse response, h(t) = H{𝛿(t)}
AP
Continuous time system
Impulse input
𝛿(𝑡) h(t)
H
Fig 3.1
3.3 Convolution Integral
∞
R
𝑦(𝑡 = 𝑥(𝜏 (𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
This is called convolution integral or simply convolution. The convolution of two signal x(t) and
CO
They are
Direct form I realization
Direct form II realization
Cascade form realization
Parallel form realization
202
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time systems
Disadvantages:
More number of integrators are used
Inefficient and impractical (numerically unstable) for complex design
P
Straight forward realization
Disadvantages:
It increases the possibility of arithmetic overflow for filters of high Q or resonance
AP
3.4.4 Cascade form
In cascade form realization the given transfer function is expressed as a product of several
transfer function and each of these transfer function is realized in direct form II and then all those
R
realized structures are cascaded i.e., is connected in series.
The given transfer function is expressed into its partial fractions and each factor is
realized in direct form II and all those realized structures are connected in parallel.
0 𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 0 𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solution:
∞
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑥1 (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡 = 𝑥1 (𝜏 𝑥2 (𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
∞
203
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Faculty: Mrs.M.Shakunthala & Dr.M.N.Vimal Kumar
1 1 1
0 3 τ 0 2 τ -2 0 τ
Fig 3.21 Fig 3.22 Fig 3.23
t-2 t 0 3 τ
Fig 3.24
P
Case (ii) 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 < 2
AP
h(τ)x(t-τ) Since overlap is present
∞ 𝑡
(1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 𝑡
1 ∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = (𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 0 =𝑡
t-2 0 t 3 τ −∞ 0
Fig 3.25
R
CO
(1 (1) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜏 𝑡
1 ∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = (𝜏 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = =2
U
𝑡−2
0 t-2 t 3 τ −∞ 𝑡−2
Fig 3.26
ST
0 3 t-2 t τ
Fig 3.28
204
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time systems
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡<0
𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 2
∴ 𝑦(𝑡 = (𝑡 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ≤ 𝑡 < 3
5−𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 ≤ 𝑡 < 5
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡≥5
P
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
AP
Applying Laplace transform of the given equation
𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 5𝑆𝑌(𝑆 + 6𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆)
𝑌(𝑆 (𝑆 2 + 5𝑆 + 6) = 𝑋(𝑆)
𝑌(𝑆 1
Transfer function 𝐻(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆) = (𝑆 2 +5𝑆+6)
1
R
𝐻(𝑆 = 𝑌(𝑆 = (∵ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) => 𝑋(𝑆) = 1)
𝑆2 + 5𝑆 + 6
1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐻(𝑆 = = +
(𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 2) 𝑆 + 3 𝑆 + 2
CO
1 = 𝐴(𝑆 + 2 + 𝐵(𝑆 + 3)
at 𝑆 = −3 𝑆 = −2
𝐴 = −1 𝐵=1
1 1
∴ 𝐻(𝑆 = − +
𝑆+3 𝑆+2
U
205
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Faculty: Mrs.M.Shakunthala & Dr.M.N.Vimal Kumar
𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = + 2 + 2
(𝑆 2 2
+ 4)(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
𝑆 𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐷
𝐿𝑒𝑡 2 = 2 +
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 2 + 1 (𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 2 + 1
𝑆 = (𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 (𝑆 2 + 1 + (𝐶𝑆 + 𝐷)(𝑆 2 + 4
𝑆 = 𝐴𝑆 3 + 𝐵𝑆 2 + 𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑆 3 + 𝐷𝑆 2 + 4𝐶𝑆 + 4𝐷
Comparing constant term
0 = 𝐵 + 4𝐷
𝐵 = −4𝐷 … (7)
Comparing coeff of 𝑆 3
0=𝐴+𝐶
𝐴 = −𝐶 … (8)
2
Comparing coeff of 𝑆
P
0=𝐵+𝐷 … (9)
Comparing coeff of S
AP
1 = 𝐴 + 4𝐶 … (10)
Substitute 𝑒𝑞 8 in 𝑒𝑞 10 and 𝑒𝑞 7 in 𝑒𝑞 9
𝟏
𝑪 = ,𝑫 = 𝟎
𝟑
Substitute value of C and D in 𝑒𝑞 8 and 𝑒𝑞 7
𝟏
𝑨 = − ,𝑩 = 𝟎
R
𝟑
1 1
𝑆 − 𝑆 𝑆
∴ 2 = 3 + 3
(𝑆 + 4)(𝑆 2 + 1 (𝑆 2 + 4) (𝑆 2 + 1
CO
1 1
−3𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = 2 + 23 + 2 + 2
(𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
1 4
−3𝑆 𝑆 2
𝑌(𝑆 = 2 + 23 + 2
(𝑆 + 4) (𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 1
U
Example 3.4: Find step response of the circuit shown in Fig 3.30
R
x(t) L y(t)
i(t)
Fig 3.30
Solution:
Applying KVL to the circuit shown in Fig 3.30
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑦(𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying Laplace transform
𝑋(𝑆 = 𝑅𝐼(𝑆 + 𝐿𝑆𝐼(𝑆) 𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆𝐼(𝑆)
𝑋(𝑆 = [𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]𝐼(𝑆)
206
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time systems
𝑋(𝑆
𝐼(𝑆 =
[𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]
𝑋(𝑆
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆
[𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆]
1
For Step response 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡 => 𝑋(𝑆 =
𝑆
1
𝐿 1
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝐿𝑆 𝑆 = =
𝑅 + 𝐿𝑆 𝐿𝑆 + 𝑅 𝑆 + 𝑅
𝐿
Applying Inverse Laplace transform
𝑹
𝒚(𝒕 = 𝒆−𝑳 𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)
P
𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
2
+6 + 8𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
AP
(i) Find the impulse response of the system
(ii) What is the response of the system if 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Solution:
𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
2
+6 + 8𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying Fourier transform
R
(𝑗𝛺 2 Y(𝑗Ω + 6𝑗Ω𝑌(𝑗Ω + 8𝑌(𝑗Ω = 2X(𝑗Ω)
Y(𝑗Ω [(𝑗𝛺 2 + 6𝑗Ω + 8] = 2X(𝑗Ω)
Y(𝑗Ω 2
CO
H(𝑗Ω = = 2
X(𝑗Ω) [(𝑗𝛺 + 6𝑗Ω + 8]
2 = 𝐴(𝑗Ω + 2 + 𝐵(𝑗Ω + 4
at 𝑗Ω = −4 𝑗𝛺 = −2
𝐴 = −1 𝐵=1
ST
−1 1
H(𝑗Ω = +
𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2
Applying Inverse Fourier Transform
𝒉(𝒕 = −𝒆−𝟒𝒕𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕
207
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Faculty: Mrs.M.Shakunthala & Dr.M.N.Vimal Kumar
at 𝑗Ω = −4 𝑗𝛺 = −2
2 2 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 2
𝐴=
(𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 4 1𝑑 (𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
𝑗 Ω=−4 𝐵=
1 2! 𝑑(𝑗Ω 2
𝐴=− 𝑗𝛺 =−2
4
1
𝐵=
4
𝑗𝛺 = −2 𝑗𝛺 = −2
2 3 2
3 (𝑗Ω
𝑑 +2 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
(𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 𝐷= 3
𝐶= (𝑗Ω + 4 (𝑗Ω + 2 𝑗𝛺 =−2
𝑑(𝑗Ω
𝐷=1
𝑗𝛺 =−2
1
𝐶=−
2
P
1 1 1
4 −4−2 1
∴ Y(𝑗Ω = + + 2
+
𝑗Ω + 4 𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω + 2 (𝑗Ω + 2 3
AP
Applying Inverse Fourier Transform
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚(𝒕 = − 𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒕𝒖(𝒕 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒕𝟐 𝒖(𝒕
𝟒 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2 5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2
𝐻(𝑆 = =
1 1 𝑆2 𝑆 𝑆 1
𝑆 − 4 𝑆2 − 𝑆 + 2 𝑆3 − 4 − 𝑆2 + 4 + 2 − 8
4 11 2
5𝑆 3 − 4𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 − 2 5− + 2 − 3
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
𝐻(𝑆 = 2 =
5𝑆 3𝑆 1 5 3 1
𝑆3 − 4 + 4 − 8 1 − 4𝑆 + 2 − 3
U
4𝑆 8𝑆
ST
1/S
5/4 -4
1/S
-3/4 11
1/8 -2
Fig 3.39
Example 3.7: Realize the system with following differential equation in direct form I
𝑑 3 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
+3 +5 + 7𝑦(𝑡) = 2 + 0.4 + 0.5𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
208
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant-Continuous Time systems
Solution:
𝑑 3 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 3
+3 𝑑𝑡 2
+5 𝑑𝑡
+ 7𝑦(𝑡 = 2 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 0.4 𝑑𝑡
+ 0.5𝑥(𝑡)
Taking Laplace transform
𝑆 3 𝑌(𝑆 + 3𝑆 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 5𝑆𝑌(𝑆 + 7𝑌(𝑆 = 2𝑆 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 0.4𝑆𝑋(𝑆 + 0.5𝑋(𝑆
Dividing both the side by 𝑆 3
3 5 7 2 0.4 0.5
𝑌(𝑆 + 𝑌(𝑆 + 2 𝑌(𝑆 + 3 𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆 + 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 3 𝑋(𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
2 0.4 0.5 3 5 7
𝑌(𝑆 = 𝑋(𝑆 + 2 𝑋(𝑆 + 3 𝑋(𝑆 − 𝑌(𝑆 − 2 𝑌(𝑆 − 3 𝑌(𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
P
1/S 1/S
2 -3
AP
1/S 1/S
-5
0.4
1/S 1/S
0.5 -7
Fig 3.42
R
Example 3.8: Realize the system with transfer function in cascade form
CO
4(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 3
𝐻(𝑆 = 3
𝑆 + 6.5𝑆 2 + 11𝑆 + 4
Solution:
4(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 3 4(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3 4 𝑆+1 𝑆+3
𝐻(𝑆 = 3 2
= = . .
𝑆 + 6.5𝑆 + 11𝑆 + 4 (𝑆 + 0.5 (𝑆 + 2 (𝑆 + 4 𝑆 + 0.5 𝑆 + 2 𝑆 + 4
4 𝑆+1 𝑆+3
U
𝐻1 (𝑆 𝐻2 (𝑆 𝐻3 (𝑆 = . .
𝑆 + 0.5 𝑆 + 2 𝑆 + 4
4 4
𝑆 𝑆+1 1+1 𝑆 𝑆+3 1+3 𝑆
𝐻1 (𝑆 = = 𝐻2 (𝑆 = = 𝐻3 (𝑆 = =
ST
209
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Faculty: Mrs.M.Shakunthala & Dr.M.N.Vimal Kumar
Cascade form:
X(S)
1/S
Y(S)
-0.5 4
1/S
1/S
1 -4 3
-2
Fig 3.57
P
Solution:
𝑆(𝑆 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐻(𝑆 = = + +
(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4 𝑆+1 𝑆+3 𝑆+4
AP
𝑆(𝑆 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑆 + 3 (𝑆 + 4 + 𝐵(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 4 + 𝐶(𝑆 + 1 (𝑆 + 3)
Let S= −1 Let S= −3 Let S= −4
−1(1 = 𝐴(2 (3) −3(−1 = 𝐵(−2 (1) −4(−2 = 𝐶(−3 (−1)
𝟏 𝟑 𝟖
𝑨=− 𝑩=− 𝑪=
𝟔 𝟐 𝟑
1 3 8
R
−6 −
∴ 𝐻(𝑆 = + 2 + 3
𝑆+1 𝑆+3 𝑆+4
Parallel form structure
CO
X (S)
1/S
-1 -1/6
U
1/S
-3/2
-3
ST
1/S
8/3 Y (S)
-4
210
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Faculty : Mrs.M.Shakunthala & M.N. Vimal Kumar
4.1.1 Sampling theorem (or) uniform sampling theorem (or) Low pass sampling theorem
Sampling theorem states that “A band limited signal 𝒙(𝒕) with 𝑿(𝝎) = 𝟎 for |𝝎| ≥ 𝝎𝒎 can
be represented into and uniquely determined from its samples 𝒙(𝒏𝑻) if the sampling frequency
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝒇𝒎 , where 𝒇𝒎 is the frequency component present in it”.
P
(i.e) for signal recovery, the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest
frequency present in the signal.
AP
Proof:
Sampling Operation:
𝝳T(t) is impulse train
𝝳T(t)
xs(t)=x(nT)
x(t)
R
-5T -4T -3T -2T -T 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T
0 nT
t
t Fig 4.2
CO
x(t) xs(t)=x(nT)
Fig 4.3
Analog signal 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal as shown in Fig 4.1, 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 is the train of impulse shown in Fig 4.2
U
Sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is the product of signal 𝑥(𝑡) and impulse train 𝛿𝑇 (𝑡) as shown in Fig 4.2
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿𝑇 (𝑡)
∞ ∞
ST
1
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡
𝑇
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞
1
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
Applying Fourier transform on both sides
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝜔 𝑠 𝑡 ]
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝑋(𝜔 − 𝑛𝜔𝑠 )
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
2𝜋
𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇
279
∞
1 2𝜋𝑛
∴ 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 = 𝑋(𝜔 − )
𝑇 𝑇
𝑛=−∞
(𝑜𝑟)
∞
1
𝑋𝑠 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑋(𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓𝑠 ) 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇
𝑛=−∞
Where 𝑋(𝜔) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋(𝑓) 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Where 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝑠 (𝑓) 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙.
Spectrum of continuous time signal x(t) with maximum frequency 𝜔𝑚 is shown in Fig 4.5.
X(Ѡ)
P
-Ѡm 0 Ѡm Ѡ
AP
Xs(Ѡ)
1/T
R
-Ѡs-Ѡm -Ѡs -Ѡs+Ѡm -Ѡm 0 Ѡm Ѡs-Ѡm Ѡs Ѡs+Ѡm Ѡ
Xs(Ѡ)
1/T
1/T
From the plot of 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) (Fig 4.6, Fig 4.7, Fig 4.8),
For 𝝎𝒔 = 𝟐𝝎𝒎
There is no separation between the spectral replicates so no guard band exists and 𝑋(𝜔)
can be obtained from 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) by using only an ideal low pass filter (LPF) with sharp cutoff.
For 𝝎𝒔 < 2𝝎𝒎
The low frequency component in 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 overlap on high frequency components of 𝑋 𝜔 so
that there is presence of distortion and 𝑋 𝜔 cannot be recovered from 𝑋𝑠 𝜔 by using any
filter. This distortion is called aliasing.
So we can conclude that the frequency spectrum of 𝑋𝑠 (𝜔) is not overlapped for
𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 ≥ 𝝎𝒎 , therefore the Original signal can be recovered from the sampled signal.
For 𝝎𝒔 − 𝝎𝒎 < 𝝎𝒎 , the frequency spectrum will overlap and hence the original signal cannot be
recovered from the sampled signal.
P
𝜔𝑠 − 𝜔𝑚 ≥ 𝜔𝑚 𝑖. 𝑒 𝝎𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝝎𝒎
(𝑜𝑟)
AP
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 𝟐𝒇𝒎
i.e., Aliasing can be avoided if 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚
When 𝑓𝑠 < 2𝑓𝑚 , (i.e) when signal is under sampled, the individual terms in equation
1 ∞
𝑋𝑠 (ω) = T n=−∞ 𝑥(𝜔 − 𝑛𝜔𝑠 ) get overlap. This process of spectral overlap is called frequency
folding effect.
Occurrence of aliasing
U
Aliasing Occurs if
i) The signal is not band-Limited to a finite range.
ii) The sampling rate is too low.
ST
To Avoid Aliasing
i) 𝑥(𝑡) should be strictly band limited.
It can be ensured by using anti-aliasing filter before the sampler.
ii) 𝑓𝑠 should be greater than 2𝑓𝑚 .
It is the theoretical minimum sampling rate at which a signal can be sampled and still be
reconstructed from its samples without any distortion
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑁 = 2𝑓𝑚 . 𝐻𝑧
281
The process of obtaining analog signal 𝑥(𝑡) from the sampled signal 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) is called data
reconstruction or interpolation.
∞
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝛿𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇
𝑛=−∞
𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇
∞
∴ 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
The reconstruction filter, which is assumed to be linear and time invariant, has unit impulse
response (𝑡).
P
The reconstruction filter, output 𝑦(𝑡) is given by convolution of 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡) and (𝑡).
∞ ∞
∴ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 ∗ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 . 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
AP
−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞ ∞
= 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑛=−∞ −∞
𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑇
𝛿 𝜏 − 𝑛𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑡 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑇
R
∞
∴𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 (𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
CO
Xs(t) T x(t)
-fs/2 fs/2 f
Fig 4.9
The impulse response of ideal reconstruction filter is
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
2 2 𝑓𝑠
𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 2 𝑇 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑇 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡
𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑓
− 𝑠
𝑗2𝜋𝑡
𝑓 𝑓
− 2𝑠 − 2𝑠 2
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
1 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝜋 2 𝑡 1
= = sin 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡 = sin 𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡
𝑓𝑠 𝜋𝑡 2𝑗 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡
∴ 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 = sin 𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇 ……… 1
∞
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇 (𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
Example 4.1: Determine Nyquist rate and Nyquist interval corresponding to each of the following
signals
𝑥 𝑡 = cos 1000𝜋𝑡 + cos 3000𝜋𝑡 + sin 4000𝜋𝑡
𝜔𝑚 = 4000𝜋 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 = 4000𝜋 ⇒ 𝑓𝑚 = 2000𝐻𝑧
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2𝑓𝑚 = 4000 𝐻𝑧
1 1
𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = = = 0.25 𝑚𝑆
P
2𝑓𝑚 4000
AP
4.2 Discrete time Fourier Transform
∞
𝑗𝜔
𝐹[𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑋 𝑒 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞
R
4.2.2 Inverse Discrete Time Fourier Transform
𝜋
1
CO
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐹 −1 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞
2𝜋
−𝜋
Example 4.9: Find Fourier transform of the following
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
ii) 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛)
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
U
iii)
Solution:
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
∞
ST
0, 𝑛≠0
𝑗𝜔 𝛿 𝑛 =
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐹 𝛿 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 = 𝑒 0 = 1 1, 𝑛=0
𝑛=−∞
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
It is Right handed exponential signal
283
∞ ∞
𝑗𝜔 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑋 𝑒 = 𝐹 𝑎 𝑢(𝑛) = 𝑎 𝑢(𝑛)𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
−𝑗𝜔 2
1
= 1 + 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 + 𝑎𝑒 + ⋯+∞ =
1 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
P
2 2 2
2𝑗 sin 2 −
𝑗𝜔 𝐿−1
−
𝑗𝜔 𝐿−1 sin 2
𝑗𝜔
𝑋 𝑒 =𝐴 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔 =𝐴 𝜔 𝑒 2 = 𝐴𝑒 2
𝜔
𝑒 2 − 𝑒− 2 𝑒 2 2𝑗 sin 2 sin 2
−j(𝜃+𝜔) j(𝜃−𝜔)
1 1 1 1 1−e −1+e
= − = −j𝜔
2𝑗 1 − e j(𝜃−𝜔) 1−e −j(𝜃+𝜔) 2𝑗 1 − 2e cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔
1 2je−j𝜔 sin θ e−j𝜔 sin θ
= =
2𝑗 1 − 2e−j𝜔 cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 1 − 2e−j𝜔 cos θ + 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔
U
4.4 Z-Transform
ST
𝑍[𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
4.4.2 Inverse Z-transform
i) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿(𝑛)
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 𝑛 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0
∞
𝑍𝛿 𝑛 = δ n 𝑧 −n = Z −0 = 1
𝑛=−∞
∴𝑍 𝛿 𝑛 =1
P
𝑧
The above series convergence if 𝑍 −1 < 1 i.e ROC is 𝑍 > 1
AP
iii) 𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
∞ ∞ −1
−𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 = −𝑎 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)𝑧 =− 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞
a
U
Re(z)
ST
𝑍 𝑍
𝐴= 𝑍 − 0.2 = −1 𝐵= 𝑍 − 0.4 =2
𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍=0.2 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍=0.4
𝑋(𝑍) −1 2 −𝑍 2𝑍
∴ = + ⇒ 𝑋(𝑍) = +
𝑍 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍 − 0.2 𝑍 − 0.4
285
Im (z)
ROC: 𝑍 > 0.4
ROC lies outside of all poles. So both the terms
are causal 0.2 0.4
Re(z)
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = − 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)
Im(z)
P
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = 0.2 𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 − 2 0.4 𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)
AP
ROC :
0.5 < 𝑧 < 1 Im(z)
𝑍3
Example 4.29: Find the inverse Z transform of 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2
using Cauchy residue method.
Solution:
𝑍3
𝑋 𝑍 =
𝑍+1 𝑍−1 2
𝑛−1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑍 𝑍 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑍 = −1
U
𝑍=−1
𝑑𝑍 𝑍 + 1 𝑍 − 1 𝑍=1
1 2 𝑛 + 2 − 1 1 2𝑛 + 3
= − −1 𝑛−1 + = − −1 𝑛−1 𝑢(𝑛) + 𝑢(𝑛)
4 4 4 4
𝑥 0 =1 𝑥 1 =1 𝑥 2 =2 𝑥 3 =2
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 = 1,1,2,2, …
P
5.2 Impulse Response
AP
When the input to a discrete time system is a unit impulse 𝛿(𝑛) then the output is called
an impulse response of the system and is denoted by ℎ(𝑛)
∴Impulse response ℎ(𝑛) = Η{𝛿(𝑛)}
𝛿(𝑛) → 𝐻 → ℎ(𝑛)
System 2
2
Fig 5.1 Parallel connections of discrete time systems
ST
348
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant – Discrete Time Systems
P
Advantages:
Simplicity
Most straight forward realization
AP
Disadvantages:
More number of unit delay elements are used
Inefficient and impractical for complex design
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
𝑏1 −𝑎1
U
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
𝑏2 −𝑎2
ST
349
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
𝑌(𝑍)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 … … … 〈6〉
𝑊(𝑍)
From eq 〈5〉 we have
𝑊(𝑍) = 𝑋(𝑍) − 𝑎1 𝑍 −1 𝑊(𝑍) − 𝑎2 𝑍 −2 𝑊(𝑍) … … … 〈7〉
From eq 〈6〉 we have
𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑏0 𝑊(𝑍) + 𝑏1 𝑍 −1 𝑊(𝑍) + 𝑏2 𝑍 −2 𝑊(𝑍) … … … 〈8〉
Realization of eq 〈7〉 Realization of eq 〈8〉
X(Z) W(Z) b0
W(Z) Y(Z)
P
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-a1 b1
AP
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-a2 b2
Combined form of Fig 5.4 and Fig 5.5 gives direct form II realization as shown in Fig 5.6
R
X(Z) Y(Z)
b0
CO
𝑍 −1
-a1 b1
𝑍 −1
-a2 b2
several transfer function and each of these transfer function is realized in direct form II and
then all those realized structures are cascaded i.e., connected in series.
Consider a system with the following system function
(𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )(𝑏𝑚0 + 𝑏𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
𝐻(𝑍) = = 𝐻1 (𝑍)𝐻2 (𝑍)
(1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )(1 + 𝑎𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
Where
(𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )
𝐻1 (𝑍) =
(1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑘2 𝑍 −2 )
(𝑏𝑚0 + 𝑏𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
𝐻2 (𝑍) =
(1 + 𝑎𝑚1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑍 −2 )
350
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant – Discrete Time Systems
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-ak1 bk1 -am1 bm1
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
-ak2 bk2 -am2 bm2
Realizing 𝐻1 (𝑍) and 𝐻2 (𝑍) in direct form II and the cascade form of the system function 𝐻(𝑍) is
shown in Fig 5.7
P
Fig 5.8.
AP
Consider a system with the following system function
𝑁
𝐶𝑘
𝐻(𝑍) = 𝑐 + ∑
1 − 𝑃𝑘 𝑍 −1
𝑘=1
Where {𝑃𝑘 } are poles of the system function
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑁
𝐻(𝑍) = 𝑐 + + + ………+
R
1 − 𝑃1 𝑍 −1 1 − 𝑃2 𝑍 −1 1 − 𝑃𝑁 𝑍 −1
X(Z) C
CO
C1
𝑍 −1
P1
C2
U
P2 𝑍 −1
ST
CN Y(Z)
PN 𝑍 −1
351
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Applying DTFT
1 1
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
6 6
𝑗𝜔
𝑌(𝑒 ) 1 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔
Frequency response 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = = 1 1 = 2𝑗𝜔 − 1𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 1
𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 − 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜔 𝑒 6 6
6 6
𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐴 𝐵
= 1 = 𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 2𝑗𝜔 − 6𝑒 − 6 𝑒 − 2 𝑒 + 13
1 𝑗𝜔
1 1
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 + 3) + 𝐵 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2)
At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = −13 At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 12
−13 = 𝐵(−13 − 12) , ∴ 𝐵 = 25 1
2
= 𝐴(12 + 13) , ∴ 𝐴 = 35
P
3 𝑗𝜔 2 𝑗𝜔
𝑒 𝑒
AP
𝑗𝜔 5 5
𝐻(𝑒 )= 1 + 𝑗𝜔
𝑗𝜔
𝑒 − 𝑒 +1
2 3
Applying inverse DTFT
3 1 𝑛 2 1 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) + (− ) 𝑢(𝑛)
5 2 5 3
R
Example 5.2: Find response of system using DTFT
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ; 𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
CO
Solution:
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
ℎ(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ; 𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
Applying DTFT
1 1
𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = ; 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) =
U
1 −𝑗𝜔
1− 2
𝑒 1 − 34𝑒 −𝑗𝜔
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )
1 1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
ST
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = . = .
1 − 12𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 1 − 34𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝐴 𝐵
= = 1 + 3
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12)(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 4
3 1
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 4) + 𝐵 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 2)
At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 12 At 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = 34
1
2
= 𝐴(12 − 34) , ∴ 𝐴 = −2 3
4
= 𝐵(34 − 12) , ∴ 𝐵 = 3
𝑌(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) −2 3 𝑗𝜔
−2𝑒 𝑗𝜔 3𝑒 𝑗𝜔
= + => 𝑌(𝑒 ) = +
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 12 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 − 34
Applying IDTFT
1 𝑛 3 𝑛
𝑦(𝑛) = −2 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) + 3 ( ) 𝑢(𝑛)
2 4
352
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant – Discrete Time Systems
Taking Z-transform
3 1
𝑌(𝑍) − [𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑦(−1)] + [𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) + 𝑍 −1 𝑦(−1) + 𝑦(−2)]
2 2
3 −1
= 2𝑋 (𝑍) + [𝑍 𝑋(𝑍) + 𝑥(−1)]
2
P
3 −1 1 −2 3
𝑌(𝑍) − [𝑍 𝑌(𝑍)] + [𝑍 𝑌(𝑍) + 1] = 𝑋(𝑍) [2 + 𝑍 −1 ] ∵ 𝑦(−1) = 0, 𝑦(−2) = 1
2 2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥(𝑛)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑥(−1) = 0
AP
1 𝑛 1 𝑍
𝑥(𝑛) = ( ) 𝑢(𝑛) ⟹ 𝑋(𝑍) = 1 = 1
4 1 − 𝑍 −1 𝑍 − 4 4
3 1 𝑍 3 1
∴ 𝑌(𝑍) [1 − 𝑍 −1 + 𝑍 −2 ] = 1 [2 + 𝑍 −1 ] −
2 2 𝑍− 2 2
4
3 −1 1
(2 + 𝑍 )
R
𝑍 2 2
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 3 −1 1 −2
− 3 −1 1
𝑍 − (1 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 ) 1 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 −2
4 2 2 2 2
3 1
CO
𝑍 2𝑍 2 + 2 𝑍 2
𝑍2
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 ( 3 1 ) − 3 1
𝑍 − 4 𝑍2 − 2 𝑍 + 2 𝑍2 − 2 𝑍 + 2
3 1 3 1 1
𝑌(𝑍) (2𝑍 2 + 2 𝑍) 𝑍 (2𝑍 2 + 2 𝑍) − 2 𝑍 (𝑍 − 4)
2
= − =
U
𝑍 1 1 1 1 1
(𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − )
4 2
(𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) 2 4 2
2 3 1 2 1 3 2 13
2𝑍 + 𝑍 − 𝑍 + 𝑍 𝑍 + 𝑍
2 2 8 2 8
= =
ST
1 1 1 1
(𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − )
4 2 4 2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 1
+ +
(𝑍 − 4) (𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 1)
2
3 2 13 1 1 1 1
𝑍 + 𝑍 = 𝐴(𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − ) + 𝐵 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − ) + 𝐶 (𝑍 − ) (𝑍 − 1)
2 8 2 4 2 4
1 8
At 𝑍 = 4 :𝐴=3
25
At 𝑍 = 1 :𝐵 =
3
1 −19
At 𝑍 = :𝐶 =
2 2
8 25 19
𝑌(𝑍)
∴ = 3 1+ 3 − 2 1
𝑍 𝑍− 𝑍−1 𝑍−
4 2
8 𝑍 25 𝑍 19 𝑍
𝑌(𝑍) = 1 + −
3𝑍 − 3 𝑍−1 2 𝑍−1
4 2
353
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
𝑥(𝑛) = { , , , , , , } ℎ(𝑛) = {1, 1, , 1, 1}
↑ 3 3 3 3 3 3 ↑
P
Tabulation method
AP
∞ ∞
𝒌 −𝟒 −𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟕 𝟖 9
R
𝒙(𝒌) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
3 3 3 3 3 3
𝒉(𝒌) 1 1 1 1 1
CO
𝒉(−𝒌) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 − 𝟐) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 − 𝟏) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌) 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟏) 1 1 1 1 1
U
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟐) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟑) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟒) 1 1 1 1 1
ST
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟓) 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟔) 1 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟕) 1 1 1 1
𝒉(−𝒌 + 𝟖) 1 1 1 1
𝑦(−2) = (0)(1) = 0
1 1
𝑦(−1) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) = 3
1 2
𝑦(0) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 1
1 2 3
𝑦(1) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 2
1 2 3 4 10
𝑦(2) = (0)(1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) + (3) (1) = 3
354
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant – Discrete Time Systems
1 2 3 4 5
𝑦(3) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 5
3 3 3 3 3
2 3 4 5 6 20
𝑦(4) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) =
3 3 3 3 3 3
3 4 5 6
𝑦(5) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 6
3 3 3 3
4 5 6
𝑦(6) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) = 5
3 3 3
5 6 11
𝑦(7) = ( ) (1) + ( ) (1) =
3 3 3
6
𝑦(8) = ( ) (1) = 2
3
1 1 10 20 11
∴ 𝑦(𝑛) = {0, , , 2, , 5, , 6, 5, , 2}
3 ↑ 3 3 3
P
Example 5.5: Obtain Cascade form realization
AP
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
Solution:
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
Taking Z-transform
R
1 1
𝑌(𝑍) − 𝑍 −1 𝑌(𝑍) − 𝑍 −2 𝑌(𝑍) = 𝑋(𝑍) + 3𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍) + 2𝑍 −1 𝑋(𝑍)
4 8
𝑌(𝑍) 1 + 3𝑍 −1 + 2𝑍 −1 (1 + 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 2𝑍 −1 )
CO
= = = 𝐻1 (𝑍). 𝐻2 (𝑍)
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 − 1 𝑍 −2 (1 − 1 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 1 𝑍 −1 )
4 8 2 4
(1 + 𝑍 −1 ) (1 + 2𝑍 −1 )
𝐻1 (𝑍) = 𝐻2 (𝑍) =
U
1 1
(1 − 2 𝑍 −1 ) (1 + 4 𝑍 −1 )
X1(Z) 1 Y1(Z) X2(Z) 1 1 Y2(Z)
ST
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
1/2 1 -1/4 2
Fig 5.19 Direct form II structure of 𝐻1 (𝑍) Fig 5.20 Direct form II structure of 𝐻2 (𝑍)
X(Z) 1 1 1 Y(Z)
𝑍 −1 𝑍 −1
1/2 1 -1/4 2
355
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
1 1
𝑦(𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) − 𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑛 − 2)
4 8
𝑌(𝑍) 1 + 3𝑍 −1 + 2𝑍 −2
=
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 − 1 𝑍 −2
4 8
−16
1 1 2𝑍 −2 + 3𝑍 −1 + 1
− 𝑍 −2 − 𝑍 −1 + 1
8 4
2𝑍 −2 + 4𝑍 −1 − 16
P
(−) (−) (+)
−1
−𝑍 + 17
AP
𝑌(𝑍) −𝑍 −1 + 17 17−𝑍 −1
= −16 + 1 1 = −16 + 1 1
𝑋(𝑍) 1 − 𝑍 −1 − 𝑍 −2 (1 − 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 𝑍 −1 )
4 8 2 4
17−𝑍 −1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐿𝑒𝑡
1 1 = 1 + 1
(1 − 𝑍 −1 )(1 + 𝑍 −1 ) 1 − 𝑍 −1 1 + 𝑍 −1
R
2 4 2 4
1 1
17−𝑍 −1 = 𝐴 (1 + 𝑍 −1 ) + 𝐵(1 − 𝑍 −1 )
4 2
𝑎𝑡 𝑍 −1 = −4 −1
𝑎𝑡 𝑍 = 2
CO
1 1
17 + 4 = 𝐵(1 − (−4)) 17 − 2 = 𝐴(1 + (2))
2 4
∴ 𝐵=7 ∴ 𝐴 = 10
10 7
∴ 𝐻(𝑍) = −16 + +
U
1 −1 1
1− 2
𝑍 1 + 4 𝑍 −1
𝑌1 (𝑍) 10 𝑌2 (𝑍) 7
ST
𝐻1 (𝑍) = = 𝐻2 (𝑍) = =
𝑋1 (𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 𝑋2 (𝑍) 1 + 1 𝑍 −1
2 4
𝑌1 (𝑍) 𝑌2 (𝑍)
= 10 ⇒ 𝑌1 (𝑍) = 10𝑊1 (𝑍) = 7 ⇒ 𝑌2 (𝑍) = 7𝑊2 (𝑍)
𝑊1 (𝑍) 𝑊2 (𝑍)
𝑊1 (𝑍) 1 𝑊2 (𝑍) 1
= =
𝑋1 (𝑍) 1 − 1 𝑍 −1 𝑋2 (𝑍) 1 + 1 𝑍 −1
2 4
1 1
𝑊1 (𝑍) = 𝑋1 (𝑍) + 𝑍 −1 𝑊1 (𝑍) 𝑊2 (𝑍) = 𝑋2 (𝑍) − 𝑍 −1 𝑊2 (𝑍)
2 4
X1(Z) 10 X2(Z) 7
Y1(Z) Y2(Z)
𝑍 −1 -1/4 𝑍 −1
1/2
Fig 5.22 Direct form II structure of 𝐻1 (𝑍) Fig 5.23 Direct form II structure of 𝐻2 (𝑍)
Combining figures Fig 5.22 and Fig 5.23 we can form parallel form realization as shown in
356
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
Linear Time Invariant – Discrete Time Systems
Fig 5.24
X(Z) -16
10
𝑍 −1
1/2
Y(Z)
7
-1/4 𝑍 −1
Example 5.7: Convolve the following discrete time signals using graphical convolution
P
𝑥(𝑛) = ℎ(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛)
AP
Solution:
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
ℎ(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
x(n) h(n) h(-k)
1 1 1
R
0 1 2 3 4 5 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 n
∞
CO
1
ST
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 n
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 2
𝑦(2) = (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (1)(1) = 3
h(-k+2)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 n
∴ 𝑦(𝑛) = {1,2,3,4,5, … . }
357
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP
P
AP
R
CO
U
ST
358
DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP