Simple Stresses and Strains

Principle of Superposition:
Sometimes, a body is subjected to a number of forces on its outer edges as well as at some
other sections, along the length of the body. In such a case, the forces are split up and their
effects are considered on individual sections. The resulting deformation of the body is equal to
the algebraic sum of the deformations of the individual sections. Such a principle, of finding
out the resultant deformation is called the “principle of superposition”.
The relation for the resulting deformation may be modified as:
𝑃𝑙 1
𝛿𝑙 = = (𝑃 𝑙 + 𝑃2 𝑙2 + 𝑃3 𝑙3 + ⋯ )
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 1 1

Where,
𝑃1 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝑙1 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝑃2 𝑙2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛

Problem-01:
A steel bar of cross-sectional area 200 𝑚𝑚2 is located as shown in figure below.

Find the change in length of the bar. Take E as 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

Solution:
Given that
Cross-sectional area, 𝐴 = 200 𝑚𝑚2
Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 200 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
For the sake of simplification, the force of 50 kN acting at A may be split up into two forces of
20 kN and 30 kN respectively.
Now it will be seen that part AB of the bar is subjected to a tension of 20 kN and AC is subjected
to a tension of 30 kN.
We know that change in length of the bar,
1
𝛿𝑙 = (𝑃 𝑙 + 𝑃2 𝑙2 )
𝐴𝐸 1 1
1
= × [(20 × 103 ) × 300 + (30 × 103 ) × 800]
200 × 200 × 103
= 0.75 𝑚𝑚

Problem-02:
A brass bar, having cross-sectional area of 500 𝑚𝑚2 is subjected to axial forces as shown in
figure below.

Find the total elongation of the bar. Take 𝐸 = 80 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Solution:
Given that
Cross-sectional area, 𝐴 = 500 𝑚𝑚2
Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 80 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 80 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
For the sake of simplification, the force of 100 kN acting at A may be split up into two forces
of 80 kN and 20 kN respectively. Similarly, the force of 50 kN acting at C may also be split up
into two forces of 20 kN and 30 kN respectively.

Now it will be seen that the part AB of the bar is subjected to a tensile force of 80 kN, part AC
is subjected to a tensile force of 20 kN and part CD is subjected to a compression force of 30
kN as shown in figure above.
We know that elongation of the bar,
1
𝛿𝑙 = (𝑃 𝑙 + 𝑃2 𝑙2 + 𝑃3 𝑙3 )
𝐴𝐸 1 1
1
= × [(80 × 500) + (20 × 1500) − (30 × 1200)] = 0.85 𝑚𝑚
500 × 80
Problem-03:
A steel rod ABCD 4.5 m long and 25 mm in diameter is subjected to the forces as shown in
figure below.

If the value of Young’s modulus for the steel is 200 GPa, determine its deformation.

Solution:
Given data
Diameter, D = 25 mm
Young’s modulus, 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 200 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
We know that cross-sectional area of the steel rod,
𝜋
𝐴 = × 252 = 491 𝑚𝑚2
4
For the sake of simplification, the force of 60 kN acting at A may be split up into two forces of
50 kN and 10 kN respectively. Similarly, the force of 20 kN acting at C may also be split up
into two forces of 10 kN and 10 kN respectively.

Now it will be seen that the bar AD is subjected to a tensile force of 50 kN, part AC is subjected
to a tensile force of 10 kN and the part BC is subjected to a tensile force of 10 kN as shown in
figure above.
We know that elongation of the bar,
1
𝛿𝑙 = (𝑃 𝑙 + 𝑃2 𝑙2 + 𝑃3 𝑙3 )
𝐴𝐸 1 1
1
= × [50 × (4.5 × 103 ) + 10 × (3 × 103 ) + 10 × (1.5 × 103 )] = 2.75 𝑚𝑚
491 × 200
Types of Bars of Varying Sections:
Though there are many types of bars of varying sections, in the field of strength of materials
yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Bars of different sections
2. Bars of uniformly tapering sections
3. Bars of composite sections

Stresses in the Bars of Different Sections:

Sometimes a bar is made up of different lengths having different cross-sectional areas as shown
in figure below:

In such cases, the stresses, strains and hence changes in lengths for each section is worked out
separately as usual. The total changes in length is equal to the sum of the changes of all the
individual lengths. It may be noted that each section is subjected to the same external axial pull
or push.
Let,
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝐸 = 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑙1 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 1
𝐴1 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 1
𝑙2 , 𝐴2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛

We know that the change in length of section-1,

𝑃𝑙1
𝛿𝑙1 =
𝐴1 𝐸
And similarly
𝑃𝑙2
𝛿𝑙2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛
𝐴2 𝐸
Total deformation of the bar,
𝛿1 = 𝛿𝑙1 + 𝛿𝑙2 + 𝛿𝑙3 + ⋯

𝑃𝑙1 𝑃𝑙2 𝑃𝑙3

= + + +⋯
𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐴3 𝐸

𝑃 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
= ( + + +⋯)
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
Sometimes, the modulus of elasticity is different for different sections. In such cases, the total
deformation,
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
𝛿𝑙 = 𝑃 ( + + +⋯)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3
Problem-04:
An automobile component shown in figure below is subjected to a tensile load of 160 kN.

Determine the total elongation of the component, if its modulus of elasticity is 200 GPa.

Solution:
Given data
Tensile load, 𝑃 = 160 𝑘𝑁 = 160 × 103 𝑁
Length of the section-1, 𝑙1 = 90 𝑚𝑚
Length of the section-2, 𝑙2 = 120 𝑚𝑚
Area of the section-1, 𝐴1 = 50 𝑚𝑚2
Area of the section-2, 𝐴2 = 100 𝑚𝑚2
Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 200 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

We know that the total elongation of the component,

𝑃 𝑙1 𝑙2
𝛿𝑙 = ( + )
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2
160 × 103 90 120
= ( + ) = 2.4 𝑚𝑚
200 × 103 50 100

Problem-05:
A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminium bar as shown in figure below.

Assuming that the bars are prevented from buckling side wise, calculate the magnitude of force
P, that will cause the total length of the member to decrease by 0.25 mm. The values of elastic
modulus for steel and aluminium are 210 GPa and 70 GPa respectively.
Solution:
Given data
Decrease in length, 𝛿𝑙 = 0.25 𝑚𝑚
Modulus of elasticity for steel, 𝐸𝑠 = 210 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 210 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Modulus of elasticity for aluminium, 𝐸𝐴 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 70 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Area of the steel section, 𝐴𝑠 = 50 × 50 = 2500 𝑚𝑚2
Area of the aluminium section, 𝐴𝑎 = 100 × 100 = 10000 𝑚𝑚2
Length of the steel section, 𝑙𝑠 = 300 𝑚𝑚
Length of the aluminium section, 𝑙𝑎 = 380 𝑚𝑚
Let,
𝑃 = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑁
We know that decrease in the length of the member (δl),
𝑙𝑠 𝑙𝐴
𝛿𝑙 = 𝑃 ( + )
𝐴𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐴
300 380
𝑜𝑟, 0.25 = 𝑃 × ( + )
2500 × 210 10000 × 70
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃 = 224.4 𝑘𝑁

Problem-06:
A 6 m long hollow bar of circular section has 140 mm diameter for a length of 4 m, while it
has 120 mm diameter for a length of 2 m. The bore diameter is 100 mm throughout as shown
in figure below.

Find the elongation of the bar, when it is subjected to an axial tensile force of 300 kN. Take
modulus of elasticity for the bar material as 200 GPa.

Solution:
Given data
Total length, 𝐿 = 6 𝑚 = 6 × 103 𝑚𝑚
Diameter of section-1, 𝐷1 = 140 𝑚𝑚
Diameter of section-2, 𝐷2 = 120 𝑚𝑚
Inner diameter, 𝑑1 = 80 𝑚𝑚
Length of the section-1, 𝑙1 = 4 𝑚 = 4 × 103 𝑚𝑚
Length of the section-2, 𝑙2 = 2 𝑚 = 2 × 103 𝑚𝑚
Modulus of elasticity for steel, 𝐸 = 210 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 210 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Axial tensile force, 𝑃 = 300 𝑘𝑁 = 300 × 103 𝑁
We know that area of portion AB,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴1 = × [𝐷12 − 𝑑12 ] = × [1402 − 802 ] = 3300 𝜋 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Area of portion BC,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴2 = × [𝐷22 − 𝑑12 ] = × [1202 − 802 ] = 2000 𝜋 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Elongation of the bar,
𝑃 𝑙1 𝑙2
𝛿1 = ( + )
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2
300 × 103 4 × 103 2 × 103
= × ( + ) = 1.054 𝑚𝑚
210 × 103 3300 𝜋 2000 𝜋
Problem-07:
A compound bar ABC 1.5 m long is made up of two parts of aluminium and steel and that
cross-sectional area of aluminium bar is twice that of the steel bar. The rod is subjected to an
axial tensile load of 200 kN. If the elongations of aluminium and steel parts are equal, find the
lengths of the two parts of the compound bar. Take E for steel as 200 GPa and for aluminium
as one-third of E for steel.

Solution:
Total length, 𝐿 = 1.5 𝑚 = 1.5 × 103 𝑚𝑚
Cross-sectional area of aluminium bar, 𝐴𝐴 = 2 𝐴𝑠
Axial tensile force, 𝑃 = 200 𝑘𝑁 = 200 × 103 𝑁
Modulus of elasticity for steel, 𝐸𝑠 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 200 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐸𝑠
Modulus of elasticity for aluminium, 𝐸𝐴 = = 66.67 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
3
Let,
𝑙𝐴 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑙𝑠 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡

We know that elongation of the aluminium part, AB

𝑃 × 𝑙𝐴 200 × 103 × 𝑙𝐴 1.5 × 𝑙𝐴

𝛿𝑙𝐴 = = = … … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝐴𝐴 × 𝐸𝐴 2 𝐴𝑠 × 66.67 × 103 𝐴𝑠

And elongation of the steel part, BC

𝑃 × 𝑙𝑠 200 × 103 × 𝑙𝑠 𝑙𝑠
𝛿𝑙𝑠 = = = … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝐴𝑠 × 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 × 200 × 103 𝐴𝑠
Since, elongations of aluminium and steel are equal, therefore equating equations (i) and (ii),

1.5 × 𝑙𝐴 𝑙𝑠
=
𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑠
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑠 = 1.5 × 𝑙𝐴
We also know that total length of the bar ABC (L)
𝐿 = 𝑙𝐴 + 𝑙𝑠
𝑜𝑟, 1.5 × 103 = 𝑙𝐴 + (1.5 × 𝑙𝐴 )
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝐴 = 600 𝑚𝑚
And 𝑙𝑠 = (1.5 × 103 ) − 600 = 900 𝑚𝑚
Problem-08:
An alloy circular bar ABCD 3 m long is subjected to a tensile force of 50 kN as shown in figure
below.

If the stress in the middle portion BC is not exceed 150 MPa, then what should be its diameter?
Also find the length of the middle portion, if the total extension of the bar should not exceed
by 3 mm. Take E as 100 GPa.

Solution:
Given that
Total length of circular bar, 𝐿 = 3 𝑚 = 3 × 103 𝑚𝑚
Tensile force, 𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑁 = 50 × 103 𝑁
Maximum stress of portion BC, 𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 150 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 150 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Total extension, 𝛿𝑙 = 3 𝑚𝑚
Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 100 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 100 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Diameter of the middle portion BC
Let,
𝑑 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
We know that stress in the middle portion BC,
𝑃
𝜎𝐵𝐶 =
𝐴
50 × 103 63.66 × 103
𝑜𝑟, 150 = 𝜋 =
× 𝑑 2 𝑑2
4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 = 20.6 𝑚𝑚
Length of the middle portion BC
Let
𝑙𝐵𝐶 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚

We know that area of the end portions AB and CD,

𝜋
𝐴1 = × 402 = 1257 𝑚𝑚2
4
Area of the middle portions BC,
𝜋
𝐴2 = × 20.62 = 333.3 𝑚𝑚2
4
We also know that total extension of the bar,
𝑃 𝑙1 𝑙2
𝛿𝑙 = ( + )
𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2
50 × 103 3000 − 𝑙 𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 3 = × ( + )
100 × 103 1257 333.3

𝑜𝑟, 𝑙 = 1.64 × 103 𝑚𝑚 = 1.64 𝑚

Stresses in the Bars of Uniformly tapering Sections:

Following two types of uniformly tapering sections are important from the subject point of
view:
1. Bars of uniformly tapering circular sections
2. Bars of uniformly tapering rectangular sections

Stresses in the Bars of Uniformly Tapering Circular Sections:

Consider a circular bar AB of uniformly tapering circular section as shown in figure below.

Let,
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑙 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑑1 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑2 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
Now consider a small element of length dx of the bar, at a distance x from the bigger end as
shown in above figure. We know that diameter of the bar at a distance x, from the left end A,
𝑥 𝑑 −𝑑
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑1 − (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) × 𝑙 = 𝑑1 − 𝑘. 𝑥, Where 𝑘 = 1 𝑙 2

And cross-sectional area of the bar at this section,

𝜋
𝐴𝑥 = × (𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)2
4
Stress,
𝑃 4𝑃
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜋 =
2 𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)2
4 × (𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)
And strain
4𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)2 4𝑃
𝜖𝑥 = = =
𝐸 𝐸 𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)2 𝐸
Elongation of the elementary length
4𝑃 × 𝑑𝑥
= 𝜖𝑥 × 𝑑𝑥 =
𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)2 𝐸

Total extension of the bar may be found out by integrating the above equation between the
limit 0 and l. Therefore, total elongation,
𝑙
4𝑃 × 𝑑𝑥
𝛿𝑙 = ∫ 2
0 𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝐸

4𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑥
= ∫
𝜋𝐸 0 (𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)2
𝑙
4𝑃 (𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥)−1
= [ ]
𝜋𝐸 −1 × −𝑘 0
𝑙
4𝑃 1
= [ ]
𝜋𝐸𝑘 (𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑥) 0
4𝑃 1 1
= [ − ]
𝜋𝐸𝑘 (𝑑1 − 𝑘𝑙) 𝑑1

(𝑑1 −𝑑2)
Substituting the value of 𝑘 = in the above equation,
𝑙

4𝑃 1 1
𝛿𝑙 = ×[ − ]
(𝑑 − 𝑑2 ) (𝑑1 − 𝑑2) 𝑑1
𝜋𝐸 × 1 (𝑑 − × 𝑙)
𝑙 1 𝑙
4𝑃𝑙 1 1
= ×[ − ]
𝜋𝐸 × (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) 𝑑2 𝑑1
4𝑃𝑙
=
𝜋𝐸𝑑1 𝑑2
If the bar had been of uniform diameter d throughout, then
 4𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 =
𝜋𝐸𝑑 2
𝑃𝑙
=𝜋
2
4×𝑑 ×𝐸
𝑃𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
Problem-09:
If the tension test bar is found to taper from (D + a) diameter to (D – a) diameter, prove that
10 𝑎
the error involved in using the mean diameter to calculate Young’s modulus is ( 𝐷 )2 percent.

Solution:
Given that
Larger diameter, 𝑑1 = (𝐷 + 𝑎) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
Smaller diameter, 𝑑2 = (𝐷 − 𝑎)
Let,
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑙 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝐸1 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝐸2 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝛿𝑙 = 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟

First of all, let us find out the values of Young’s modulus for the test bar by the tapering formula
and then by the mean diameter formula. We know that extension of the bar by uniformly
varying formula
4𝑃𝑙 4𝑃𝑙 4𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = = =
𝜋𝐸1 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝜋𝐸1 × (𝐷 + 𝑎) × (𝐷 − 𝑎) 𝜋𝐸1 × (𝐷2 − 𝑎2 )
4𝑃𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸1 = … … … … … (𝑖)
𝜋× (𝐷2 − 𝑎2 ) × 𝛿𝑙
And extension of the bar by mean diameter (D) formula,
𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸2
𝑃𝑙 4𝑃𝑙
𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑙 = 𝜋 =
2 𝜋 × 𝐸2 × 𝐷2
4 × 𝐷 × 𝐸2
4𝑃𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸2 =
𝜋 × 𝛿𝑙 × 𝐷2
Percentage error involved (in using the mean diameter to calculate the Young’s modulus
𝐸1 − 𝐸2
= × 100
𝐸1
4𝑃𝑙 4𝑃𝑙
−
𝜋 × (𝐷2 − 𝑎2 ) × 𝛿𝑙 𝜋 × 𝛿𝑙 × 𝐷2
= × 100
4𝑃𝑙
𝜋 × (𝐷2 − 𝑎2 ) × 𝛿𝑙
 1 1
−
(𝐷2 − 𝑎2 ) 𝐷2
= × 100
1
(𝐷2 − 𝑎2 )
𝐷2 − (𝐷2 − 𝑎2 )
𝐷2 × (𝐷2 − 𝑎2 )
=
1
(𝐷 − 𝑎2 )
2

𝑎2 10𝑎 2
= 2 × 100 = ( )
𝐷 𝐷
Problem-10:
A round tapered alloy bar 4.0 m long is subjected to load as shown in figure below. Find the

change in length of the bar. Take E for the bar material as 120 GPa.

Solution:
Given that,
Total length of bar, 𝐿 = 4.0 𝑚 = 4.0 × 103 𝑚𝑚
Tensile force, 𝑃1 = 50 𝑘𝑁 = 50 × 103 𝑁
Tensile force, 𝑃2 = 70 𝑘𝑁 = 70 × 103 𝑁
Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 120 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 120 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
From the geometry of the figure, we find that diameter of the bar at B.
1
𝑑𝐵 = 20 + (40 − 20) × = 25 𝑚𝑚
4

From the geometry of the figure, we find that diameter of the bar at C.
2
𝑑𝐶 = 25 + (40 − 20) × = 35 𝑚𝑚
4
For the sake of simplification, the forces of 50 kN acting at B may be split up into two forces
of 30 kN and 20 kN respectively. Similarly, the force of 70 kN acting at C may also split up
into two forces of 20 kN and 50 kN respectively.

Now it will be seen that bar AB subjected to a compressive load of 30 kN and part BC subjected
to a tensile load of 30 kN and part CD is subjected to a compressive load of 50 kN shown in
figure above.
We know that shortening of the bar AB due to a compressive force of 30 kN,
4 𝑃𝐴 × 𝑙𝐴𝐵 4 × (30 × 103 ) × (1 × 103 )
𝛿𝑙1 = = = 0.64 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑑𝐵 𝜋 × (120 × 103 ) × 20 × 25

Similarly, elongation of the bar BC due to a tensile force of 20 kN

4 𝑃𝐵 × 𝑙𝐵𝐶 4 × (20 × 103 ) × (2 × 103 )

𝛿𝑙2 = = = 0.48 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝐸 𝑑𝐵 × 𝑑𝐶 𝜋 × (120 × 103 ) × 25 × 35

And shortening of the bar CD due to a compressive force of 50 kN,

4 𝑃𝐶 × 𝑙𝐶𝐷 4 × (70 × 103 ) × (1 × 103 )
𝛿𝑙3 = = = 0.38 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝐸 𝑑𝐶 × 𝑑𝐷 𝜋 × (120 × 103 ) × 35 × 40

Change in length
𝛿𝑙 = 𝛿𝑙1 − 𝛿𝑙2 + 𝛿𝑙3 = 0.64 − 0.48 + 0.38 = 0.54 𝑚𝑚 (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒)

Stresses in the Bars of Composite Sections:

A bar made up of two or more different materials, joined together is called a composite bar.
The bars are joined in such a manner, that the system extends or contracts as one unit, equally
when subject to tension or compression. Following two points should always be kept in view,
while solving example on composite bars:
1. Extension or contraction of the bar being equal, the strain i.e. deformation per unit
length is also equal.
 2. The total external load, on the bar, is equal to the sum of the loads carried by the
different materials.

Consider a composite bar made up of two different materials as shown in figure.

Let,
𝑃 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑙 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝐴1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟 − 1
𝐸1 = 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟 − 1
𝑃1 = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑟 − 1
𝐴2 , 𝐸2 , 𝑃2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟 − 2

We know that total load on the bar,

𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
Stress in bar-1,
𝑃1
𝜎1 =
𝐴1
And strain in bar-1,
𝜎1 𝑃1
𝜖1 = =
𝐸1 𝐸1 𝐴1
So, elongation
𝑃1 𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = 𝜖1 . 𝑙 = … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝐸1 𝐴1
Similarly, elongation of bar-2,
𝑃2 𝑙
= … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐸2 𝐴2

Since both the elongations are equal, therefore equating (ii) and (iii), we get
𝑃1 𝑙 𝑃2 𝑙
=
𝐸1 𝐴1 𝐸2 𝐴2
𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑜𝑟, = … … … … . (𝑖𝑣)
𝐸1 𝐴1 𝐸2 𝐴2
𝐸2 𝐴2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ×
𝐸1 𝐴1

But,
𝐸2 𝐴2
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃1 ×
𝐸1 𝐴1
𝐸2 𝐴2
= 𝑃1 (1 + )
𝐸1 𝐴1
𝐸1 𝐴1 + 𝐸2 𝐴2
= 𝑃1 ( )
𝐸1 𝐴1
𝐸1 𝐴1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃1 = 𝑃 × … … … … (𝑣)
𝐸1 𝐴1 + 𝐸2 𝐴2
Similarly,
𝐸2 𝐴2
𝑃2 = 𝑃 × … … … … (𝑣𝑖)
𝐸1 𝐴1 + 𝐸2 𝐴2
From these equations we can find out the loads shared by the different materials. We have also
seen in equation (iv) that,
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝐸1 𝐴1 𝐸2 𝐴2
𝜎1 𝜎2
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐸1 𝐸2
So,
𝐸1
𝜎1 = × 𝜎2
𝐸2
Similarly,
𝐸2
𝜎2 = × 𝜎1
𝐸1
From the above equations, we can find out the stresses in the different materials. We also know
that the total load,
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝜎1 𝐴1 + 𝜎2 𝐴2

From the above equation, we can find out the stresses in the different materials.

Problem-11:
A reinforced concrete column 500 𝑚𝑚 × 500 𝑚𝑚 in section is reinforced with 4 steel bars
of 25 mm diameter, one in each corner. The column is carrying a
load of 1000 kN. Find the stresses in the concrete and steel bars.
Take E for steel = 210 GPa and E for concrete = 14 GPa.

Solution:
Area of column = 500 × 500 = 250000 𝑚𝑚2
No of steel bars, 𝑛 = 4 𝑛𝑜𝑠
Diameter of steel bars, 𝑑 = 25 𝑚𝑚
Load on column, 𝑃 = 1000 𝑘𝑁 = 1000 × 103 𝑁
Modulus of elasticity of steel, 𝐸𝑠 = 210 𝐺𝑃𝑎
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, 𝐸𝑐 = 14 𝐺𝑃𝑎
Let,
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜎𝑐 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
We know that area of steel bars,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = 4 × × 𝑑 2 = 4 × × 252 = 1963 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Area of concrete,
𝐴𝑐 = 250000 − 1963 = 248037 𝑚𝑚2
We know that stress in steel,
𝐸𝑠 210
𝜎𝑠 = × 𝜎𝑐 = × 𝜎𝑐 = 15 × 𝜎𝑐
𝐸𝑐 14
And total load
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 1000 × 103 = 15 × 𝜎𝑐 × 1963 + 𝜎𝑐 × 248037
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎𝑐 = 3.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
And
𝜎𝑠 = 15 × 𝜎𝑐 = 15 × 3.6 = 54.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
Problem-12:
A load of 270 kN is carried by a short concrete column 250 𝑚𝑚 × 250 𝑚𝑚 in size. The
column is reinforced with 8 bars of 16 mm diameter. Find the stresses in concrete and steel, if
the modulus of elasticity for the steel is 18 times that of concrete.
If the stress in concrete is not to exceed 5 MPa, find the area of
steel required, so that the column may carry a load of 500 kN.

Solution:
Load on column, 𝑃1 = 270 𝑘𝑁 = 270 × 103 𝑁
Area of column = 250 × 250 = 62500 𝑚𝑚2
No of reinforcing bars, 𝑛 = 8 𝑛𝑜𝑠
Diameter of reinforcing bars, 𝑑 = 25 𝑚𝑚
𝐸
Modular ratio, 𝐸𝑠 = 18
𝑐
Maximum stress in concrete, 𝜎𝑐 = 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Load that column may carry, 𝑃2 = 500 𝑘𝑁 = 500 × 103 𝑁

Stresses in concrete and steel when the column carries a load of 270 kN.
Let,
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜎𝑐 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
We know that area of reinforcement i.e. steel
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = 8 × × 𝑑 2 = 4 × × 162 = 1608 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Area of concrete,
𝐴𝑐 = 62500 − 1608 = 60892 𝑚𝑚2
We also know that stress in steel,
𝐸𝑠
𝜎𝑠 = × 𝜎𝑐 = 18 × 𝜎𝑐
𝐸𝑐
And total load
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 + 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 270 × 103 = 18 × 𝜎𝑐 × 1608 + 𝜎𝑐 × 60892
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎𝑐 = 3.0 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 = 3.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎
And
𝜎𝑠 = 18 × 𝜎𝑐 = 18 × 3.0 = 54.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
Area of steel required, so that the column may carry a load of 500 kN,
𝐴𝑠1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 (𝜎𝑐 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Area of concrete,
𝐴𝑐1 = 62500 − 𝐴𝑠1
Total load
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜎𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠1 + 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴𝑐1
𝑜𝑟, 500 × 103 = 18 × 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴𝑠1 + [𝜎𝑐 × 62500 − 𝐴𝑠1 )]
0𝑟, 500 × 103 = 18 × 5 × 𝐴𝑠1 + [5 × (62500 − 𝐴𝑠1 )]
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴𝑠1 = 2206 𝑚𝑚2