Essentials of Life Span Development 4th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual

Essentials of Life Span Development
4th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual

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Chapter 6 Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood
Santrock’s Essentials of Life-Span Development, 4e

Instructor’s Manual
Chapter 6: Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood
Learning Objectives
Learning Objective 1: Discuss emotional and personality development in early childhood.
A. Explain the development of self during early childhood.

B. Describe children’s emotional development.
C. Discuss moral development during early childhood.
D. Discuss gender and the different influences on its development.
Learning Objective 2: Explain how families can influence young children’s development.
A. Discuss parenting styles.

B. Describe child maltreatment, and its causes and consequences.
C. Discuss sibling relationships and birth order.
D. Explain the changing family in a changing society.
Learning Objective 3: Describe the roles of peers, play, and media/screen time in young children’s
development.
A. Define peers, and discuss the role they play in development.

B. Define play, and discuss its functions.
C. Discuss the impact of media and screen time on development.
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Overview of Resources
Chapter Outline Resources You Can Use
Emotional and Personality Development Learning Objective 1: Discuss emotional and personality
development in early childhood.
The Self Lecture Suggestion 1: The Study of Gender: Individual
Differences and Social Context Approaches
Emotional Development Classroom Activity 1: Self-Recognition Demonstration
Using Rouge Test
Moral Development Classroom Activity 2: Do Parents Really Treat Boys and
Girls Differently?
Gender Personal Application 1: Just a Little White Lie
Personal Application 2: It’s a Girl (Boy) Thing
Research Project 1: Altruism–Empathy Observations
Research Project 2: A Visit to the Toy Store
Families Learning Objective 2: Explain how families can
influence young children’s development.
Parenting Lecture Suggestion 2: The Problem of Studying Parenting
Lecture Suggestion 3: Context-Specific Learning,
Child Maltreatment Personality, and Birth Order
Lecture Suggestion 4: Early Parental Employment: What
Sibling Relationships and Birth Order Are the Effects?
Lecture Suggestion 5: How Do Parents Teach Their
The Changing Family in a Changing Society Children Prosocial Behavior?
Personal Application 3: The Most Important Job in the
World
Personal Application 4: I Lived It
Research Project 3: Discipline in Early Childhood: To
Spank or Not to Spank During the Terrible Twos, Threes,
Fours, Fives…Twenties, Thirties, Etc…
Peer Relations, Play, and Media/Screen Learning Objective 3: Describe the roles of peers, play,
Time and media/screen time in young children’s development.
Peer Relations Classroom Activity 3: Play Classifications
Classroom Activity 4: Applying Concepts to Television
Play Shows
Classroom Activity 5: Children’s Literature and Moral
Media and Screen Time Education
Review Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice

Questions and Suggested Answers
Classroom Activity 7: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
and Suggestions for Helping Students Answer the Essays
Resources
Lecture Suggestions
Lecture Suggestion 1: The Study of Gender: Individual Differences and Social Context Approaches
This lecture highlights how gender research has changed as research philosophies have become more
sophisticated. Students find the discussion of gender behavior interesting, especially as the social context
approach is usually new to them.
Traditionally, gender research emerged out of the individual differences approach which attempts to explain
wide variation among individuals by classifying individuals by some antecedent variable (such as age, sex,
or an aspect of the environment). The goal is to determine how much of the variance among individuals, in
their performance on a given task, can be accounted for by the antecedent variable. Issues have been raised
regarding this approach. For example, very few attributes differ consistently when comparing the average
values for the two sexes, and when consistent differences are found, the within-group variance is
considerable relative to the between-group differences.
While there are some replicable sex differences of moderate magnitude (math and spatial abilities,
aggression), most research has found null findings when making comparisons of male and female
individuals. Maccoby (1990) suggests that the null findings are an artifact of the individual differences
approach. That is, there really are differences between males and females when you examine behavior in a
social context. Given that social behavior is never a function of the individual alone, the social context must
be considered when examining social behavior. Individuals interact differently with different partners.
When behavior is summed across all categories of social partners, important differences may be obscured or
missed altogether.
We have provided a couple of research examples from Maccoby’s article to illustrate the importance of
considering the social context when examining gender. Jacklin and Maccoby (1978) observed the social
behavior of preschoolers on a time-sampling basis. Positive and negative behaviors (sharing, hugging,
grabbing a toy, etc.) were recorded when the children were interacting with a previously unacquainted child.
Same-sex dyads and opposite dyads were examined.
Using an individual differences approach (the sex of the partner was not taken into account), there were no
overall sex differences in the amount of social behavior. However, when the sex composition of the dyad
was examined (social context approach), there were several important findings.
 Same-sex dyads had a much higher level of social behavior than did opposite-sex dyads.
 Girls’ passive behavior was greatly influenced by the sex of the partner. Girl-girl dyads rarely
displayed passive behavior; however, when girls interacted with a boy, passive behavior was
prominent (boys tended to monopolize the toys).
 The conclusion is that social behavior is situationally specific and is influenced by the sex composition
of the dyad.
Greeno’s research (as cited in Maccoby, 1990) provides another example that the sex composition of the
group influences social behavior. Four-child groups of kindergartners played in a large playroom with
attractive toys. The groups were all-boy, all-girl, or two boys and two girls. A female adult sat at one end of
the room and, halfway through the session, she moved to the other side of the room. Greeno assessed
whether the sex composition of the groups influences proximity to the teacher. Girls in the all-girl groups
actually stayed farther away from the adult than did the boys in the all-boy groups. The girls moved away
from the adult when she changed her position. The boys did not change their location. However, when two
boys were present, the girls maintained close proximity to the teacher. The girls moved with the adult when
she changed her location. Greeno concluded that proximity-seeking was not a general trait of the girls;
rather it was a function of the sex composition of the group.
Sources:
Jacklin, C. N., & Maccoby, E. E. (1978). Social behavior at 33 months in same-sex and mixed-sex dyads. Child
Development, 49, 557–569.
Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 44, 127–133.
Lecture Suggestion 2: The Problem of Studying Parenting

The purpose of this lecture is to stimulate discussion regarding methodological concerns in parenting
research. After lecturing on parenting styles and the child outcomes of the various parenting styles,
encourage your students to critically evaluate the generalizations that have been made based on this
research. This is a good time to encourage skepticism of research techniques and careful attention to one’s
own experience.
Understanding how variations in parenting influence child development is a complicated task. Students are
rightly skeptical of generalizations in this area when they point out that mothers and fathers may parent
differently from one day to the next, may differ from each other, may respond differently depending on the
social context, and may treat individual children in different ways. Furthermore, research on parenting is
almost entirely observational and correlational, which renders interpretation of associations difficult and
tentative. In addition, contemporary family configurations have changed considerably from those on whom
much parenting research is based, so it is unclear how well much of the classic work applies to modern
parenting.
 Sears, Maccoby, and Levin’s (1957) classic study was based entirely on interviews of mothers about
their child-rearing techniques.
 Baumrind’s (1971) studies used in-home observations and a longitudinal design.
 Maccoby and Martin’s (1983) article is useful for examples of methodological and conceptual
strengths.
Sources:
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4, 1–103.
Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In E. M.
Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development. New
York: Wiley.
Sears, R. R., Maccoby, E., & Levin, H. (1957). Patterns of child rearing. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
Lecture Suggestion 3: Context-Specific Learning, Personality, and Birth Order

development.
Students are typically quite fascinated by (and opinionated about!) the effects of birth order on personality.
Most large, well-controlled studies of birth order yield no significant effects, or only small effects that are
not well replicated. A general conclusion is that birth order has no important effects on adult personality.
Yet, many people, including psychologists, still believe that birth order is a major influence on personality
development. Harris (2000) argues that the lack of consensus is somewhat puzzling. She explains the
phenomenon by looking at the way behavior is affected by context.
Detterman (1993) concludes, after reviewing 90 years of research, that transfer between two situations
occurs only if the situations are highly similar (and even then, it is rare). Failure to transfer learning may be
adaptive, as it gives the individual time to figure out if the behavior should be transferred or if a different
behavior would be better. The more similar the contexts are, the higher the correlation between the
behaviors in the two contexts. Harris notes several research studies that support this conclusion.
 Children who are obnoxious around their parents are not necessarily obnoxious around their peers
(Dishion & others, 1994).
 A child being dominated by an older sibling does not translate into that child being dominated by his or
her peers (Abramovitch & others, 1986).
 Children who are timid around adults are not usually timid around peers (and vice versa) (Rubin &
others, 1997).
Genetic influences account for a substantial amount of the variation of many personality and behavior
variables. Harris proposes that “the genetic component of personality influences behavior in every social
context, but that the acquired, or environmental, component is firmly linked to the context in which it was
acquired.”
 Saudino (1997) found that some children are timid in all contexts due to an innate tendency to be timid,
whereas other children are timid in certain contexts because of their experiences in those contexts.
 Children learn separately how to act in each of their social contexts. Behaviors are only displayed
across contexts if the behaviors are useful in that context. Often, behaviors that are displayed in the
home are counterproductive outside of the home. Harris speculates that age differences in the home
make birth order important in the home, but age differences are not relevant outside of the home,
because most people associate with age-mates.
 Ernst and Angst (1983) assessed the personalities of over 7,000 young adults using self-reports of
personality. No significant differences in any aspect of personality were found between first- and
second-born individuals from two-child families. In larger families, one significant difference was
found: last-borns were slightly lower in masculinity than older siblings.
 When parents judge the personalities of their children, they tend to describe firstborns as serious and
responsible, and their later-borns as cheerful and independent. To explain the discrepancy between
self-report and family judgments, Ernst and Angst hypothesized that the behaviors of the “family
judgment” personality may be parent-specific in that the firstborns act in a serious and responsible
manner when they are around their parents.
 Freese et al. (1999) also found no significant difference between firstborns and later-borns on
conservatism, support of authority, or punitiveness.
 Blake (as cited in Harris, 2000) found that education attainment was unrelated to birth order in small
and medium-sized families. In large families, the two youngest children were the most likely to
graduate from high school and attend college.
Harris speculates that many people still think that there are birth-order effects based on subjective
impressions. People incorrectly assume that people behave the same in other social contexts as they do in
the family context. Research indicates that patterns of behavior developed in the family setting are not
carried over to other contexts. Birth order does not explain or account for variation in adult personality.
In 2007 Norwegian epidemiologists Petter Kristensen and Tor Bjerkedal published work showing a small
but reliable negative correlation between IQ and birth order: the more older siblings one has, the lower
one’s IQ.
Sources:
Abramovitch, R., Corter, C., Pepler, D. J., & Stanhope, L. (1986). Sibling and peer interaction: A final follow-up and a
comparison. Child Development, 57, 217–229.
Detterman, D. K. (1993). The case for the prosecution: Transfer as an epiphenomenon. In D. K. Detterman & R. J.
Sternberg (Eds.), Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction (pp. 1–24). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Dishion, T. J., Duncan, T. E., Eddy, J. M., Fagot, B. I., & Fetrow, R. (1994). The world of parents and peers: Coercive
exchanges and children’s social adaptation. Social Development, 3, 255–268.
Freese, J., Powell, B., & Steelman, L. C. (1999). Rebel without a cause or effect: Birth order and social attitudes.
American Sociological Review, 64, 207–231.
Harris, J. R. (2000). Context-specific learning, personality, and birth order. Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 9, 174–177.
Rubin, E. C., & Angst, J. (1983). Birth order: Its influence on personality. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Saudino, K. J. (1997). Moving beyond the heritability question: New directions in behavioral genetic studies of
personality. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 86–90.
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ruled-by-birth-order
Lecture Suggestion 4: Early Parental Employment: What Are the Effects?

The purpose of this lecture is to go beyond the research that Santrock reviewed in the textbook regarding
the effects of parental employment. Controversy surrounds the effects of early maternal employment on
later development. Research has found that child care quality and sensitive caregiving mediate the effects of
maternal employment on attachment relationships.
Harvey (1999) conducted a longitudinal study involving 12,600 parents and their children who were
between 3 and 12 years of age when the assessments were conducted. Family income, parents’ education
level, mother’s IQ and age, child race, and birth order were statistically controlled in the analyses as they
were associated with parental employment and child outcomes. Overall, Harvey found no evidence of
substantial negative effects of early parental employment on children’s later development.
 Early parental employment status and the timing and continuity of employment were not consistently
associated with children’s development.
 Parental job satisfaction was not related to the effects of parental employment.
 Several small effects of early maternal employment were found. Mothers who worked more hours
during the child’s first three years had children with slightly lower cognitive development through age
9 and slightly lower academic achievement scores before age 7. Both of these effects were small and
were not maintained past the ages indicated.
 Children’s behavior problems, compliance, and self-esteem were not significantly affected by mothers’
employment hours.
 Number of hours worked by fathers was not associated with children’s development.
 Interesting differences were found for low-income families and single mothers. A positive relationship
and slightly higher cognitive scores were found for single mothers who were employed during the first
three years of the child’s life. Children who had fathers in low-income African American families who
worked more hours were linked with improved cognitive development. This was the opposite for
children in high-income families.
 What could explain the association between cognitive scores and employment hours for low-income
families? Harvey speculates that the increased income could explain this relationship in low-income
and single-parent families.
A more recent (2010) study using data from the National Institutes of Child and Human Development Study
of Early Child Care found that maternal employment during a child’s first year of life may have both
advantages and disadvantages for child development across the first seven years. Some specific findings
include:
 Mothers who went back to work full-time by the time their infant was 12 months old had children
who performed lower on measures of cognitive ability and school readiness, but the detriments
were modest. Mothers’ part-time work did not have the same effect.
 Mothers who worked FT or PT during their infant’s first year scored higher on maternal sensitivity
to their children.
Overall, maternal employment did not predict children’s social and emotional outcomes. However, taking
the timing of maternal employment into account was important: Infants whose mothers went back to work
FT by the time they were 3 months old showed more externalizing behavior during he preschool years.
Source:
Harvey, E. (1999). Short-term and long-term effects of early parental employment on children of the National
Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Developmental Psychology, 35, 445–459.
Neidell, MJ. Early Parental Time Investments in Children’s Human Capital Development: Effects of Time in the First
Year on Cognitive and Non-cognitive Outcomes. [mimeo] Los Angeles, CA: University of California at Los Angeles;
2000. (http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/documents/RuhmANGxp.pdf)
Brooks-Gunn, Han, & Waldfogel. (2010). First-year maternal employment and child development in the first 7 years.
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75(2).
Lecture Suggestion 5: How Do Parents Teach Their Children Prosocial Behavior?

The purpose of this lecture is to review research that examines how parents support the development of
prosocial behavior in their young children. Before you review Grusec’s (1991) research, have your students
come up with ways that parents encourage prosocial behavior in their preschool-age children. Do parents
use direct teaching, modeling, and reinforcement for prosocial behaviors? Should parents punish their
children if they neglect to use prosocial behavior such as sharing?
Mothers of 4 and 7 year-olds were trained to observe and record the occurrences of prosocial behavior.
Each incidence of prosocial behavior that occurred in their home over a one-month period was recorded.
The prosocial behavior was noted along with the precipitating circumstances and the responses that the
behavior elicited from the people involved. Some of the findings include:
 Mothers used social reinforcement the most. Verbal and physical approaches occurred when children
helped, empathized, or displayed concern for others.
 One-third of children’s prosocial acts received no response at all. From a learning theory perspective,
this is appropriate, as it demonstrates a variable ratio reinforcement schedule. The child would not
know when the reinforcement will occur, but the child would expect that reinforcement would
eventually come. Thus, the child would keep acting prosocially. This reinforcement schedule tends to
produce a high response rate with frequent, consistent action. Behavior that is reinforced with a
variable ratio schedule is the most resistant to extinction.
 Parents almost never offered material rewards for children’s spontaneous prosocial behavior. Grusec
interpreted this as indication of the mother’s sensitivity to the undermining effects of this type of
reward.
 Mothers used induction most often when the children did not respond prosocially. Induction is a
technique that tends to motivate concern for others. This technique models appropriate behavior and
encourages future prosocial action.
 Punishment was more likely when a child acted antisocially than when he failed to act prosocially.
Grusec speculates that mothers were more annoyed with disobedience than lapses in concern for
others.
 Parents rarely attributed good behavior to the character of the child. This is interesting, as laboratory
research has found that these attributions actually increase morally relevant behavior.
Surprisingly, Grusec did not find a strong relationship between prosocial behavior and its reinforcement.
She referred to the many other mechanisms that encourage prosocial action; modeling, assignment of
responsibility, or discussion of feelings and needs of others may explain the development of prosocial
behavior.
Elksnin and Elksnin (2000) offered suggestions on how to help parents encourage prosocial behavior in
their children. They provided strategies that teachers can use to assist parents including teaching
incidentally, performing social skills autopsies, coaching emotions, and assigning homework. Issues to be
considered when working with parents and children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds
are addressed. Elksnin and Elksnin proposed that by having parents as partners in the instructional process,
students will better generalize prosocial skills across situations, settings, and individuals.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2001), there are over 21 million children under
the age of six in center-based child care programs in the United States. Programs vary in their content, but
one of the aspects common to all is the social context in which learning and care occurs.
From infancy, children are active participates in a complex world. Interactions with parents are the first type
of social exchange infants experience. Healthy exchanges create a bond or attachment. If attachment does
not occur, children may have problems later in life and may display asocial behaviors (Wardle, 2003).
Sources:
Elksnin, L. & Elksnin, N. (2000). Teaching parents to teach their children to be prosocial. Intervention in School and
Clinic, 36(1).
Grusec, J. E. (1991). Socializing concern for others in the home. Developmental Psychology, 27, 338–342.
http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=566
Wardle, F. (2003).Introduction to early childhood education: A multidimensional approach to child-centered care and
learning. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Classroom Activities
Classroom Activity 1: Self-Recognition: A Demonstration Using the Rouge Test

From Jarvis and Creasey, “Activities for Lifespan Developmental Psychology Courses”
The development of a sense of self is a milestone in early childhood. This in-class demonstration replicates
Lewis and Brooks-Gunn’s (1979) rouge test procedure for showing the development of self-recognition in
early childhood.
Demonstration:
Mothers and/or fathers and their young infants (ages 9 to 24 months) will be invited to class to demonstrate
the concept of self-recognition. The focus of this activity is to demonstrate developmental differences in
self-recognition in early childhood.
Time: Approximately 15–20 minutes.
Materials:
rouge or lipstick
a tissue
a mirror
Procedures:
1. Instructors will first present information on the importance of self-recognition as a milestone in early
childhood socioemotional development.
2. Four parents and their infants (ages 9 to 24 months with two infants younger than 15 months and two
older than 15 months) will be invited to class for this demonstration.
3. Families should be given parking passes and escorted to class by volunteer students.
4. After families are seated comfortably at the front of the class and the children have had about five
minutes or so to acclimate to the surroundings, a parent of each child should be asked to rub some
rouge (lipstick works well also) on their child’s nose under the pretext of wiping the child’s nose.
5. Then, permit the children to see themselves in a mirror.
6. Students should make note of their observations as children react to their images in the mirrors.
7. Instructors should have students observe the children prior to revealing what they might see, and then
discuss what they saw in terms of course material on the development of self-recognition. Children
under 15 months of age generally touch the mirror as though the red marks had nothing to do with
them and the image in the mirror is that of another child; while older children touch their noses
indicating that they recognize the image in the mirror as themselves.
8. Families should be thanked for their willingness to come to class and offered a small gift of a toy or
soft cover book appropriate for the age of their child as a thank you.
Source:
Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social cognition and the acquisition of self. New York: Plenum.
Classroom Activity 2: Do Parents Really Treat Boys and Girls Differently?

This activity highlights the differential treatment of boys and girls by parents. This exercise works well as a
full-class discussion, as most students are quite eager to discuss this topic. Have students discuss how
parents reward and punish boys and girls differently and thereby contribute to gender differences in
behaviors, beliefs, and so forth. Encourage them to provide specific examples.
Have students consider the question: Do parents treat their daughters and sons differently in terms of
helping them with their education?
Use the research of Carter and Wojtkiewicz (2000) to provide insight as to whether or not parents are
involved differently with the education of their adolescent daughters and sons. These researchers found that:
 female students engaged more frequently in school discussion with parents than did male students;
 parents had higher expectations for the educational attainment of daughters;
 parents are more involved with the school on behalf of their sons;
 parents were less likely to check the homework of daughters as compared with sons;
 females were more likely than males to have their parents limit the amount of time spent socializing
with friends; and,
 parental attendance at events in which the student participated was more likely for daughters than for
sons.
Logistics:
 Group size: Full-class discussion.
 Approximate time: Full-class discussion (45 minutes).
Sources:
Carter, R. S. & Wojtkiewicz, R. A. (2000, spring). Parental involvement with adolescents’ education: Do daughters or
sons get more help?
Classroom Activity 3: Play Classifications

development.
This chapter, with its discussion of play, is particularly fun and lends itself to good classroom discussion
and debate. One way to enhance the discussion and to ensure involvement is to have students do some
observing before they come to class. (Note: Instructors will want to provide students with a letter on school
letterhead explaining the exercise and its purpose in case students are questioned regarding their attention to
children.)
Instructions for Students: Have each student collect play observations on five children. The children can be
any age and can be observed in a variety of settings such as in a home, park, or schoolyard. The
observations collected should include the following:
 the age of the child (approximations are okay if the exact age cannot be determined)
 the child’s sex
 how many other children are in the vicinity when the observations are made
 whether or not there are toys present, and, if there are, what kind they are
 where the observations took place. The children can be observed wherever children play (e.g., at
schools, churches, malls, in their homes, in their yards, and on playgrounds).
Using the descriptions of play that have been identified by different theorists, the students should break into
groups and classify the examples they observed.
Use in the Classroom: After the observations are classified, have each group present a summary of their
findings. Have students keep track of the frequency of different kinds of play for different ages and different
genders. The place where the children were observed may influence the type of play as well, and so could
be an interesting part of the discussion. The discussion could also focus on which functions of play the
children’s activities illustrate, and what kinds of benefits they think the children might experience as a
result.
Logistics:
 Group size: Small group and full-class discussion.
 Approximate time: Small group (20 minutes), full class (15 minutes).
Classroom Activity 4: Applying Concepts to Television Shows

development.
This activity affords students an opportunity to relate the concepts that they are learning in this course to the
“real world.” This activity can also serve as a review of concepts from the textbook.
Instructions for Students: Have students select a television series that focuses on children and/or parent–
child relationships. The series can either be a comedy or a drama. The task for this activity is for the
students to identify key issues from the chapter and/or the course materials that are presented in the TV
show such as sibling relationships and parenting styles.
Use in the Classroom: Encourage students to discuss their ideas regarding the accuracy of the show and the
implications of the content of the show for child–parent relationships, indicating whether the implications
are negative or positive.
Logistics:
 Group size: Individual work at home and full-class discussion.
 Approximate time: Individual (45 minutes), full class (50 minutes).
Classroom Activity 5: Children’s Literature and Moral Education

development.
Children’s literature most often aims at a moral message. From the earliest picture books for infants to
books aimed at learning-to-read-preschoolers to books intended to be read to children by adults, children’s
books are ripe with messages related to the struggle of good versus evil (frequently found in most fairy
tales), the importance of being honest and kind, etc. The stories might not be overtly moralistic, but the
main characters may convey a type of goodness. For instance, the Madeline books, by American author
Ludwig Bemelmans, are stories about a young orphan living in a convent who is notoriously obedient and
grateful. Goodnight Moon, by Margaret Wise Brown, is filled with empathy for living things and respect for
inanimate objects. The Velveteen Rabbit, by Margery Williams, is about how love is central to life.
For this activity, students will visit the college library (if it has a children’s book section), or any local
public library or bookstore with a substantial children’s collection. Using Handout 7, students will look for
children’s books for ages from 0-5 that convey a moral or character-building message. Students should be
encouraged to look for books aimed at boys versus girls, and to look at books for a variety of ages from 0-5.
Students should complete the handout and bring it to class. You can then engage the class in a review of
their findings. Encourage students to share their own favorite books from childhood that might have
influenced their moral development.
Suggested reading:
Traxel, J. (nd). American Children’s Literature and the Construction of Childhood: A Book Review of
American Children’s Literature and the Construction of Childhood by Gail Schmunck.
http://www.readingonline.org/reviews/books/USchildlit.html
Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 6 (Literature Review)
 Group size: Individual, then full class
 Approximate time: Individual (90 min), then 30 minutes for full-class discussion
Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers

development.
The critical-thinking multiple-choice questions on Handout 1 are similar to the ones in previous chapters.
Have students discuss their answers. Suggested answers are presented as Handout 2.
Question 1 requires students to explore the documented benefits of authoritative parenting and thus to
review the scientific basis for endorsement of this parenting style.
Question 2 requires students to review the characteristics of the major theoretical perspectives of life-span
development in order to decide whether they apply to specific topics covered in chapter 6.
Question 3 again requires students to recognize the explicit statement of an assumption and understand that
it is different from a claim of fact or an interpretation of facts. It is worth noting that the assumption in this
case is fundamental to virtually the entire developmental perspective, and students will probably identify it
easily.
Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 1 (Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions) and Handout 2 (Answers)
 Group size: Small groups to discuss the questions, then a full-class discussion
 Approximate time: Small groups (15 to 20 minutes), then 30 minutes for full-class discussion
Classroom Activity 7: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Answer the Essays
development.
Discuss students’ answers to the critical-thinking essay questions provided in Handout 3. Several
objectives can be met with these questions. First, students’ understanding of concepts in chapter 6 will be
facilitated. Second, this type of essay question affords the students an opportunity to apply the concepts to
their own lives which will increase their retention of the material. Third, the essay format will also give
students practice expressing themselves in written form. Ideas to help students answer the critical-thinking
essay questions are provided in Handout 4.
Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 3 (Essay Questions) and Handout 4 (Ideas to Help Answer)
 Group size: Individual, then full class
 Approximate time: Individual (60 minutes), then 30 minutes for full-class discussion
Personal Applications
Personal Application 1: Just a Little White Lie
The purpose of this exercise is for students to explore the social cognitive view of moral development.
Developmental psychologists have studied children’s moral behavior in a number of different situations.
They have discovered that morality is often based on situations. In a study of thousands of children, the
totally honest child was virtually nonexistent, as were children who cheated in every situation possible. As
adults, we exhibit the same patterns of morality, defining the acceptability of our behavior by the
circumstances surrounding it.
Instructions for Students: Explore your morality. Consider lying, cheating, stealing, and any other behavior
you choose. Are those behaviors wrong in all cases? Discuss. (Hint: When was the last time you fibbed?
Have you even taken “extra” office supplies home from work?)
Use in the Classroom: Discuss this concept of situational morality. Ask students whether they consider
themselves to be honest people. After (hopefully) most of them raise their hands, ask how many have ever
told a “little white lie”—telling a friend they have to stay late at work or the library so that they do not have
to go on that blind date they arranged. Discuss tax returns (are we all completely honest, or do we fear an
audit due to those little “oversights” in reporting), stealing (what happens when the grocery checker gives
you more change than you were due, but you do not discover it until you are in the parking lot), cheating in
school, and larger moral issues such as premarital sex. What makes something a “larger” moral issue—or
are all “wrongs” equal?
Personal Application 2: It’s a Girl (Boy) Thing

The purpose of the exercise is to get students to think about their own gender schemas. These cognitive
networks of associations that guide our perceptions about gender begin taking shape early in childhood. We
begin accumulating information as to what is “girl-like” and “boy-like.” We continually add information to
our schema to enable us to understand and form expectations about males and females. Because this is
viewed as being influenced by many societal factors, what was once traditionally considered “male” and
“female” is changing. Society has experienced the feminist movement and the “sensitive male” movement,
and perceptions of gender-appropriate behavior continue to evolve with the more visible presence and
acceptance of homosexuality. With more women than ever being career-oriented and fathers becoming
more active caregivers, gender roles and our schemas for them are not what they used to be.
Instructions for Students: Write about your gender schema. What do you consider “female” and “male”?
Include notions of physical appearance and functioning, societal roles, and relationship participation. Have
your current views of gender functioning changed from when you were growing up? If so, what contributed
to the change? Do you have a problem with the way society currently views either gender? Explain.
Use in the Classroom: Ask students for characteristics of “males” and “females,” and write them in two
columns on the board. After the students have exhausted their lists, assess the accumulation of items in each
list. Are there contradictory characteristics within each list? Are there more contradictory items for one
gender than another? If so, why might this be? How many characteristics do both sexes share? Are there
any outdated characteristics? Why? What might be the result of society’s changing gender schemas? Do
students feel confused in any way as to what their gender role should encompass? Why?
Personal Application 3: The Most Important Job in the World

The purpose of this experience is to help students think about parenting styles with regard to their own
upbringing. The family is the primary socializing environment during childhood. Significant findings have
illuminated a connection between parenting styles and behavioral outcomes later in life.
Instructions for Students: Review Diana Baumrind’s four parenting styles. Describe the style your parents
exhibited and try to recall your reactions to them growing up. How do you feel their approach continues to
influence your behavior today, or does it? If you yourself are a parent, what style do you employ?
Use in the Classroom: Is there a prevalent style of parenting exhibited by parents today? What might the
effects of the explosion of child care be on parents and how they approach their children? Or might it be the
other way around—that the parenting style adopted by parents contributes to their decision to place children
in child care? Use explicit examples from children’s behavior to demonstrate evidence of particular
parenting styles. What effect might there be on society with the prevalence of a particular style of
parenting? In what ways might expectant parents become educated on the most appropriate method for
parenting? Why is this important?
Personal Application 4: I Lived It

The purpose of this exercise is to enable students to explore their own experience with divorce. The data
suggests that children of divorced parents show more problematic behavioral and adjustment outcomes than
children of intact families. However, many of these children appear to be fine, thus the discrepancy between
the two groups is not dramatic. Psychologists acknowledge the numerous factors that contribute to
children’s response to divorce including both external (family) and internal (temperament) characteristics.
Instructions for Students: If you have experienced the divorce of your parents, share the experience. What
was family life like prior to their separation? Did you welcome the divorce, or was it painful? Were your
parents amicable in their parting, or did you witness a great deal of negativity? What were the arrangements
for spending time with your parents after the divorce? How did you deal with your new lifestyle? Can you
identify what factors contributed to your particular adjustment to the situation, or what hindered your being
able to accept it? What were your coping mechanisms? Elaborate as much as you feel comfortable doing so.
Use in the Classroom: This can be a difficult subject matter for students to talk about, but some may be
willing to share their stories. In either case, discuss the various factors that come into play in divorce
situations and how children with different temperament styles might react to such circumstances. Talk about
parenting styles before and after the divorce, family size, and the differential effects on children based on
birth order. Consider children in child care and those with stay-at-home moms, and the impact of divorce on
the superego and subsequent morality.
Research Project Ideas

Research Project 1: Altruism–Empathy Observations
For this project, students will observe two children playing on a playground for 20 minutes each to note any
evidence of altruism or empathy. One child should be about 2 years of age; the other should be about 5.
(Note: Instructors will want to provide students with a letter on school letterhead explaining the exercise
and its purpose in case students are questioned regarding their attention to children.) The students should
make observations and record any behavior relevant to altruism or empathy (remind them that they may see
both operations in the same situation). They can record their observations on Handout 5. In addition, they
should answer the questions that follow the exercise.
Use in the Classroom: Have students present their data in class. Organize the students to analyze the data
for age differences and individual differences. Is there any evidence for the presence of altruism or empathy
in the 2 year-olds? Is there any evidence for the presence of altruism or empathy in the 5 year-olds? Which
has a stronger effect, age or individual differences? Is there the same amount of variability in responses in
the two age groups?
Probably both developmental and individual differences will emerge. Overall, older children will probably
show more altruism and empathy than younger children will. The altruistic behavior shown by the younger
children is more likely to be ineffective or egocentric. There will probably be more variability in the
younger group, because some 2 year-olds may not be at a cognitive level where they perceive the distress of
another. The 5 year-old children will probably show more appropriate altruistic behavior than the younger
children will.
Research Project 2: A Visit to the Toy Store

Social cognitive theory of gender posits that gender develops as children observe and imitate what other
members of their sex do, and through rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate and gender-
inappropriate behavior. There are many ways in which young children are socialized into their gender,
including implicit messages (such as the types of toys parents buy their children) and explicit messages (for
example, telling a little boy in distress that boys don’t cry).
This research project allows students to explore some examples of the countless gendered messages that
children receive on a daily basis. Students should visit a toy store that has a relatively wide range of
toys. The should survey the toys and make observations that will enable them to respond to the
following questions (you can distribute Handout 6 to assist them):
1) Was it common that boys’ and girls’ toys were related to adult roles (and therefore serve as
vehicles of gender-role stereotyping)?
2) Was there subtle gender-role stereotyping apparent in the placement of toys (e.g., were teas sets
placed near dolls and microscopes placed near trucks)?
3) Did gender-role stereotyping occur more often in toys for a particular age range?
4) Were there many gender-neutral toys relative to the number of boys’ and girls’ toys?
5) What were the two most common themes among boys’ toys?
6) What were the two most common themes among girls toys?
Students should select 3 toys that exemplify the following categories: girls’ toys, boys’ toys, and
gender neutral toys (9 toys altogether). The should note the specific features that caught their eye
and motivated them to list the toy in one of the three categories. You might suggest that they pay
particular attention to toys in packages because they are likely to have pictures, labels, or
advertising messages than can be analyzed for gender-role stereotyping. Students should write up
their findings in a 5-7 page paper in which they address the questions above, as well as draw some
conclusions about what children learn by observing the patterns they themselves saw in the toy
store. You might also encourage them to suggest ways in which parents, merchandisers, etc. might
reduce gender stereotyping.
Research Project 3: Discipline in Early Childhood: To Spank or Not to Spank During the Terrible
Twos, Threes, Fours, Fives…Twenties, Thirties, Etc.
From Jarvis and Creasey, “Activities for Lifespan Developmental Psychology Courses”
Few issues in developmental psychology prompt more heated debate than that of how to discipline young
children. Many students are quite convinced that it is perfectly acceptable to spank children (after all they
were spanked and look how they turned out); however, most experts on child development believe
alternative discipline strategies work better and are less harmful to children’s socioemotional development.
This activity invites students to talk with professionals of child development on this issue (perhaps putting
aside their own strong views on this issue which may be at odds with what the experts say). It is hoped that
students will be prepared to change their ideas after hearing what the experts say and investigating how
inductive discipline, “time out,” and withholding privileges work.
The Activity:
Students will interview at least two pediatricians or child development experts about discipline strategies
for young children (ages 2 to 5). They will write a report (5 to 7 pages) of their findings integrating course
material on this topic as much as possible.
Materials:
Students will need to locate two pediatricians or child development specialists to interview for this activity.
Most professionals will agree to a brief meeting (15 minutes should be long enough) with a student if they
understand that the student is conducting a course activity. Instructors may discuss how to approach
professionals for interviews of this type with students. Students should prepare some basic questions about
discipline of young children prior to conducting interviews and in concert with the instructor. It is important
to determine what the professional recommends and understand the basis for the recommendation. Caution
should be emphasized for students not to listen for what they may want to hear, but rather to be very neutral
in conducting interviews and to take careful notes on what the professionals say about discipline. That is,
students should avoid leading questions such as “Some spanking is okay, isn’t it?” or talking about their
own history of discipline. The focus of this activity is to find out what the professionals recommend. If such
recommendations cause students consternation based on their own histories, students should be encouraged
to discuss this problem with the instructor who may refer such students to the student counseling center if
necessary. Instructors should be sensitive to the fact that this may occur and prepare students for it in
advance.
Procedures:
1. Course material on young children’s socioemotional development should be covered and reviewed by
students prior to and while conducting this activity. Any specific material on discipline should also be
reviewed. Interview data will be compared with course material on this topic.
2. Students may conduct this activity individually or in groups of two (no more than two though).
3. Next, students will need to contact pediatricians and qualified child development professionals to
interview. They may use the local yellow pages or alternative methods as directed by the instructor.
4. Students will need to introduce themselves briefly and indicate that they are seeking a 15-minute
interview to ask questions about discipline strategies for young children. Interviews may be conducted
via phone or Web if more convenient for professionals, and students should be very flexible in
accommodating professionals in terms of scheduling an interview appointment. Students should be
instructed to be on time for interviews and to be prepared to wait if necessary. Students should have a
guiding list of about five questions for the interview and should be prepared to take notes on what the
interviewee says. Students should conclude interviews by thanking professionals for their time and
should consider sending the professional a thank-you letter after the interview.
5. Students will then write a 5 to 7 page report summarizing information obtained from their interviews.
They may indicate what they believed about child discipline and what the professional had to say, and
then tell how, if at all, their views may have been reinforced or changed as a result of what the experts
had to say. Course material and data from the professionals should be the basis for conclusions
students make about recommended strategies for disciplining young children.
6. Instructors should encourage students to discuss their interview experiences and data with the class.
How have their views about child discipline changed, if they have, as a result of the interviews? What
discipline strategies would students recommend to parents of young children based on this activity?
Note:
A variation on this activity is to talk with actual parents of young children about their discipline strategies
and compare that data with what the experts say are “best practices.”
Feature Films
In this section of the Instructor’s Manual, we suggest films that are widely available on sites like
amazon.com, documentary wire, Hulu, netflix.com, PBS video, etc.
To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)
Starring: Gregory Peck, Mary Badham, Phillip Alford, Robert Duvall, John Megna, Alice Ghostley, Brock
Peters, Frank Overton, Rosemary Murphy, Ruth White
Directed by Robert Mulligan
An incredible adaptation of Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird is told through the eyes of a young girl
named Scout. The story takes place in 1932 Alabama, where Scout’s father has agreed to defend a Black
man falsely accused of rape. This serious story is told by Scout, remembering her childhood with her
brother, Jem, and neighbor, Dill, by her side.
My Dog Skip (2000)
Starring Frankie Muniz, Diane Lane, Luke Wilson, Kevin Bacon, Cody Linley
Directed by Jay Russell
Based on the best-selling Mississippi memoir by the late Willie Morris, the story takes place in 1942 Yazoo
City. A shy boy is given a delightful and lovable terrier puppy for his ninth birthday that becomes the
darling of the neighborhood. The story, along with many wonderful adventures with Skip, is told through
his childhood and into manhood.
Website Suggestions
At the time of publication, all sites were current and active; however, please be advised that you may
occasionally encounter a dead link.
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Children and Divorce

http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Family_Resources/Home.aspx
Child Abuse
http://www.jimhopper.com/abstats/#caut
Parenthood in America: Scholarly Works on Parenting

http://parenthood.library.wisc.edu/Topics.html
Television and Its Effect on Children: Birth to Three

http://main.zerotothree.org/site/PageServer?pagename=ter_news_releases_05_23_06
The Nature of Children’s Play

http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/nature.of.childs.play.html
Theory of Mind
http://www.theoryofmind.org/
Theory of Mind
http://cogweb.ucla.edu/CogSci/ToMM.html
Theory of Mind
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind
Handout 1 (CA 5)
Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Child psychologists advocate authoritative parenting, because this parenting style is associated with so
many valued developmental outcomes. However, because this parenting style is so popular and well
supported, it is easy to overgeneralize its benefits and to conclude that all desirable developmental
outcomes are related to it. Which of the following outcomes associated with early childhood is LEAST
likely to result from authoritative parenting? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is
the best answer and why the other answers are not as good.
a. competence at cooperative play

b. relatively positive adjustment to a divorce
c. development of a pervasive sense of guilt especially after misbehavior
d. development of higher levels of moral reasoning
e. development of perspective taking
2. When he discusses gender issues in chapter 6, Santrock clearly indicates how a variety of theoretical
perspectives attempt to understand developmental gender phenomena. However, his treatment of other
topics in the chapter is not so explicitly linked to theoretical perspectives. For this question, your task
is to decide which of the following topics is a reasonable match with the perspective paired with it.
Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are
not as good.
a. effects of divorce on children: psychoanalytic theory

b. effects of television viewing: social cognitive theory
c. self-understanding: behavioral theory
d. working-parent solutions: ethological theory
3. The study of gender role development is fraught with assumptions. For example, one popular belief has
been that males are biologically superior to females. Which of the following statements constitutes an
assumption in Santrock’s treatment of gender, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the
letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as
good.
a. In the first few weeks of gestation, male and female embryos look alike.
b. The development of gender roles results from an intersection of biological and environmental
factors.
c. Peers cause boys to be masculine and girls to be feminine.
d. Parents’ differential treatment of boys and girls causes boys and girls to acquire different gender
roles.
e. When not required to do otherwise, preschool boys and girls play with children of their own sex.
Handout 2 (CA 5)
Answers for Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Child psychologists advocate authoritative parenting because this parenting style is associated with so
many valued developmental outcomes. But because this parenting style is so popular and well
supported, it is easy to overgeneralize its benefits and to conclude that all desirable developmental
outcomes are related to it. Which of the following outcomes associated with early childhood is LEAST
likely to result from authoritative parenting? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is
the best answer and why the other answers are not as good.
a. Competence at cooperative play is a likely result of authoritative parenting. Baumrind found that
children of authoritative parents tend to be socially competent which is a requirement for
participation in cooperative play.
b. One of the factors associated with a relatively positive adjustment to a divorce is having
authoritative parents. Hertherington et al. (1998) found that when divorced parents’ relationship
with each other is harmonious and when they use authoritative parenting, the adjustment of children
improves.
c. Development of a pervasive sense of guilt, especially after misbehavior is not a likely result of
authoritative parenting. Erikson’s theory suggests that children who suffer a pervasive sense of guilt
rather than initiative have authoritarian parents. Baumrind’s work seems to confirm this in the sense
that children of authoritarian parents are less creative, have lower self-esteem, and get along with
peers less well.
d. The development of higher levels of moral reasoning is a likely outcome. Authoritative parents
control their children, but they rely heavily on rules to do so and on communicating the reasons for
the rules to children. They also permit children to challenge the reasoning behind rules. This sort of
activity, according to Piaget, may promote the development of moral reasoning. In any case, it
probably promotes the development of perspective taking, which is a component of more advanced
moral reasoning (the ability to infer intentions.)
e. The development of perspective taking is another likely outcome. Authoritative parenting is more
likely than other types to foster perspective taking because it involves greater communication.
Children come to know how their parents think about things and realize that their parents have
different perspectives from theirs. A less direct indication of this is the social competence of these
children. This facility requires some ability to understand the perspectives of others.
2. When he discusses gender issues in chapter 6, Santrock clearly indicates how a variety of theoretical
perspectives attempt to understand developmental gender phenomena. However, his treatment of other
topics in the chapter is not so explicitly linked to theoretical perspectives. For this question, your task
is to decide which of the following topics is a reasonable match with the perspective paired with it.
Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are
not as good.
a. Effects of divorce on children: psychoanalytic theory is not a match. If this were so, Santrock’s
treatment should include details about early family socialization practices and how these relate, via
the first three stages of Freud’s or Erikson’s theory, to personality development. Instead, he details
how the effects of divorce are influenced by parenting styles and parental conflict, and how SES
factors influence children’s adaptation to divorce. This is more characteristic of an ecological
approach.
b. Effects of television viewing: social cognitive theory is a match. The key is the emphasis on the
idea that television shows provide models of attitudes and behavior from which children may learn
stereotypes, acquire responses, and become more disposed to act in certain ways. There is also an
emphasis on possible cognitive mediation of TV effects, another aspect of the social cognitive
theory.
c. Self-understanding: behavioral theory is not a match. This is immediately shown by the reference to
“a child’s cognitive representation of the self” and the fact that there is no indication of how these
representations might influence a child’s response to behavior modeled by others, or how they
influence or mediate any other aspect or determinant of a child’s behavior. Thus, neither radical nor
cognitive variants of behavioral theory provide a match.
d. Working-parent solutions: ethological theory is not a match. The attempt to understand the basis of
parents’ feelings of guilt about working is cognitive or psychodynamic in its orientation. Missing is
any attempt to understand how this behavior represents or expresses a biological adaptation.
3. The study of gender role development is fraught with assumptions. For example, one popular belief has
been that males are biologically superior to females. Which of the following statements constitutes an
assumption in Santrock’s treatment of gender rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the
letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as
good.
a. The statement that in the first few weeks of gestation, male and female embryos look alike is an
observation. Male sex organs start to differ from female sex organs when XY chromosomes in the
male embryo trigger the secretion of androgens.
b. The statement that the development of gender roles results from an intersection of biological and
environmental factors is the assumption. It is a basic belief held by virtually all developmental
psychologists about all features of development. In fact, Santrock directly reminds us of this
principle as he introduces the topic of gender role development. He does not present it as a
hypothesis to be tested, but rather a dictum to be obeyed as we attempt to understand the
determinants of gender role development.
c. The statement that peers cause boys to be masculine and girls to be feminine is an inference.
Santrock describes research that has found that children are rewarded for engaging in sex-
appropriate behavior and that children tend to criticize children for engaging in cross-sex activities.
However, it is incorrect to claim a causal relationship as this research is correlational.
d. The statement that parents’ differential treatment of boys and girls causes boys and girls to acquire
different gender roles is an inference. Parents have been observed to treat their sons and daughters
differently. But to claim that this differential treatment is a cause of later differential gender role
development is an extrapolation of this finding, a hypothesis about the possible effect of the
parents’ behavior on their sons and daughters.
e. The statement that when not required to do otherwise, preschool boys and girls play with children
of their own sex is an observation. Researchers and teachers see children playing in same-sex
groups when children choose with whom they will play.
Handout 3 (CA 6)
Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in
this chapter.
1. Explain what Erikson means by saying that early childhood is dominated by feelings of initiative
versus guilt.
2. Describe the development of self-understanding during early childhood, and relate what we know
about it to what we know about cognitive development during this life period.
3. Explain the differences between emotion-focused versus emotion-dismissing parents. Which

parenting style is associated with better child outcomes?
4. Identify and discuss the components of moral development. Discuss how current theorists
conceptualize moral development.
5. Summarize what we know about biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender development.
Clarify whether these influences are independent of each other, or whether they interact with each
other. Give examples that support your conclusion.
6. Compare and contrast any two theories of gender development. Indicate whether these theories
contradict each other, or whether an eclectic use of them would enhance our understanding of gender
development.
7. Explain the four types of parenting styles, and describe the personalities of children who experience
each type of parenting.
8. Analyze cultural, ethnic, and social class variations in families in terms of parenting styles.
9. Define four types of child maltreatment. What are some outcomes associated with these forms of
abuse?
10. Summarize what we know about birth-order effects in children, and explain why some researchers
think this information has been overdramatized.
11. Discuss the pros and cons of a mother working outside of the home with regard to a child’s social
development.
12. A friend of yours is going through a divorce, and she has asked you to help her cope with her two
preschool-age sons. Write a letter to your friend, and explain the current research on the effects of
divorce and ways to facilitate her children’s adaptation.
13. Explain how play fulfills both developmental and educational goals and functions.
14. Summarize what we know about the dangers and benefits of television. Then state and support a claim
about whether television viewing by young children should/should not be regulated.
Handout 4 (CA 6)
Ideas to Help You Answer Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
1. Begin by reviewing the basics of Erikson’s theory, especially initiative versus guilt. Discuss how this
concept is a defining aspect (according to Erikson) of early childhood.
2. Preface this discussion with an adult perspective of self-understanding. To what extent do you
understand yourself, your thoughts, and cognitive processes? Then, describe the development of self-
understanding in childhood and its relevance to cognitive development.
3. How do these two types of parents handle negative emotions in their children? What are some of the
specific emotion-related outcomes in their children?
4. Think back to when you were a child. What do you remember about how you thought about right and
wrong? Do you remember specifically being taught this, or did you just infer things from life around
you? Now explore how developmental psychologists conceptualize moral development and the
components they identify as relevant to studying morality.
5. First discuss the importance of gender identity. When does it begin? Now address biological, social,
and cognitive influences on gender development and their mutual influence. Give supporting examples.
6. Provide some general background information on gender identity formation and reasons for its
significance as something to be studied by developmental psychologists. Now compare and contrast
two theories of this development.
7. Preface your discussion of the four types of parenting styles with a presentation of the enormity of the
responsibility of raising children. After acknowledging the scope of this job, explain the parenting
styles, who delineated them, and the personalities of the children who experience each.
8. Create a chart to separate cultural, ethnic, and social class as they vary in terms of parenting styles.
Discuss the distinctions.
9. You will need to define the four types of maltreatment separately, but note that the outcomes cut across
all four of the types.
10. What does birth order refer to? Why is it explored by developmental psychologists? Summarize the
known effects, and explain the notion that this information has been overdramatized.
11. Before analyzing the pros and cons of this issue, present the particular issues of social development
that are considered significant by developmental psychologists.
12. Describe a general divorce scenario involving children—whatever comes to mind. Now summarize
each of the two models of divorce, and compare and contrast their features. Review your text to assist
you in assessing their respective degree of accuracy.
13. How do developmentalists define play? Further your discussion by explaining the role it plays in
development and education.
14. Make a chart of the pros and cons of television. Develop a mature, well-stated case to present to your
legislator regarding the regulation of children’s television viewing.
Handout 5 (RP 1)
Altruism–Empathy Observations
For this project, you will observe two children playing on a playground for 20 minutes each, and note any
evidence of altruism or empathy. One child should be about 2 years of age, the other about 5. Make
observations, and record any behavior that is relevant to altruism or empathy (you may see both operations
in the same situation). Record your observations below. Then write a brief report based on the questions
provided.
Child 1 Sex_____ Age _____
Child 2 Sex _____ Age _____
Questions:
 How did you define altruism and empathy?

 How many instances of empathy did you observe in the 2 year-old? In the 5 year-old?
 How many instances of altruism did you observe in the 2 year-old? In the 5 year-old?
 What seems to be the developmental progression in empathy and altruism from 2 to 5 years of age?
How would you account for this? Could your data be explained on the basis of individual differences
rather than on the basis of developmental changes? Why or why not?
Handout 6 (RP 2)
A Visit to the Toy Store
Children’s play constitutes an important arena in which beliefs are developed at a very young age
about the appropriateness of certain behaviors for the two sexes. The purpose of this project is to
make you aware of an important aspect of gender-role socialization, namely the presence of
gender-role stereotyping in children’s toys.
Visit a toy store that has a relatively wide range of toys. Survey the toys and make observations
that will enable you to respond to the following questions:
1). Was it common that boys’ and girls’ toys were related to adult roles (and therefore serve as
vehicles of gender-role stereotyping)?
2) Was there subtle gender-role stereotyping apparent in the placement of toys (e.g., were teas sets
placed near dolls and microscopes placed near trucks)?
3) Did gender-role stereotyping occur more often in toys for a particular age range?
4) Were there many gender-neutral toys relative to the number of boys’ and girls’ toys?
5) What were the two most common themes among boys’ toys?
6) What were the two most common themes among girls toys?
Select 3 toys that exemplify the following categories: girls’ toys, boys’ toys, and gender neutral
toys (9 toys altogether). Note the specific features that caught your eye and motivated you to list
the toy in one of the three categories. Pay particular attention to toys in packages because they are
likely to have pictures, labels, or advertising messages than can be analyzed for gender-role
stereotyping. You can make notes about the toys you select here:
For Boys For Girls Neutral
Handout 7 (CA 5)
Children’s Books and Moral Education
Children’s literature is very often the vehicle for moral education, for teaching about values and character.
The fairy tales we all grew up with contain powerful moral messages about the struggle of good over evil.
This project is a survey of children’s books that you will examine at a local library or bookstore.
Putting aside the fairy tales, identify six children’s books designed for different ages within the 0-5-year-old
span. Some bookstores and libraries will categorize the books for different ages, but you can easily pick out
books meant for infants (to be read by caregivers), very young children (mostly picture books), and books
for beginning readers.
Complete the following handout, and bring to class for class discussion.
Title Author Target Age Summary of Moral lesson Describe how

story or value moral lesson
illustrated or value was
through text conveyed
A Selection of Resources Available in Connect

Santrock’s Essentials of Lifespan Development, 4e
Chapter 6: Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood
Title Activity Page # Learning Objective

Type in Text
Milestones: Sense of Self, Amalia, Milestones 162 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
6mos-3yrs development in early childhood.
Milestones: Gender, Amalia, 2- Milestones 167 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
5yrs development in early childhood.
Gender Identity Development Video 167 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
Girls Engaging in Non-Sex-Typed Video 169 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
Play development in early childhood.
Boys Engaging in Sex-Typed Play Video 169 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
Lack of Gender Constancy at Age Video 169 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
3 development in early childhood.
Understanding of Gender at Age 3 Video 169 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
Gender Stereotype Beliefs at Age 6 Video 169 6.1: Discuss emotional and personality
Sibling Conflicts and Parent Video 176 6.2: Explain how families can influence
Intervention young children’s development.
Only Children Video 177 6.2: Explain how families can influence
young children’s development.
When Second Baby Comes Along Video 177 6.2: Explain how families can influence
Children and Divorce Video 178 6.2: Explain how families can influence
Milestones: Emergence of Milestones 182 6.3: Describe the roles of peers, play, and
Friendship, 1-4yrs media/screen time in young children’s
development.
Describing a Best Friend at Age 2 Video 182 6.3: Describe the roles of peers, play, and
media/screen time in young children’s
development.
Milestones: Types of Play, 6mos- Milestones 184 6.3: Describe the roles of peers, play, and
4yrs media/screen time in young children’s
development.
Parallel Play in the Sandbox Video 184 6.3: Describe the roles of peers, play, and
development.
Children and Television Video 185 6.3: Describe the roles of peers, play, and
development.

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Essentials of Life Span Development

4th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual

Santrock’s Essentials of Life-Span Development, 4e

Chapter 6: Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

A. Explain the development of self during early childhood.

A. Discuss parenting styles.

A. Define peers, and discuss the role they play in development.

Santrock: Essentials of Life-Span Development, 4e IM-6 | 1

Review Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice

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Lecture Suggestion 2: The Problem of Studying Parenting

Lecture Suggestion 3: Context-Specific Learning, Personality, and Birth Order

Santrock: Essentials of Life-Span Development, 4e IM-6 | 4

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Lecture Suggestion 4: Early Parental Employment: What Are the Effects?

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and single-parent families.

Lecture Suggestion 5: How Do Parents Teach Their Children Prosocial Behavior?

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Santrock: Essentials of Life-Span Development, 4e IM-6 | 8

Classroom Activity 1: Self-Recognition: A Demonstration Using the Rouge Test

Time: Approximately 15–20 minutes.

Classroom Activity 2: Do Parents Really Treat Boys and Girls Differently?

Santrock: Essentials of Life-Span Development, 4e IM-6 | 9

Classroom Activity 3: Play Classifications

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Classroom Activity 4: Applying Concepts to Television Shows

Classroom Activity 5: Children’s Literature and Moral Education

Learning Objective 1: Discuss emotional and personality development in early childhood.

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Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers

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Personal Application 2: It’s a Girl (Boy) Thing

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Personal Application 3: The Most Important Job in the World

Personal Application 4: I Lived It

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Research Project Ideas

Research Project 2: A Visit to the Toy Store

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To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)

My Dog Skip (2000)

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American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Children and Divorce

Parenthood in America: Scholarly Works on Parenting

Television and Its Effect on Children: Birth to Three

The Nature of Children’s Play

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Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions

a. competence at cooperative play

a. effects of divorce on children: psychoanalytic theory

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Answers for Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions

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Critical-Thinking Essay Questions

3. Explain the differences between emotion-focused versus emotion-dismissing parents. Which

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Ideas to Help You Answer Critical-Thinking Essay Questions

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Child 1 Sex_ Age _

Child 2 Sex _ Age _