Sep Biology 11th Revised 2024 102425

ISC BIOLOGY
•CLASS XI
•2024
•PRESENT SESSION
S. UNIT TOTAL No. of Period
Wednesday, October 11, 2023
No WEIGHTAGE allocated by
2 CBSE/180+60
1. Diversity of Living 09 Marks 25
Organisms
2. Structural Organisation in 11 Marks 25
Animals and Plants
3. Cell: Structure and 15 Marks 40
Function
4. Plant Physiology 17 Marks 45
5. Human Physiology 18 Marks 45
Total 70 Marks Practical = 60

NOTE
ALL STRUCTURES (INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL) ARE
REQUIRED TO BE TAUGHT ALONG WITH DIAGRAMS.
• 1. Diversity of Living Organisms

• Three domains of life – distinguishing features of (archaea, bacteria, eukarya).
• Definition and explanation of the terms taxonomy (numerical taxonomy, cytotaxonomy and
chemotaxonomy) and systematics.
• Concept of species. Major taxonomical hierarchies (phylum, class, order, family, genus, species):
definition and examples with reference to classification of man, house fly, mango and wheat.
• Rules of binomial nomenclature and advantages of using scientific names.
• Definition of taxonomical keys.
• Three systems of classification – artificial, natural and phylogenetic.
4
SECTION – A
DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS
5 NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Makes the study of different organisms very convenient

• To identify unknown organisms and to arrange known organisms in
some logical order;
• Allows biologists around the world to agree on specific types of
organisms
• Arranges organisms to show some type of evolutionary relationship
• Helps in interpreting the poorly developed structures of the fossil
organisms.
• Study of a few representatives of a group gives the general
characteristics of that group as a whole
THREE DOMAINS OF LIFE - CARL WOESE
6
THREE DOMAINS OF LIFE 10/11/2023 7
• Archaea, Bacteria, & Eukaryote
Archaea/Archaebacteria Domain
• Primitive prokaryotic cells
• Cell membrane of branched hydrocarbon chains attached to glycerol without peptidoglycans
• Not influenced by antibiotics that destroy bacteria
• rRNA is unique & different from bacterial rRNA
• Live in extreme environment
Examples:
• Methanogens – metabolize hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane
• Halophiles – thrive in salt
• Thermoacidophiles – thrive in acid and high temperatures (up to 110 degrees Celsius)
Bacteria/Eubacteria Domain 10/11/2023
8 • Unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol

• Cell wall of peptidoglycans
• Sensitive to antibiotics
• Naked DNA molecule in cytoplasm
• Bacterial rRNA is unique & distinctly different from Archaea &
Eukarya
• Bacterial ribosomes are 70S type
• Examples:
• Cyanobacteria – photosynthesizing bacteria
• Gram-negative bacteria that include those causing syphilis
and Lyme disease
• Gram-positive bacteria including Bifidobacterium
animalis which is present in the human large intestine
9 • Eukarya/Eukaryota Domain
10/11/2023
• Cells have eukaryotic organisation

• Cell membrane of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol forming
trilaminar protein-lipid-protein layer.
• Cell wall absent in animal cells. Peptidoglycans not found.
• Resistant to antibiotics.
• Hereditary material formed of nucleoprotein fibres composed of DNA + histones
• Eukaryotic rRNA unique to Eukarya
• Ribosomes are 80S type.
• Examples
• Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
10 TAXONOMY & PHYLOGENY Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms.

• Systematics is the branch of biology that deals with the (study of)
classification systems and nomenclature of organisms.
• Phylogeny is the history of the evolution of a species or group.
• Numerical taxonomy: The method of classifying organisms on the basis
of number of similarities between organisms.
• . Chemotaxonomy: Method of classification based on similarities in the
structure of chemical compounds among the organisms being classified.
• Cytotaxonomy: Branch of taxonomy which uses the characteristics of
cellular structures, such as somatic chromosome to classify organisms.
Wednesday, October 11, 2023 11
• CONCEPT OF SPECIES:
• Basic unit of taxonomy
• Includes all organisms that are similar
• Able to interbreed
• Produce fertile offspring
• Can be distinguished from other closely related species on the
basis of distinct morphological differences
• E.g. Panthera leo & Mangifera indica
MAJOR TAXONOMICAL HIERARCHIESWednesday, October 11, 2023
12
• SPECIES
• GENUS
• FAMILY
• ORDER
• CLASS
• PHYLUM / DIVISION
Common Biological Genus Family Order Class Phylum
Name Name Division
Man Homo sapiens Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata
House fly Musca Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda

domestica
Mango Mangifera Mangifera Anacardiaceae Sapindales dicotyledonae Angiospermae

indica
Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae

aestivum
RULES OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE Wednesday, October 11, 2023 14
1. The name of the genus should always be capitalized.
2. Species name should not be capitalized.
3. Binomial, when written, should always be underlined separately; when printed italicized.
4. The abbreviated name of the scientist describing the species for first time should be written
E. g. Pseudomonas syringae Val Hall.
5. If the name is revised, the name of the original describer should be written in bracket
followed by the name of the revising scientist. E.g. Xanthomonas campestris pv (oryzae) Dye.
6. To avoid confusion the same binomial should not be used to name two different species.
7. The year in which organism was described should be written after the name of the scientist.
ADVANTAGES OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
15 • Universal – same name throughout the world

• Systematic study of plants & animals
• Eliminates confusion of multiple naming
• Indicates a relationship between different varieties of a species in a
genus
• Facilitates recognition or identification of a newly discovered organism
• Incorrect or misleading name can be easily corrected
• Scientific names are descriptive so indicate important characteristics
of organism
• Derived from Latin or Greek – dead languages- no change in meaning.
TOOLS/AIDS FOR STUDY OF TAXONOMY Wednesday, October 11, 2023
16
• Museum
• Has a collection of preserved plants & animals specimens for study and
reference.
• Functions & importance
• Have a record of objects
• Preserve objects for longer time
• A place to study old preserved materials in depth
• They generally hold exhibitions with theme to educate people & attract
them to visit the museum
17 TOOLS FOR STUDY OF TAXONOMY Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Herbarium
• Collection of well pressed dried and preserved plants mounted on herbarium sheets
• properly labelled
• systematically arranged
• available for reference
• Role of herbaria
• Safety of Type Specimens – protected from pests
• Knowledge of plant taxonomy
• Identification of plants
• Research and training
• Preservation of Voucher specimens (on which chromosomal studies conducted)
18
•Taxonomic Key
•It is a device used by
biologists for identifying
unknown organisms
19
20 MAIN SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Artificial
• Based on limited range of distinguishing characters
• Natural
• Based on important biological similarities of
organisms
• Phylogenetic
• Based on evolutionary trends.
21
ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM
NATURAL SYSTEM
• Based on few characters • Large number of characters
• Superficial resemblances into account • Biologically important similarities like
like presence or absence of wings DNA & proteins
• Did not reflect any natural relationship • Reflected evolutionary significance

• Led to heterogeneous assembly of • Led to homogeneous assembly of related
unrelated groups groups
• Arbitrary so was discarded • Logical so being used at present
• Did not convey much about the • Conveys a lot about the organism
organism
(II) BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION; SALIENT FEATURES AND CLASSIFICATION OF
MONERA, PROTISTA, FUNGI, LICHENS, VIRUSES AND VIROIDS.
• (a) Five-kingdom system of classification and characteristics of different kingdoms with examples.
• (b) Kingdom Monera:
• Bacteria - classification of bacteria according to shape, nutrition and mode of respiration;
• differences between gram +ve and gram –ve bacteria;
• types of reproduction – definition of fission, conjugation, transduction and transformation (details
not required).
• A brief idea of the role of different types of archaebacteria (methanogens, halophiles and
thermoacidophiles in their extreme environments).
• Mycoplasma – three distinctive features.
• Economic importance with reference to role of bacteria in sewage treatment, antibiotics, energy
production and house hold products (curd and cheese only).
23 BASES OF CLASSIFICATION
• Cellular organization
• Photosynthesis
• Mode of nutrition
• Transport/Locomotion
• Reproduction
FIVE KINGDOMS
1. Kingdom Monera– prokaryotic unicellular, bacteria
2. Kingdom Protista– eukaryotic unicellular, Amoeba
3. Kingdom Fungi - multicellular eukaryotic, chitinous cell wall,

Rhizopus
4. Kingdom Plantae - multicellular eukaryotic, autotrophs, mango
5. Kingdom Animalia – multicellular eukaryotic, heterotrophs, frog

25 KINGDOM MONERA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Commonly called bacteria

• All monerans are prokaryotes
• All monerans are unicellular
• Cell wall non-cellulosic
• Nutrition – autotrophic or heterotrophic
• Locomotion – flagella, gliding or non-motile
• Reproduction - conjugation, transduction,
transformation
26
Pili
Mesosome
27 • Monera can be divided into two main groups:
1) Archaebacteria (Already covered in 1 (i)

- “ancient” bacteria
- live in extremely harsh conditions
2) Eubacteria
- “true” bacteria
28 EUBACTERIA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Gram-positive Bacteria
• Have thick walls made of protein-sugar complex, turn purple when stained
• Gram-negative Bacteria
• Have extra layer of lipid outside cell wall and turn pink after counter
staining with safranin
• Cyanobacteria
• Gram-negative monerans that perform photosynthesis (like plants) and
release oxygen
• Blue green algae BGA
29 GRAM ‘+VE’ VS GRAM ‘-VE’ Wednesday, October 11, 2023
GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIA GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA

Retain Gram Stain Do not retain the stain
Cell Wall single layered Cell Wall two layered
Cell wall 20 - 80 nm thick Comparatively thin
Lack pili or fimbriae Present
Cell membrane gets folded inside Mesosomes absent
the cytoplasm forming mesosome
Cell wall contains only traces of Contains upto 20% lipids
lipids.
Pathogenic forms are fewer Pathogenic forms are abundant
E.g. Streptococcus, Clostridium E.g. Pseudomonas, Rhizobium
CLASSIFYING BACTERIA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
30
• 3 main shapes:
1. Bacilli
(rod-shaped)
2. Cocci
(sphere-shaped)
3. Vibrio
(comma-shaped)
4. Spirilla
(corkscrew-shaped)
BASED ON NUTRITION
31
32
• Classifying Bacteria by Cellular Respiration Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Aerobic bacteria, or strict aerobes - require oxygen

• Anaerobic bacteria
• Obligatory / strict anaerobes - cannot tolerate oxygen
• Facultative anaerobes – are generally aerobes, but have the capacity to
grow in the absence of oxygen
• Examples of Bacteria according to mode of Cellular Respiration:
• Aerobic: Bacillus cereus
• Anaerobic: Clostridium spp. ( botulism, tetanus)
• Facultative anaerobes: Staphylococcus spp.
BACTERIAL REPRODUCTION
• Definitions only
• Binary fission
• Transformation
• Conjugation
• Transduction
MYCOPLASMA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
34
Three distinctive features
1. Spherical to filamentous cells with no cell walls.
2. Smallest self-replicating organisms
3. The cell contains the minimum set of organelles: ribosomes, and
a genome consisting of a double-stranded circular DNA
molecule.
4. Smallest genomes; low in guanine and cytosine.
5. Mycoplasmas are surface parasites of the human respiratory and
urogenital tracts.
35
• ROLE OF BACTERIA Wednesday, October 11, 2023 36
• IN SEWAGE TREATMENT
• Sewage is water based waste
• Contains human waste, kitchen waste, garbage etc.
• During anaerobic decomposition methane & CO2 are produced by methanogenic bacteria
• Methane used as biogas fuel
• Sludge is dried & used as fertilizer
• IN ANTIBIOTIC PRODUCTION
• Isolated from various bacteria, for example Streptomyces griseus, Bacillus polymyxa
• Utilized as drugs against diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms.
• ROLE IN ENERGY PRODUCTION

• Biogas : Biodecomposition of animal wastes etc. in presence of water & absence of air in a digester called
biogas plant. Example: Methanogens
• Hydrogen-producing Bacteria: Renewable source of energy, do not produce pollutants or greenhouse
gases. Example: Clostridium,Tissierella
37 ROLE IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Curd
• Lactobacillus and others commonly called as Lactic Acid bacteria (LAB).
• They grow in milk and convert it into curd. They produce lactic acid
• Cause coagulation of the protein present in milk.
• Enhance the nutritional value of curd.
• Cheese
• Prepared by employing microbes.
• Each has its own characteristic taste, texture and flavor depending on the type of
microorganism used in their preparation.
• Swiss cheese has large holes produced by CO2 that is formed by the bacterium
Propionibacterium shermanii.
(C) KINGDOM PROTISTA
• Only two general characteristics and two examples of subgroups:

• (i) Chrysophytes
• (ii) Dinoflagellates,
• (iii) Euglenoids,
• (iv) Slime moulds,
• (v) Protozoans (to be studied under rhizopods, flagellates, ciliates and
sporozoans with two characteristics including modes of locomotion and two
examples of each).
KINGDOM PROTISTA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
39
• General Characteristics
• ALL are eukaryotes
• Mostly unicellular, some are multicellular (algae)
• Can be heterotrophic or autotrophic
• Mostly aquatic (though some live in moist soil or even
in the human body)
40
PROTISTA
Protozoa Protophyta Slime mould

(Animal-like) (Plant-like) (Fungi like)
41 Protozoa
Rhizopoda Flagellata Ciliata

Sporozoa
(Sarcodina) (Mastigophora) (Ciliophora)
Amoeba, Trypanosoma, Paramoecium, Plasmodium,

Entamoeba Leishmania Vorticella Monocystis
PROTOZOANS - RHIZOPODS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
42
TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION & 2

EXAMPLES
• Body covered with plasmalemma or shell
• Pseudopodia for locomotion
• Holozoic nutrition
• Usually single nucleus
• Asexual reproduction by Binary fission
• Contractile vacuole for osmoregulation
• Sexual reproduction by syngamy
• Examples – Amoeba, Entamoeba
FLAGELLATES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
43
• TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION

& 2 EXAMPLES
• Semi rigid covering called pellicle
• Organelles for locomotion & food capture are flagella
• Asexual reproduction by longitudnal binary fission
• Examples: In humans (Trypanosoma),
In gut of insects (Trichonympha)
CILIATES 44 Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION &

• 2 EXAMPLES
• Holozoic nutrition
• Organelles of locomotion are cilia
• Cytopharynx, neuromotor system, contractile vacuole & cytopyge
present
• Trichocysts are the organelles for defense
• Two types of nuclei – macronucleus (vegetative) & micronucleus
(sexual reproduction)
• E.g. Paramoecium, Vorticella, Balantidium (human parasite)
45 SPOROZOANS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION &

• 2 EXAMPLES
• Parasitic forms
• Lack power of locomotion during most of their life cycle
• Life cycle may include more than one host
• Asexual reproduction by binary fission & sexual by syngamy
followed by formation of haploid spores , the sporozoites
• E.g. : Plasmodium, Monocystis
46 Protophyta
Chrysophyta Pyrrophya Euglenophyta
Diatoms, Gymnodinium.
Gonyaulax Euglena
Desmids
47 CHRYSOPHYTES DINOFLAGELLATES EUGLENOIDS
Photosynthetic Cholorophyll ‘a’ & ‘c’, Cholorophyll ‘a’ & ‘c’, Cholorophyll ‘a’
pigments fucoxanthin, & diatoxanthin carotenoids, & ‘b’,
xanthophyll beta-carotene,
xanthophyll
Reserve food Chrysolaminarin, volutin Starch or oil Paramylum

material granules or oil granules
Reproduction Binary fission, auxospores Isogamous Binary fission
Examples diatoms (Pinnularia) and Gonyaulax, Noctiluca, Euglena, Phacus, Colacium

golden algae (desmids). Pyrodinium vesiculosum, Lepocinclis
ovum
48 SLIME MOULDS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• ANY TWO CHARACTERISTICS & 2 EXAMPLES

• Cell wall present only in spores
• Other stages surrounded by plasma membrane
• Devoid of chlorophyll hence heterotrophic
• Few species creep over vegetation on grass lawns & moist walls
• Swarmers move by flagella
• Exhibit amoeboid structure at some stage of life cycle
• E.g.
• acellular – Physarum,
• cellular -Dictyostelium
49
DUSTBIN OF CLASSIFICATION
(D) KINGDOM FUNGI
• General characteristics and mode of reproduction of each (including types of
spores and sexual reproduction – definition of isogamy, anisogamy, oogamy,
plasmogamy, karyogamy and dikaryophase).
• Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes - characteristics
with examples.
• Role of fungi in the field of medicine, bakery and environmental decomposition.
Definition of lichens and mycorrhiza (ecto and endo).
• Life cycles not required.
KINGDOM FUNGI Wednesday, October 11, 2023
52 • General Features
• Eukaryotes
• Heterotrophic as they lack chlorophyll
• Parasitic, saprophytic or symbiotic nutrition
• Rigid cell wall of chitin (polymer of N-acetylglucosamine)
• Body in the form of mycelium – individual filament called hypha
• They are non motile
• Stored food if present is in the form of glycogen, oil droplets,
volutin granules
• Reproduction is by means of spores
MODES OF REPRODUCTION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
53 1. TYPES OF FUNGAL SPORES

54
• 2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
55 • Isogamy is a form of sexual reproduction that involves

gametes of similar morphology (similar shape and size)
• Anisogamy (also called heterogamy) is the form of sexual
reproduction that involves the union or fusion of two
gametes, which differ in size and/or form
• Oogamy is the form of sexual reproduction. It is a form
of anisogamy (heterogamy) in which the female gamete
(e.g. egg cell) is significantly larger than the male gamete
and is non-motile.
56 • Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi, in
which the cytoplasm of two parent cells (usually from the

mycelia) fuses together without the fusion of nuclei, effectively
bringing two haploid nuclei close together in the same cell.
• Karyogamy is the final step in the process of fusing together
two haploid eukaryotic cells, and refers specifically to the fusion
of the two nuclei.
• Dikaryophase is formed only at reproduction. It is a period
when there are two nuclei in each cell. Nuclear fusion occurs,
followed by meiosis.
ZYGOMYCETES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
57
• Cell wall of fungal chitin
• Mycelium branched coenocytic (multinucleate, aseptate)
• Asexual reproduction by sporangiospores/ conidia
• Sexual reproduction by conjugation
• Sexual reproduction produces zygospore
• E.g.: Rhizopus, Mucor
58 ASCOMYCETES
• Haploid fungi
• Mycelium composed of branched septate hypha
• Cell wall made of chitin or fungal cellulose
• Formation of sac like structures called ascus in which 8 haploid
ascospores are produced
• Asexual reproduction by oidia, chlamydospores & conidia
• E.g.: Penicillium,Yeast (Saccharomyces)

59 BASIDIOMYCETES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Mycelium septate, multicellular composed of

branched hyphae
• Composed of primary mycelia & secondary mycelia
• Differentiation of two strains (+) & (-)
• Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy, karyogamy
& meiosis
• Phase between plasmogamy & karyogamy is called
dikaryophase – produces secondary mycelium
60 • Septa possesses central pores called dolipores with barrel
shaped outgrowths
• Karyogamy & meiosis takes place in club shaped structures
called basidia hence the name basidiomycetes
• E.g: Agaricus, Puccinia
61 DEUTEROMYCETES Wednesday, October 11, 2023

• Saprophytes or parasites. Parasitic forms cause severe diseases in plants,
animals & men
• Mycelium consists of septate & branched hyphae
• Septa perforated & multinucleate
• Asexual reproduction commonly by conidia
• Sexual reproduction is absent
• E.g.: Fusarium – cause wilting of vascular plants

• Alternaria solani – leaves and branches of potato & tomato wither &
fall
62 ROLE OF FUNGI Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• In medicine
• Antibiotics: Penicillin (Penicillium notatum)
• Ergots ( Claviceps purpurea) – have alkaloids which induce uterine contractions for abortion, menstrual
disorders etc.
• Steroids –Cortisones prepared by fermentation of glycosides by moulds used in rheumatoid arthritis
• Vitamins – Yeasts rich in Thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2)
• In Bakery
• Yeast used as a raising agent in making bread
• In making cakes & pastries
• Yeast produces CO2 that makes bubbles in the bread dough
• Environmental Decomposition
• As scavengers - CO2 supply in atmosphere maintained by decomposition of plants & animals
• Slow decomposition of plant debris supplies humus which maintains soil fertility
63 • LICHEN Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Is a symbiotic association of a fungus & an alga in which both the

organisms intertwine to form a single thallus. The fungal
component is called the mycobiont & the algal component is
called phycobiont.
• MYCORRHIZA
• The symbiotic association of a fungus with roots of higher plants.
• When fungus grows around the root surface, it is called
Ectotrophic mycorrhiza/ Ectomycorrhiza
• When it penetrates the root and grows within, it is called
Endotrophic mycorrhiza/ Endomycorrhiza
(E) VIRUS
• (characteristic features – link between living and non-

living, structure of TMV and bacteriophage, and
• contribution of the following scientists: D.J. Ivanowsky,
M.W. Beijerinck, W.M. Stanley), and
• Viroid (definition only).
65 CONTRIBUTIONS
• D. J. IWANOWSKY – Infectious agent of Tobacco Mosaic
Virus can pass through Bacterial filter.
• M. W. BEIJERINCK – Proposed the concept of Contagium
vivum Fluidum – can pass through agar gel
• W. M. STANLEY – Isolation & crystallization of Tobacco
Mosaic Virus
66 VIRUS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Obligate intracellular parasite composed of:

• Nucleic acid - either ssDNA dsDNA or ssRNA, dsRNA
• Protein coat (capsid)
• Characteristics
• Single type of nucleic acid - DNA or RNA
• Protein coat, or capsid, some have envelopes
• Multiply inside of living cells using the host cell machinery
• Direct the synthesis of structures to transfer viral nucleic acid to
other cells
VIRUS – LINK BETWEEN LIVING & NON - Wednesday, October 11, 2023
LIVING
67 • Living
• Features
• Have genetic material DNA [ssDNA, dsDNA OR ssRNA or dsRNA]
• Can grow
• Can be transmitted from one host to another
• Mutations & genetic growth
• Multiply within host
• React to heat, chemicals & radiations
• Infect & cause diseases
• DNA & protein composition & structure are similar to higher
organisms
68 • NON – LIVING
• FEATURES
• Can be crystallized
• Almost inert when outside the host body or cell
• No cell wall, cell membrane or cytoplasm
• No cell organelles & have no metabolism
• Not capable of functioning till they enter host.
• Do not have any energy producing enzyme system
69
CAPSID
capsomere
BACTERIOPHAGE Wednesday, October 11, 2023
70
VIROID
71
• Discovered by T. O. Diener
• An infectious agent of plants similar to a virus but
consisting of only a short, single strand of RNA
without a protein coat.
• They are very small (1/4th size of smallest RNA)
• Infection by viroids is mediated mechanically
(III) PLANT KINGDOM
• (a) Algae - characteristics (morphology, common

name, major pigments, stored food, composition of cell
wall, flagellar number and position of insertion,
habitat, mode of sexual reproduction) and examples of
Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae;
• Economic importance of algae – any five.
ALGAE - CHLOROPHYCEAE Wednesday, October 11, 2023
73 • ANY TWO CHARACTERISTICS & 2 EXAMPLES

• Green – contain chlorophyll a & b, small amount of carotenoids
• Have storage bodies called pyrenoids – contain proteins & starch
• Rigid cell wall made of inner layer of cellulose & outer layer of
pectose.
• Store starch. Some store oil droplets
• Reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, asexual by flagellated
zoospores & sexual – isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous
• E.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Chlamydomonas
74
75 SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE Wednesday, October 11, 2023
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Wednesday, October 11, 2023
76 • ANY FIVE
• Producers of aquatic ecosystems
• Fixation of CO2 & release of O2
• Food – Porphyra – source of food & fodder
• Food supplements – Chlorella & Spirulina
• Hydrocolloids
• Carrageenin from red algae used as emulsifier & cleaning agent
• Algin from brown algae used in shaving creams, shampoos etc.
• Agar used in ice creams jellies & culture medium
• Sewage disposal
(III) PLANT KINGDOM
• (b) Bryophyta – general characteristics, distinctive

features of liverworts and mosses; graphic outline of life
cycle of Funaria with reference to alternation of
generations. Economic importance of bryophytes.
78 BRYOPHYTA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• They have thalloid or leafy multi cellular green plant body.

• The dominant plant body is gametophyte (n) which is independent.
• The plant body lacks true roots, stem or leaves.
• Rhizoids - (root like structure) serve the function of roots
• The plants are green and possess chloroplasts
• Vascular tissues are completely absent
• Sex organs are multi cellular and jacketed.
• Male reproductive organ is known as antheridium.
• It produces biflagellate and motile male gametes or antherozoids
79 • The female sex organ is known as archegonium. It is a flask
shaped structure having a swollen base and a narrow neck.

• Water is essential for fertilization.
• Sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte for nutrition.
• Sporophyte generally consists of foot, seta and capsule. It
produces haploid spores (homosporous).
• Spores on germination give rise to gametophyte plant.
• Gametophyte and sporophyte differ in form which
alternate with each other
80
CLASSIFICATION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• CLASS – HEPATICAE includes Liverworts

• Plant body dorsiventral (flat)
• Either thallus or leafy axis
• Sex organs borne dorsally
• Numerous chloroplasts without pyrenoids
• No differentiation of meristematic tissue in sporophyte & growth is limited
(determinate)
• Sporogenous tissue derived from endothecium & without columella
• Capsule wall is one to several layers thick
Examples: Riccia & Marchantia

81 • CLASS – MUSCI includes Mosses

• Gametophyte is filamentous
• Gametophore is differentiated into stem & leaves
• Sex organs develop on apical portion of axis
• Sporophytes have capsules
• Sporogenous tissues are unique in not having
differentiation of elater cells
• Archesporium encloses central columella &
develops from the outer layer of endothecium
• E.g. Funaria, Sphagnum

82
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BRYOPHYTA
• Provide food for herbaceous mammals / birds.

• Sphagnum species (mosses) provide peat, used as a fuel.
• Due to its water holding capacity is is used as packing
material for trans-shipment of living materials.
• Mosses and Lichens form Pioneer community on bare rocks.
• Form dense mats on soil, so reduce the impact of rain and
soil erosion.
(III) PLANT KINGDOM
• (c) Pteridophyta: characteristics; classification into classes:

psilopsida (Psilotum), lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium),
sphenopsida (Equisetum) and pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris
and Adiantum). Graphic outline of life cycle of a typical
pteridophyte (fern). Definition of homospory and heterospory
with relevant examples. Economic importance.
85 PTERIDOPHYTA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Members of this group are most primitive living vascular plants.

• The main plant body is a sporophyte, differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
• Plants (sporophyte) reproduce by spores formed in sporangia. Sporangia
develop either on the ventral surface or in the axil of leaves (sporophylls).
• Sorus (pl: sori) – Groups of sporangia
• Plants may be homsoporous or heterosporous..
• Spores develop into a multi-cellular gametophytic body called prothallus.
• It is independent and chlorophyllous.
• It bears male reproductive organs called antheridia and female reproductive
organs called archegonia.
86 • Reproductive organs are multicellular and jacketed. Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Water is essential to effect fertilization as male reproductive units

are flagellated and motile.
• Seed formation never takes place in living pteridophytes.
• An embryo develops in situ after fertilization and the sporophyte
remains attached to the gametophyte till the development of root.
• Plants show clear alternation of generations.
• The sporophyte and gametophyte are independent of each other.
• E.g. Selaginella, fern (Dryopteris, Pteris)
• Heterosporous condition
87 CLASSIFICATION OF PTERIDOPHYTES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• CLASS: PSILOPSIDA:
• These are the oldest known vascular plants. Most of them are extinct (e.g., Rhynia).
• Plant body is simple and does not show much differentiation.
• Dichotomously branched rhizome takes the place of roots.
• Sporangia are borne directly on the stem.
• This group is represented by only two living species, viz., Psilotum (skeleton fork
fern) and Tmesipteris.
• CLASS: LYCOPSIDA:
• Plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
• Sporangia are borne in the axil of sporophylls.
• Sporophylls form compact strobili.
• Show heterospory.
• Examples: Selaginella (spike fern), Lycopodium.
88 CLASSIFICATION OF PTERIDOPHYTES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• CLASS: SPHENOPSIDA:
• Plant body is more differentiated and bears nodes and internodes like higher plants.
• Sporangia develop on sporangiophores which form compact cones at the apex of fertile branches.
• Example: Equisetum
• CLASS: PTEROPSIDA:
• Plant body shows much advancement towards higher vascular plants and is well differentiated into root,
stem and leaves.
• Leaves are large (megaphyllous).
• Sporangia develop on the ventral surface of the sporophylls, and are usually aggregated into sori.
• Examples: Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum, Pteridium, Polypodium
89
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FERNS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
90 • Ornamental value
• Drugs:
• Rhizomes/petioles of Dryopteris yield ant-helmintic drug.
• Lycopodium – Treatment of rheumatism
• Adiantum roots – cure throat infection
• Food – rich source of starch

• Soil binding
• Scouring – Equisetum stems for cleaning of utensils & polishing metals
• Biofertilizer: Azolla has symbiotic association with cyanobacterium &
Anabaena (nitrogen fixing bacteria)
(III) PLANT KINGDOM
• (d) Gymnosperms
• general characteristics and graphic outline of life
cycle of a typical gymnosperm (Pinus).
• Economic importance
92 GYMNOSPERMS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Ovules not enclosed in ovary wall (naked seeds)

• Do not bear fruits
• Well developed xylem tracheids
• All are perennials
• Generally have tap roots. Pinus roots have symbiotic association with fungi –
mycorrhiza
• Stem may be unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus)
• Leaves well adapted to withstand extremes of temperature humidity & wind
• Plant heterosporous
• Cones bear sporophylls
• Sexual reproduction does not require water
• E.g. Cycas & Pinus
93
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GYMNOSPERMS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
94 • Edible seeds
• Ornamental
• Timber – used for making light furniture, packing cases & railway
sleepers.
• Manufacture of paper
• Drugs – Ephedrine
• Fibre Board
• Fuel wood
• Essential Oils- for soap and perfumes
• Beverages
• Resins
95
• (e) Angiosperms – general characteristics

• and classification into monocots and dicots; Graphic
outline of life cycle of a typical angiosperm.
• (f) Comparison of life cycle patterns of different plant
groups (haplontic, diplontic and haplo-diplontic).
(IV) ANIMAL KINGDOM
• animal construction
• body plan (cell aggregate plan, blind-sac plan and tube-within-tube plan),
• symmetry (spherical, radial and bilateral symmetry)
• coelom development (diploblastic and triploblastic organisation in
animals, acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate and
haemocoelomate)
• segmentation.
(IV) ANIMAL KINGDOM
• Non-chordata - five distinguishing characters with two examples of Porifera,

Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda (Aschelminthes), Annelida,
Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Hemichordata.
• Chordata – sub-classification of Chordata with reference to notochord - sub
phyla Urochordata, Cephalochordata. Vertebrata (classes – cyclostomata,
chondrichthyes, osteichthyes, amphibia, reptilia, aves and mammalia) – three
distinguishing characters with two examples of each).
98 (IV) ANIMAL KINGDOM

• Animal Kingdom: animal construction – body plan (cell aggregate plan, blind-sac plan
and tube-within-tube plan), symmetry (spherical, radial and bilateral symmetry),
coelom development (diploblastic and triploblastic organisation in animals,
acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate and haemocoelomate), segmentation.
• Non-chordata - five distinguishing characters with two examples of Porifera, Cnidaria,
Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda (Aschelminthes), Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda,
Echinodermata, Hemichordata.
• Chordata – sub-classification of Chordata with reference to notochord - sub phyla
Urochordata, Cephalochordata.Vertebrata (classes – cyclostomata, chondrichthyes,
osteichthyes, amphibia, reptilia, aves and mammalia) – three distinguishing characters with
two examples of each).
ANIMAL KINGDOM: ANIMAL CONSTRUCTION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Body plan
99
• Cell aggregate plan
• Body represented by an aggregate of cells
• Division of labour at cellular level
• Example: Sponges
• Blind-sac plan
• Sac like body with a single opening
• Division of labour at tissue level
• Example: Coelenterates
• Tube-within-tube plan
• Alimentary canal (smaller tube) within body wall (wider tube)
• Separate mouth and anus
• Example: All higher phyla
100 • Symmetry
• Spherical
• Body part arranged in a sphere-like form
• Example: Volvox
• Radial
• Body parts arranged radially along a longitudinal axis.
• Body can be cut into many equal parts along the radii.
• Examples: Coelenterates and echinoderm (secondary)
• Bilateral:
• Body can be cut only into two equal parts .
• Examples: Higher phyla (Mollusca: Asymmetrical)
101 ANIMAL KINGDOM: ANIMAL CONSTRUCTION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Coelom development
• Coelom: Space between alimentary canal and body wall
• Acoelomate: Coelom absent
• Pseudocoelomate: Mesodermal lining absent, persistent bastocoel
• Eucoelomate: Coelom lined with mesodermal layer (peritoneum)
• Schizocoel: Mesoderm develops due to splitting of mesoderm
• Enterocoel: Mesoderm develop from the pouches of archenteron
(Echinoderms, chordates)
• Haemocoelomate
• During development coelom is replaced by a blood-filled cavity
• Filled with haemolymph
• Found in arthropods
102 • Diploblastic
• Two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm)
• Examples: Porifera and Coelenterata
• Triploblastic
• Three germ layers (eco-, meso- and endoderm)
• Example: Higher phyla
103 ANIMAL KINGDOM: ANIMAL CONSTRUCTION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Segmentation: Division of the body into a series of

chambers built on the same fundamental plan
• Metameric segmentation
• External segmentation corresponds to internal segmentation (Annelida)
• Number of segments remains constant throughout life
• Segments are physiologically interdependent
• False segmentation (Pseudometamerism)
• Number of segments may change
• Segments (proglottids) are physiologically independent
ANIMAL KINGDOM: NON-CHORDATA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
PHYLUM: PORIFERA
104
1. Aquatic, sedentary.
2. Radially symmetrical, diploblastic.
3. Cellular level of organization.
4. Presence of canal system
5. Presence of flagellated choanocytes or collar cells.
6. Body cavity is called spongocoel or atrium.
7. Body wall perforated by ostia (incurrent pores). Osculum acts as excurrent pore.
8. Skeleton of calcareous or siliceous spicules; or spongin fibers.
9. Asexual reproduction by budding or gemmule formation.
10. Usually hermaphrodite, development indirect, involves parenchymula or amphiblastula larva.
11. High power of regeneration.
12. Examples: Euplectella (Venus’s flower basket), Hyalonema (Glass rope sponge), Leucosolenia,
Sycon (Scypha), Ascon, Spongilla (fresh water sponge), Euspongia (bath sponge).
105
106 ANIMAL KINGDOM: NON-CHORDATA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
PHYLUM: Cnidaria
1. Aquatic, freshwater or marine.
2. Radially symmetrical, diploblastic.
3. Multicellular, first metazoans, tissue grade of body organization.
4. Body cavity is called as gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron.
5. Presence of cnidoblast or stinging cells.
6. Alternation of generations (metagenesis), between medusa and polyp.
7. Nervous system consists of a network of nerve fibers. Brain absent.
8. Reproduction by both asexual (budding) and sexual methods.
9. Good power of regeneration.
10. Direct or indirect development, involving planula larva.
• Examples: Hydra, Obelia, Physalia (Portuguese man of war), Bougainvillea, Jelly fish (Aurelia), Adamsia
(Sea anemone), Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan) and Meandrina (Brain coral).
Phylum: Ctenophora
• Commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies
• Exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic organisms with tissue level of organisation.
• The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in locomotion.
• Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
• Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is well-marked in ctenophores.
• Sexes are not separate. Reproduction takes place only by sexual means.
• Fertilisation is external with indirect development (Cydippid larva)
• Examples: Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.
PLATYHELMINTHES
• Free living, aquatic (both fresh water and marine), mostly parasitic.
• First eumetazoan, triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, dorsoventrally flattened.
• Acoelomates, unsegmented or pseudosegmented (pseudometameric).
• Gut may or may not be present, highly branched, anus is always absent; hence body appears like a blind sac.
• Epidermis syncytial and ciliated; covered with cuticle in parasitic forms.
• Excretion by flame cells, solenocytes or protonephridia.
• Presence of suckers and hooks in parasitic forms.
• Nervous system and sense organs are poorly developed.
• Sexes are indistinguishable and majority of them are hermaphrodite.
• Fertilization is internal and development may be direct or indirect, with or without alternation of hosts.
• Examples: Planaria (syn. Dugesia), Fasciola hepatica, Taenia solium (in man), T. saginatta
109 E Visceral layer

u Persistent blastocoel Parietal
layer
of
peritoneum
PHYLUM: NEMATODA
1. Both free living and parasites of plants and animals.
2. Unsegmented, pseudocoelomates, bilaterally symmetrical, elongated, spindle shaped.
3. Body is covered with cuticle. Syncytial epidermis.
4. Body cavity is a fluid-filled pseudocoel.
5. Alimentary canal straight, Respiratory and circulatory systems are absent.
6. Excretory system represented by renette cells.
7. Nervous system includes a nerve ring and 6-8 longitudinal cords.
8. Sense organs represented only by papilla and amphids.
9. Sexes are usually separate, with sexual dimorphism.
10. Fertilization internal. Development direct or indirect. Life history is complicated.
• Examples: Ancylostoma duodenale (hook worm), Ascaris, Wuchereria
10/11/2023
111
PHYLUM: ANNELIDA
1. Mostly aquatic. Long and bilaterally symmetrical body.
2. High degree of cephalization.
3. Metamerically segmented.
4. Locomotion by segmentally arranged setae or parapodia.
5. Alimentary canal is extends straight from mouth to anus (Tube-within-a-tube).
6. Respiration through general body surface or by gills in some forms.
7. Blood vascular system is closed type. Hemoglobin is dissolved in plasma.
8. Excretion by paired segmental nephridia.
9. Nervous system: Brain and segmental ganglia connected by ventral nerve cord.
10. Sexes may be united or separate. Development may be direct or indirect (Trochophore
larva).
• Examples: Earthworm (Pheretima), Clam worm (Nereis), Leech (Hirudinaria)
113
Internal = external
Physiologically
interdependent
114
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
1. The largest phylum, comprising about 85% of animal kingdom.
2. Jointed appendages. Chitinous exoskeleton (chitin is a polymer of N-acetyl glucosamine).

3. Body cavity is a haemocoel, filled with hemolymph (may contain hemocyanin).
4. Digestive system is well developed and mouthparts are variously modified.
5. Respiration is by trachea, gills or book lungs (arachnida).
6. Circulatory system is of open type.
7. Heart is dorsally situated, neurogenic and many chambered.
8. Excretion by Malpighian tubules or green glands.
9. Nervous system and sense organs (e.g. statocysts or balance organs) well developed.
10.Eyes may be simple (ocelli); or compound (units are called ommatidia).
11.Sexes are usually separate. Development is usually indirect involving various larval stages.
• Examples:– Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect),Vectors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes
(Mosquitoes), Cockroach, Gregarious pest – Locusta (Locust), Living fossil – Limulus (King crab).
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116
MOLLUSCA
1. Aquatic, fresh water as well as marine, or amphibious (semi-terrestrial).
2. Unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic.

3. Presence of calcareous shell; usually external, sometimes internal
4. Digestive system complete. Radula- a rasping organ found in buccal cavity.
5. Partly open- partly closed type of circulatory system. Heart myogenic.

6. Blood usually blue due to presence of hemocyanin, a copper containing pigment.
7. Respiration by gills (ctenidia) found in mantle cavity or pulmonary sac in semi-terrestrial forms.
8. Excretion by one or two pairs of sac like metanephridia.

9. Nervous system and sense organs well developed.
10. Statocysts (balance) and osphradium (chemoreception) as special sense organs.
11. Sexes usually separate. Development direct or indirect. Larva may be veliger, trochphore or glochidium.
Examples: Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia (Cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid), Octopus (Devil fish),
Aplysia (Sea hare), Dentalium (Tusk shell), Chaetopleura (Chiton).
ANIMAL KINGDOM: NON-CHORDATA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
118 ECHINODERMATA
1. Exclusively marine, first deuterostomes.
2. Pentaradially symmetrical, original symmetry bilateral.
3. Enterocoelous coelom restricted only around gonads.
4. Calcareous spines on the body.
5. Presence of water vascular system. Ambulacral system
6. Respiration with the help of gills (respiratory tree).
7. Body is antero-posteriorly compressed and is distinguished into oral and aboral ends.
8. Locomotion with the help of tube feet, which help in respiration also.
9. Development is indirect.
Examples: Sea feather (Antedon), sea cucumber (Cucumaria, Holothurion), sea urchins or sand
dollars (Echinus), star fish (Asterias)
PHYLUM: HEMICHORDATA
1. Worm like marine animals, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate.
2. Connecting link between chordates and non-chordates.
3. Closely resemble with chordates in possessing pharyngeal gill slits and dorsal, hollow tubular nervous system, but
do not possess the notochord.
4. The body is cylindrical and is divisible into an anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk.
5. Circulatory system is of open type.
6. Respiration takes place through gills.
7. Excretory organ is proboscis gland.
8. Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect.
• Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.
120
Tongue worm
121 ANIMAL KINGDOM: CHORDATA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
PHYLUM : CHORDATA
• Possess notochord,
• Dorsal, tubular, hollow nervous system, and
• Pharyngeal gill slits at some stage of life.
• Circulatory system is of closed type. Hemoglobin is present inside the RBCs.
• Heart is always on ventral side and is myogenic. Presence of hepatic portal system.
• Presence of a post-anal tail, without coelom.
• Development is usually direct, sometimes larva is involved.
122
123
SUBPHYLUM: UROCHORDATA / TUNICATA

• Most primitive chordates. Notochord remains confined to tail region.
• Formation of tadpole larva during development. It undergoes retrogressive metamorphosis.
• Sac like unsegmented body enclosed in a leathery test or tunic made up of tunicin.
• Example: Ascidia, Herdmania (sea squirt), Doliolum, Salpa.
SUBPHYLUM: CEPHALOCHORDATA
• Retain chordate characters throughout their life. Notochord extends from head to tail.
• Presence of wheel organ.
• Ciliary and filter feeders, mucus feeders.
• Example: Amphioxus (syn. Branchiostoma, lancelet).
SUBPHYLUM: VERTEBRATA
• Notochord found in embryonic stages, later replaced by vertebral column.
• Two pairs of appendages (fins or limbs).
• Nerve cord enclosed within vertebral column.
• Brain lodged in cartilaginous or bony cranium.
DIV –I– AGNATHA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
➢ Jawless, primitive vertebrate devoid of limb.

125
➢ Mouth - rounded, funnel shaped suctorial
➢ Notochord persists
➢ Two – Semi-circular canals found in internal ear
➢ One median pineal eye along with lateral eye on the head
➢ It is divided into two class
➢ Class – A → Ostracodermi Class – B → Cyclostomata
Class–A→ Ostracodermi
➢ All are extinct, these were fresh water fishes
➢ As a first vertebrate
➢ Body protected by hard covering – hard scale
➢ 2 Semi-circular canal in the internal ear
e.g. Cephalaspis (Primitive vertebrate)
126
Class –B→ Cyclostomata Wednesday, October 11, 2023
➢Mouth: circular, suctorial type, with horny teeth. No jaws

➢Thin, long and tubular body, tail is flat.
➢Notochord and vertebral column both are present.
➢Notochord extends up to the end of the tail.
➢Vertebral column & cranium made up of cartilage.
➢ Cartilaginous endoskeleton
➢Girdles are absent, paired appendages absent.
➢Paired fins absent. Dorsal, median and tail fins present.
➢ Integument – skin soft, smooth and devoid of scales
➢Example: Petromyzon (Lamprey), Myxine (Hag fish)
CLASS: PISCES ichthyology

• Stream lined body, paired fins, respiration by gills, scales on skin. Two-chambered heart, contains only venous blood.
Chondrichthyes
1. Marine, cartilaginous fishes.
2. Mouth ventral, scroll valve in intestine, tail heterocercal.
3. Placoid scales, no operculum, no swim bladder.
• Examples: Dog fishes (Scoliodon), Trygon (Sting ray), Torpedo (Electric ray), Chimaera.
Osteichthys/ Teleostomi
1. Bony fishes, found in both fresh water and marine habitats.
2. Mouth anterior and terminal, tail is homocercal.
3. Cycloid, ctenoid or ganoid scales. Operculum present.
4. Lateral line system as a sense organ.
• Examples: Exocoetus (flying fish), Hippocampus (sea horse), Remora (sucker fish), edible fishes, viz., Labeo rohita (rohu),
Wallago attu, Mystus singhala (singhi).
CLASS: AMPHIBIA
1. First vertebrates to leave water, adapted for both aquatic as well as terrestrial life.
2. Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs and well developed girdles.
3. Heart is three chambered. Sinus venosus and truncus arteriosus are present.
4. RBCs are nucleated.
5. Cold blooded / poikilotherms or ectotherms.
6. Respiration by skin (cutaneous), bucco-pharyns, lungs, or gills.
7. Kidneys are mesonephric.
8. Sexes are separate, external copulatory organ is absent. A common urinogenital aperture
(cloaca) is present.
9. Fertilization is external in water. Anamniotes.
10. Development is indirect, usually involving a tadpole larva.
• Examples: Frog (Rana), Toad (Bufo), Salamander. Ichthyophis
CLASS: REPTILIA
1. First truly successful terrestrial vertebrates. Skin covered with dry
scales.
2. Monocondylic skull.
3. Three-chambered heart, ventricle is incompletely divided (4-chambered
in crocodiles). Cold-blooded.
4. Metanephric kidneys. Uricotelic
5. Cranial nerves – 12 pairs.
6. Oviparous. Megalecithal, Cleidoic eggs
7. Internal fertilization. Development: Direct
8. First amniotes.
ANIMAL KINGDOM: CHORDATA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
130
CLASS: REPTILIA
• Examples: Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise),
Chameleon (Tree lizard), Hemidactylus (Wall lizard),
Calotes (Garden lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile),
Alligator (Alligator), Poisonous snakes – Naja
(Cobra), Bungarus (Krait), Draco - Flying lizard,
Heloderma - also called Gila monster
131 CLASS: AVES

1. “Birds are glorified reptiles” – Huxley.
2. Fore limbs modified into wings. Presence of feathers.
3. Warm blooded (homeotherms, endotherm).
4. Hollow or pneumatic bones.
5. Skull is monocondylic, jaws replaced by toothless beak.
6. Presence of crop for grinding the food. Absence of rectum.
7. Sternum bears a projection called keel or carina for attachment of flight muscles.
8. Syrinx is present on ventral side of trachea for production of sound.
9. Heart is completely four chambered; RBCs are nucleated.
10. Kidneys metanephric, only the left kidney and the left ureter present. Urinary bladder is absent. Uricotelic.
11. Ovary and oviduct of only the left side is present. Eggs are enclosed within a calcareous shell.
• Examples: Examples : Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo cristatus
(Peacock – National bird), Aptenodytes (Penguin), Neophron (Vulture).
132 CLASS: MAMMALIA

1. Warm blooded (endothermal or homeothermal). Body is covered with hair.
2. Presence of mammary glands, sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
3. Seven cervical vertebrae.
4. Thecodont, heterodont.
5. Presence of diaphragm.
6. Anus and urinogenital openings are separate.
7. Heart is four chambered.
8. RBCs circular and enucleated.
9. Cerebral hemispheres interconnected by corpus callosum
10. 4-optic lobes (corpora quadrigemina)
11. Pinna present.
12. Metanephric kidneys.
13. Presence of scrotum and penis in males.
14. Fertilization internal. Viviparous, except prototherians.
15. Amniotes, placentals.
• Examples : Tiger, Man, Apes, Monkeys, Elephant, camel
2. STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS AND
PLANTS
• (i) Morphology of Flowering Plants
• (a) Morphology and modifications of root, stem, leaf.
• Types of roots (tap, fibrous, adventitious), regions, modifications of roots for storage (Tuberous – e.g.
Mirabilis and sweet potato; fusiform – e.g. radish; conical – e.g., carrot; napiform – e.g. turnip), respiration
(pneumatophores) and support (stilt and prop).
• Stems – features (nodes internodes, buds), modifications – underground (tuber, rhizome, corm) aerial (tendril
thorn, Phylloclade, cladode) and sub-aerial (runner, sucker, stolon, offset).
• Leaves - parts of a simple leaf, venation, types of leaves (simple and compound – pinnate and palmate),
phyllotaxy – alternate, opposite, whorled (with an example of each). Modifications for mechanical support
(tendril), protection (spine), storage (bulb), reproduction (Bryophyllum); insectivorous plants (pitcher plant,
Venus-fly-trap).
PLANTS
• (b) Morphology of flower, fruit and seed.
• Structure of a typical flower, types of inflorescence (racemose and cymose).
• Structure of a typical flower, bracteates/ebracteate, [symmetry (actinomorphic, zygomorphic), trimerous/ tetramerous/
pentamerous, complete/ incomplete, non-essential whorls (calyx: gamosepalous, polysepalous, corolla: gamopetalous,
polysepalous, perianth, aestivation: valvate, twisted, imbricate, vexillary), essential whorls (androecium: cohesion -
syngenesious, synandrous, monadelphous, diadelphous, polyadelphous; adhesion – epipetalous, epiphyllous; number of lobes
– monothecous, dithecous; Gynoecium: position of ovary – epigynous, hypogynous, perigynous, cohesion – apocarpous,
syncarpous, number of locules – unilocular, bilocular, multilocular], types of inflorescence (racemose and cymose – definition
and differences; subtypes not required).
2. STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS
• (b) Morphology of flower, fruit and seed.
• Structure of a typical flower, types of inflorescence (racemose and cymose).
• Structure of a typical flower, bracteates/ebracteate, [symmetry (actinomorphic, zygomorphic), trimerous/
tetramerous/ pentamerous, complete/ incomplete, non-essential whorls (calyx: gamosepalous, polysepalous, corolla:
gamopetalous, polysepalous, perianth, aestivation: valvate, twisted, imbricate, vexillary), essential whorls
(androecium: cohesion - syngenesious, synandrous, monadelphous, diadelphous, polyadelphous; adhesion –
epipetalous, epiphyllous; number of lobes – monothecous, dithecous; Gynoecium: position of ovary – epigynous,
hypogynous, perigynous, cohesion – apocarpous, syncarpous, number of locules – unilocular, bilocular,
multilocular], types of inflorescence (racemose and cymose – definition and differences; subtypes not required).
PLANTS
• (ii) Anatomy of Flowering Plants
• Plant Tissues: types of plant tissues: Meristematic tissues: classification of meristematic tissue.
Permanent Tissues: structure and function of simple tissues (parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma) and complex tissues (xylem and phloem), tissue system. Internal structure of
root, stem, and leaf.
• Characteristics of meristematic tissue; classification of meristems based on origin and
location; structure, function and location of permanent tissues; simple and complex tissues;
epidermal, ground and vascular tissue systems.
• Cellular diagrams of T.S. of roots and stem and V.S. of monocot and dicot leaves are required.
PLANT TISSUES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
137 • Characteristics of meristematic tissues

• Capable of division
• Living cells
• Thin cell walls of cellulose
• Normally isodiametric, oval, polygonal, rectangular cells
• Abundant cytoplasm
• Cells lack intercellular spaces
• Vacuoles are either absent or very small
• Large prominent nucleus is present
• No reserve food material, no ER and no plastids
CLASSIFICATION OF MERISTEM
138
• Based on origin and development
• Promeristem (= primordial meristem)
• Present in embryo and at the apices of shoots and roots
• They give rise to primary meristems
• Primary meristem
• Originates from promeristem
• Give rise to primary permanent tissues
• Secondary meristem
• Develops from primary permanent tissue
• Give rise to secondary permanent tissues. Examples: Interfascicular
cambium and cork cambium.
CLASSIFICATION OF MERISTEM
139
• Based on position in plant body
• Apical meristem
• Found at the root and shoot apex
• Brings about growth in length of shoot and root
• Intercalary meristem
• Present at the base of nodes/internodes/leaves
• Responsible for increase in length
• Lateral meristem
• Located parallel to the long axis of the plant organs
• Responsible for increase of the diameter of the plant
PERMANENT TISSUES
140
• Features of permanent tissues
• Formed due to division and differentiation in meristematic
tissue.
• The cells may be living or dead, thin-walled or thick-walled.
• Classified as
• Simple
• Complex
• Specialised
SIMPLE TISSUES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
141 • Composed of structurally and functionally similar cells.
• These are of three types:
• Parenchyma
• Living, thin-walled, isodiametric, distinct nuclei.
• Cell walls of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectic materials.
• Small or large intercellular spaces.
• Specialized Parenchyma
142 • A. Prosenchyma: Parenchyma cells are elongated.
• B. Chlorenchyma : Cells contain chloroplasts.
• C. Aerenchyma : Develop air spaces
• D. Idioblast : Stores ergastic substances like tannins etc
• Functions:
• Respiration, photosynthesis, storage, secretion, etc.
• These cells help in wound-healing
• Parenchymatous cells store water in succulent plants
• In aquatic plants store air and provide buoyancy to plants
• In xylem and phloem help in conduction of water and food
materials.
143 • Collenchyma
• These are living elongated cells with thick walls.
• The cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectic materials.
• The wall thickening is not uniform.
• Sometimes chloroplasts are present in collenchyma cells.
• Found in many herbaceous dicot stems, petioles and younger regions of
woody stems.
• Collenchyma is absent in roots and monocot stems.
• Functions
• It performs both mechanical as well as vital functions.
• Collenchyma provides tensile strength which gives elasticity and support to the
growing organs.
• Chloroplast containing collenchyma performs photosynthesis.
144 • Sclerenchyma
• The cells are dead, thick walled (lignified), long, narrow and pointed at both ends.
• Sclerenchyma is of two types:

• A. Sclerenchymatous fibres
• Cells long, thick walled, pointed at both ends and
lignified. Cell wall has simple or bordered pits.
• B. Sclereids
• They have also extremely thick wall of lignin with narrow
lumen. The cells have no definite shape
• Function: Fibers and Sclereids provide mechanical strength
COMPLEX TISSUE Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Xylem: conduction of water and minerals. Composed of:

145
• Tracheids:
• Single celled, long, pointed at the ends. Dead, lignified.
• Main vascular tissue of the gymnosperms and ferns.
• Tracheae (vessels):
• Unlike tracheids, vessels are always multicellular
• Derived from large number of prosenchymatous cells arranged end to end.
• Their end walls are oblique
• Parenchyma: Living cells, sometimes form tyloses
• Fibers
146
Tracheids VesselsWednesday, October 11, 2023
1. These are one celled hence are of These are multicelluar and are much
short length longer
2. Their lumen is very narrow due to Their lumen is wide due to relatively
more thick walls thin walls
3. The septa between two tracheids The septa between successive cells get
remain intact partly or completely dissolved
4. The ends are tapering or oblique The ends are transverse

147 COMPLEX TISSUES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Phloem: Conducts food. Composed of:

• Sieve tubes:
• Derived from non-lignified, long cells, arranged end to end.
• The transverse walls have small sieve pits. The sieve pits are grouped into small
areas, the sieve-plates.
• Cells contain a large vacuole filled with cell sap.
• Sieve-tubes do not contain any nuclei.
• Companion cells:
• Found adjacent to the sieve-tubes.
• Absent in Pteridophyta and gymnosperms
• Dense cytoplasm, conspicuous nucleus.
• Connected with sieve-plates through plasmodesmata
PHLOEM (CONTD…)
148
• Phloem parenchyma
• Help in the slow diffusion of soluble substances and storage
of reserve food.
• Absent in the phloem of monocots.
• Pholem fibres or bast fibers
• They are lignified, elongated tapering cells, which purely
serve as a mechanical function.
• These fibers are economically important because they are
used in making clothes, ropes and cords.
149
Leptocentric Hadrocentric
Xylem
Phloem
150 Protoxylem is
endarch
T. S. OF DICOT STEM
151
T. S. OF MONOCOT STEM
152
153
154 T. S. OF MONOCOT ROOT

155 V. S. OF DICOT LEAF

V. S. OF MONOCOT LEAF
156
157 • Anatomical differences between
• Dicot stem & monocot stem
• Dicot root & monocot root
• Dicot leaf & monocot leaf

158
159
Dicot root Monocot root

160 • Cortex is comparatively • Cortex is wide.
narrow.
• Pericycle is single layered. • Pericycle is often multilayered.
• Pericycle produces lateral
• Pericycle produces lateral roots.
roots, cambium and cork
cambium. • Vascular bundles are more
• Vascular bundles range from than six in number.
two to six in number. • Xylem vessels are oval or
• Xylem vessels are angular. rounded.
• Pith is well developed.
• Pith is not well developed or
absent • Secondary growth does not
• Secondary growth takes place. take place.
161 (B) SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT STEM

AND DICOT ROOT
• Basic idea of how secondary growth takes place in dicot stems and roots (with the help of
outline diagrams) and formation of annual rings. Activity of the cambium and cork cambium,
formation of secondary tissues, differences between heart wood and sap wood, early wood and
late wood. Definition of bark.
PLANTS
• (iii) Structural Organisation in Animals

• Morphology, Anatomy and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory,
respiratory, nervous and reproductive) of frog.
FROG
MORPHOLOGY
FROG
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FROG
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
FROG
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
FROG
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
PYLANGIUM
SYNANGIUM
FROG
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
FROG
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
FROG
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
On
Old
Olympus
Topmost
Top
A
Finn
And
German
Viewed
FROG
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
FROG
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
FROG
3. CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• (i) Cell - the Unit of Life
• Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life: Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; Plant cell and
animal cell; cell envelope; cell membrane, cell wall (including definition of plasmodesmata); cell
organelles – ultrastructure and function; endomembrane system (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
lysosomes, vacuoles), mitochondria, ribosomes, plastids, microbodies; cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella,
centrioles; nucleus, nuclear membrane, chromatin, nucleolus.
• Historical aspects, cell theory, size and shape of cells; general structure of prokaryotic cell.
• General structure of eukaryotic cell, ultra-structure and function of cell wall, cell membrane (description of
fluid mosaic model; functions of the plasma membrane: active and passive transport, brief explanation of
facilitated diffusion (uniport, symport and antiport) with one example. Mitochondria, nucleus (structure and
types of chromosomes on the basis of the position of centromere, satellite), types of plastids, endomembrane
system (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles), ribosomes, microbodies,
cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella and centrioles; difference between prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell, plant and
animal cell, microfilaments and microtubules, flagella and cilia.
175 CELL THEORY
• Schleiden, Schwann,Virchow
• The cell theory states:
• All living things or organisms are made of cells and their products.
• New cells are created by old cells dividing into two. Omnis cellula e cellula
• Cells are the basic building units of life.
Exception:Virus, unicellular organisms (acellular)
CELL WALL Wednesday, October 11, 2023
176
177 Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate which holds

or glues the different neighbouring cells together.
• The cell wall and middle lamellae may be traversed by
plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
• Functions
1. Mechanical support, strength
2. Water-proofing
3. It also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to
undesirable macromolecules.
CELL MEMBRANE / PLASMA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
178 MEMBRANE/ PLASMALEMMA
Fluid mosaic model

179
180 Active Transport Passive Transport

Definition Use of ATP to pump solutes Movement of molecules along the
against the concentration gradient concentration gradient i.e., from high
i.e., from low solute to high solute to low concentration
concentration
Requires Energy Yes; ATP in primary, Not required
electrochemical in secondary.
Types of Transport Active and Vesicular; phagocytosis, Diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
pinocytosis, receptor mediated. filtration, osmosis.
Types of Particle proteins, ions, large cells, bacterial soluble in lipids, monosaccharides,
cells, complex sugars. elements, water
Examples: Endocytosis; Exocytosis diffusion; osmosis; facilitated diffusion.
Importance: Transport of amino acids, maintains osmotic equilibrium in the
sugars and lipids until equilibrium is cell
reached
181
182 Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell Wednesday, October 11, 2023
Chromosomes no. More than one One

Cell Type Usually multicellular Usually unicellular
True Nucleus Present Absent (Incipient nucleus)
Cell division Meiosis and fusion of gametes No mitosis or meiosis
Membrane bound Present Absent
organelles
Microtubules Present Absent or rare
Cytoskeleton Present May be absent
DNA wrapping DNA associated with histones Multiple proteins act together to fold
around proteins and condense the DNA
Ribosomes: Larger (80S) Smaller (70S)
Vesicles Present Present
Flagella Show 9 + 2 arrangement 9 + 0 arrangement
Cell wall: Only in plant cells and fungi Usually chemically complexed
Vacuoles: Present Present
Cell size: 10-100um 1-10um
Example: Animals and Plants Bacteria and Archaea
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Cell wall: Absent Present (formed of
183 cellulose)
Shape: Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)
Vacuole: One or more small One, large central

vacuoles (much smaller) vacuole taking up 90% of
cell volume.
Centrioles: Present in all animal cells present only in lower
plants
Chloroplas Absent Present
t:
Plastids: Absent Present
Lysosomes: Present Usually not evident.
Cilia: Present Very rare
184
Mitochondrion
185
Chloroplast grana lamellae

SEMIAUTONOMOUS ORGANELLES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
186
• (Chloroplast / mitochondria)
• Presence of circular DNA
• Presence of 70S ribosome
• Symbiotic prokaryotes
• Mutually
• Presence of circular DNA
• Presence of 70S ribosome
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM Wednesday, October 11, 2023
187 THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

• Represented by an extensive network (reticulum) of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
• The ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments, i.e., luminal (inside ER) and extra-
luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
• The endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their surface is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
• In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and are called smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
• RER is frequently observed in the cells actively involved in protein synthesis and secretion. They are
extensive and continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus.
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site for synthesis of lipid. In animal cells lipid-like steroidal
hormones are synthesised in SER.
188
189
190
191 • LYSOSOME
• Polymorphic organelle
• Exists in many different forms in the same cell
• Primary: Only the lysosome
• Secondary: Pr. Lysosome + Digestive vacuole
• Residual body:
• Autophagosome: lysosome + cellular content
• Ambilysosome
S = Svedberg’s unit / sedimentation co-
efficient
192
Prokaryotes: 70S (30S + 50S)
Eukaryotes: 80S (40S + 60S)
Polysome
Why is lysosome called a polymorphic organelle?

Different forms in the same cell
Why are mitochondria and chloroplast considered
symbiotic prokaryotes?
Have their own DNA and ribosome
Differences between RER and SER

MICROBODIES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
193 • These are bounded by a single membrane. These were collectively called
are microbodies.
• Following types of microbodies are distinguished
• 1. PEROXISOMES: The term 'peroxisome’ denotes that they show
significant peroxidative activity. The enzymes present in peroxisomes are
catalase and peroxidases.
• Function: The peroxisomes oxidise a variety of substrates in a two-step
reaction. In the first step substrates like uric acid, amino acids and lactic
acid are oxidised by molecular oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide by the
specific peroxidase.
MICROBODIES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
194 • 2. GLYOXYSOMES: They occur in the cells of yeasts, Neurospora,

germinating and oil rich seeds of many higher plants, e.g., castor.
• Function : Glyoxysomes contain enzymes of beta-oxidation of fatty

acid, and for glyoxylate cycle. In the seeds of plants b-oxidation
occurs in glyoxysomes alone but in other parts of the plants b-
oxidation occurs in glyoxysomes and mitochondria. It is involved in
gluconeogenesis.
• 3. SPHEROSOMES: These are very small (0.5 to 1.0 um diameter),

spherical bodies enclosed by a single unit membrane.
• Function: Their main function is synthesis and storage of lipids.
195
196
197
198
199
200
• (ii) Biomolecules
• Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, enzymes.
• Carbohydrates: general classification and functions of: monosaccharides (glucose, ribose and
deoxyribose), disaccharides (maltose, lactose and sucrose), polysaccharides (glycogen, starch, cellulose,
inulin, and chitin).
• Proteins: amino acids – (structure: glycine, alanine, serine); amino acids as zwitter-ion; examples of acidic,
basic, neutral, sulphur containing amino acids; essential and nonessential amino acids; levels of protein
structure (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary); functions of proteins.
• Lipids: classification, structure and functions of fats and oils.
• Enzymes: general properties, nomenclature and classification of enzymes according to type of reactions, co-
factors (prosthetic groups, coenzymes and metal ions. Factors affecting enzyme activity - temperature, pH,
substrate concentration. Competitive inhibitors.
• Mechanism of action (Lock-key, induced fit), Non-competitive inhibition, allosteric inhibition
BIOMOLECULES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
202 CARBOHYDRATES
• OLD: Hydrates of carbon
• General empirical formula [Cx(H2O)y]
• Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and their derivatives
• Uses
• Source of energy (glucose, fructose)
• Reserve food (Starch, glycogen, inulin)
• Cell wall (cellulose, chitin)
• Physiological functions: heparin
203 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

• Four major categories, viz;
• Monosaccharides: Simple sugars which cannot be hydrolysed into
simpler carbohydrates.
Aldose Ketose
1.Triose Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
2.Tetrose Erythrose Erythrulose
3. Pentose Ribose, Deoxyribose Ribulose
4. Hexose Glucose, Galactose Fructose
5. Heptose Sedoheptose Sedoheptulose
• Disaccharides:Two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic

linkage.
• Disaccharide Monosaccharide Units
• 1. Lactose (milk sugar) galactose + glucose
• 2. Maltose (malt sugar) glucose + glucose
• 3. Sucrose (cane sugar) glucose + fructose
• 4. Isomaltose glucose + glucose
• Oligosaccharides: Composed of three to nine monosaccharide units.
They are very rare. Example: Raffinose, Stachyose
Polysaccharides
• High molecular weight
• Yield many monosaccharides on hydrolysis
• Most abundant form of carbohydrates in nature.
Homopolysaccharides
Made up of only one type of monosaccharide.
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Inulin, Chitin, Pectin
Heteropolysaccharides
Made of different types of monosaccharides
Mucopolysaccharides, Agar-agar
NAGA – N-Acetylglycosamine
206 PROTEINS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• The term was coined by Berzelius (1839)

• Polymers of amino acids.
• Amino acids
• Essential amino acid (Indispensable)
• Cannot be biosynthesised
• They have to be taken essentially in diet
• Examples: Lysine, histidine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, threonine,
valine, isoleucine and leucine
• Non-essential amino acids (Dispensable)
• Can be synthesised
• Examples: Glycine, alanine, serine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, proline, tyrosine,
cysteine, asparagine, and glutamine
207
208
Alanine
209
Serine
Levels of structure of proteins

• Primary: Number and sequence of amino acids in a protein chain, and the
location of disulfide bonds, if present.
• Secondary:The polypeptide chain is folded in different ways.
• Alpha helix
• Beta pleated sheet
• Random coil
• Tertiary: When a long polypeptide chain, with or without a helical conformation,

is coiled and variously folded in itself, it gives a highly specific three—
dimensional configuration to the protein
• Quaternary: If a protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains united by
forces other than covalent bonds.
211
212
213 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

• Function Example
Catalytic: Enzymes
Contraction: Actin, myosin
Protection: Fibrin, antibodies, interferons
Regulatory: Gene regulation , Hormonal
Structural: Collagen, elastin, keratin
Transport: Albumin, hemoglobin, transferrin (Fe)
Storage &nutrition: Casein, ovalbumin, glutelin
Carriers, receptors: On membranes of different cells
214 LIPIDS: HETEROGENEOUS GROUP

• The term coined by Bloor
• Compds. of C, H, O with a very high H:O ratio
• Soluble in organic solvents, insoluble in water
• Classification
• Simple: esters of fatty acids with alcohols.
• fats, oils: Fatty acids + Glycerol
• Waxes: Fatty acids + Any other saturated alcohol
• Conjugated: Fatty acid+ Glycerol + Any other compound
• Lipoid: Steroids and Sterols
215 FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
• Reserve food: Hump, Adipose tissue,Yellow fat

• Insulation: Blubber
• Hormones: Androgens, estrogens etc.
• Biomembranes: Cephalin, Cholesterol
• Protective layer: Wax, Cuticle
216 (II) ENZYMES
• General properties, classification, mechanism of enzyme action, allosteric modulation,

factors affecting enzyme activity.
• General properties, nomenclature and classification of enzymes. Lock and key hypothesis and
Induced Fit Theory should be explained with diagram to give a clear concept of enzyme action.
Factors affecting enzyme activity should be taught – temperature, pH, substrate concentration,
competitive and non-competitive inhibitors. A brief idea of allosteric modulation should be given.
217 ENZYMES
• Kuhne (1878) proposed the term
• Buchner (1897) prepared the extract of zymase from yeast
• Sumner (1926) obtained the crystals of urease from jack beans
• Defined as biocatalysts
218 PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

• Always produced by the activity of the living protoplasm.
• Effective in small quantities.
• Sensitive to heat (thermolabile)
• Substrate specific
• Require a specific pH for their optimum activity
• Most of the enzyme-catalysed reactions are reversible
• Exhibit all the properties of colloids
219 NOMENCLATURE & CLASSIFICATION

• A/c to International Union of Biochemistry (IUB), six groups:
I. Oxidoreductases: Dehydrogenases, oxidases
II. Transferase: Transaminases, hexokinase
III. Hydrolases: All digestive enzymes
IV. Lyases: Aldolase, fumarase, carboxylase
V. Isomerases: Hexose phosphate isomerase
VI. Ligases / synthetases: DNA ligase
MECHANISM OF ACTION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
220
• By lowering the activation energy
• Lock and Key hypothesis: Emil Fischer (1890)
• Just as only a specially shaped key fits into a particular lock, similarly
a specific catalytic site will accept only a substrate having a
complementary shape
• According to this model, active site is rigid and pre-shaped to fit the
substrate.
• Induced fit model: Koshland

• The shape of catalytic site is not pre-determined, but is flexible
• Binding of substrate with the enzyme induces a conformational
change in the enzyme to make it fit for binding the substrate
• Supported by X-ray crystallograpic studies
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME Wednesday, October 11, 2023
ACTIVITY
221
• Temperature
• Optimum About 37 degree C maximum activity
• Decreases with increase or decrease of temp
• Inactive (denatured) at high temp
• pH
• Every enzyme has its own optimum pH
• Activity declines gradually on either side of the optimum.
• Enzyme concentration
• The rate of reaction increases proportionately with increasing concentration of the
enzyme provided that substrate is present in an excess and the end products are
continuously removed from the site of reaction.
• Substrate concentration
• If the substrate concentration is increased gradually, the activity of enzyme
increases. Km = ½ Vmax
ENZYME INHIBITION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
222 • Competitive inhibition

• Inhibitor has similar structure to the substrate
molecules
• Specific
• Reversible
• Succinic dehydrogenase is inhibited by malonic acid
• Non competitive inhibition
• The inhibitor is covalently linked to the enzyme
• The inhibitors (metabolic poisons or heavy metal
ions) do not compete for the active site
• Destroy the structure of enzyme
• Irreversible
223 • Co-enzyme + Apoenzyme = Holoenzyme

• Isozymes
Apoenzyme Coenzyme
1 Made of proteins Usually derivative of
vitamins
2 High molecular Low molecular weight
weight
3 Denatured by heat Not affected by heat
(heat labile) (heat stable)
• (iii) Cell Cycle and Cell Division
• Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their significance.
• Definition of C-value, different stages of cell cycle (G0, G1, S and G2
and M).
• Different stages of mitosis and prophase – I of meiosis with
diagrams. Significance of mitosis and meiosis. Differences between
mitosis and meiosis.
225 (III) CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

• Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their significance.
• Definition of C-value. Different stages of cell cycle (G0, G1, S, G2 and M).
• Different stages of mitosis and prophase – I of meiosis with diagrams.
• Significance of mitosis and meiosis.
• Differences between mitosis and meiosis .
Cell cycle Wednesday, October 11, 2023
226 C-value:The amount (in picograms) of DNA within a haploid

nucleus
P
M
A
T
Karyokinesis
227 MITOSIS
• Video of mitosis
• Meiosis I (Prophase I, meta, ana, telophase)
• Meiosis II (Prophase II, meta, ana, telo) = similar to mitosis
• de novo synthesis of spindle

228
229
230 SYNAPSE / SYNAPSIS IS THE PROCESS OF PAIRING

OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
• Meiosis I
• Prophase I
• Leptotene (Leptonema) = Thin-thread
• Zygotene = Yoked (pairing of homologous chromosomes)
• Pacyhtene = Thick thread stage
• Diplotene =
• Diakinesis
• Metaphase I
• Anaphase I
• Telophase I
231
232
233 Mitosis Meiosis
Type of Asexual Sexual

reproduction
Function Cellular reproduction and Sexual reproduction
general growth and repair of
the body
Takes place in All organisms Humans, animals, plants, fungi
Types of cells Within somatic cells Takes place within germ cells
Number of Mitosis undergoes only one Meiosis undergoes two

divisions division. divisions.
Produces Two identical daughter cells Four haploid gametes
Mixing of Mixing of chromosomes Mixing of chromosomes can
chromosomes cannot occur. occur.
Number of Same as parent cell Half of the original gamete cell
chromosomes before meiosis.
4. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
• (i) Photosynthesis in higher plants
• Photosynthesis as a mean of autotrophic nutrition; site of photosynthesis, pigments involved in
photosynthesis (elementary idea); photochemical and biosynthetic phases of photosynthesis;
cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation; chemiosmotic hypothesis; photorespiration; C3
and C4 pathways; factors affecting photosynthesis.
• Contributions of Priestley, Sachs, Engelmann, van Neil; differences between absorption and
action spectra Brief idea of photosynthetic pigments (difference between chlorophyll ‘a’&‘b’,
carotenoids and xanthophyll), photochemical phase - pigment systems, cyclic and non-cyclic
photophosphorylation, chemiosmotic hypothesis; biosynthetic phase - C3 and C4 cycles – graphic
representation in correct sequence (carboxylation, glycolytic reversal and regeneration of
pentose); Differences between C3 and C4 plants, C3 and C4 cycles, Photosystems I and II,
Photorespiration pathway in brief - explanation of how RuBP carboxylase acts as RuBP
oxygenase. Kranz anatomy. Blackman’s Law of limiting factors, factors affecting photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
235 • Definition (key words):

• Chlorophyll
• Sunlight
• CO2 and water
• Glucose
• Oxygen
Light
6CO2 + 12H2O -------→ C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
CHLOROPLAST
Quantasomes
Ribosome
Osmiophilic
granules
DNA
23
PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
237
• Photochemical phase: - Light dependent
• Activation of chlorophyll
• Photolysis (Robert Hill)
• Release of O2 (Ruben and Kamen)
• Formation of ATP (Photophosphorylation)
• Trapping of H+ ions by NADP
• Biosynthetic Phase:- Light independent
• Release of H+ ions
• Combine with CO2 to form glucose
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• There are three basic classes of pigments

Chlorophylls
• Chlorophyll a:
• The most abundant pigment in plants
• absorbs light with wavelengths of 430nm(blue) and 662nm(red).
• It contains a hydrophobic (fat soluble) phytol chain that remains
embedded in a lipid membrane.
• A tetrapyrrolic ring forms head, it rests outside of the membrane.
• Tetrapyrrolic ring absorbs the energy from light.
• The metal at the center of the ring is Mg
• Chlorophyll b:
• This molecule has a structure similar to that of chlorophyll a. 238
• It absorbs light of 453nm and 642 nm maximally.
• It is not as abundant as chlorophyll a.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC Wednesday, October 11, 2023
PIGMENTS Carotenoids
1. Accessory pigments
2. Occur in all photosynthetic organisms.
3. They are completely hydrophobic (fat soluble) and exist in lipid membranes.
4. Carotenoids absorb light maximally between 460 nm and 550 nm and appear red, orange, or yellow to us.
5. The most important function of carotenoids seems to be protecting the plant from free radicals formed from ultra
violet or other radiation
6. Carotenoids consist of two classes of molecules
i. Carotenes, which are strictly hydrocarbons, and
ii. Xanthophylls, or oxycarotenoids, which contain oxygen
Phycobilins
1. water-soluble pigments
2. therefore found in the cytoplasm, or in the stroma of the chloroplast.
3. Occur only in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta.
4. The two classes of phycobilins extracted from these "algae" are
i. phycocyanin, bluish pigment which gives the Cyanobacteria their name, and 2
ii. phycoerythrin, reddish pigment which gives the red algae their common name 3
9
Chlorophyll ‘a’ Chlorophyll ‘b’ Wednesday, October 11, 2023
1. It is blue green. 1. It is olive green

2. Its empirical formula is 2. Its empirical formula is
C55H72O5N4Mg C55H70O6N4Mg
3. It is a primary 3. It is an accessory
photosynthetic pigment photosynthetic pigment.
4. Soluble in petroleum 4. Soluble in methyl alcohol.
ether
5. C-3 is associated with 5. C-3 is associated with
methyl group aldehyde group
6. Absorbs more of red 6. Absorbs more of violet
wave-length than violet-blue blue wave-length than red
wavelength wavelength 240
241
242
243
Chemiosmotic coupling October 11, 2023
As electrons are passed down the chain, protons are pumped across the membrane (between244
the inner membrane and outer membrane of the cristae or thylakoids). This results in a pH
and electrical gradient. The protons move back into the matrix through a pore created by ATP
synthetase allowing the enzyme to make ATP at the expense of this gradient.
October 11, 2023
245
Photosystem-I Photosystem-I
1. PS-I is located on the outer surface of PS-II is located on the inner surface of
non-appressed parts of grana appressed parts of grana thylakoids.
thylakoids and fret channels.
2. PS-I comprises about 200-400 PS-II comprises about 200 chlorophylls, 50

chlorophylls, 50 carotenoids and one carotenoids and one molecule of P680.
molecule of P700.
3. It is light green in color It is dark green in color.
4. This system is not directly involved This system is directly involved with the
with the photo-oxidation of water and photo-oxidation of water and evolution of
evolution of molecular oxygen. molecular oxygen.
5. This system produces a strong PS-II donates electrons to PS-I when

reductant which reduces NADP+ to NADP+ is reduced.
NADPH
6. PS-I is involved both in cyclic and non- PS-II is involved only in non-cyclic
cyclic photophosphorylation. photophosphorylation. 2
7. Pigment molecules of PS-I absorb at or Pigment molecules of PS-II absorb at or
4
below 700 nm wavelength of light. below 680 nm wavelength of light. 6
C4 CYCLE (HATCH & SLACK) Wednesday, October 11, 2023
H
2
2
4
7
KRANZ ANATOMY
1. Palisade tissue absent, ground tissue undifferentiated
2. Two layered bundle sheath around vascular bundles.
3. Dimorphic chloroplasts
i. Chloroplasts in bundle sheath: large and without
grana
ii. Chloroplasts in mesophyll: small with well developed 248
grana
KRANZ ANATOMY
2
4
9
250
PHOTORESPIRATION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
(DECKER)
•In presence of high oxygen concentration
• RuBP carboxylase acts as oxygenase
• Converts RuBP → PGA + phosphoglycolate → glycolate → glycine

→serine + CO2.
• No production of ATP or NADPH

• Organelles involved: Chloroplast, mitochondria, peroxisome
2
5
PHOTORESPIRATION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
2
Significance of
photorespiration Wednesday, October 11, 2023
1. Photorespiration may aid plants in nitrogen

assimilation by increasing the availability of
NADH
2. Photorespiration may allow leaves to use up
excess light energy and reduce photo-oxidative
damage in a plants suffering from water stress.
3. It helps in synthesis of some amino acids.
2
5
3
• FACTORS
• EXTERNAL
• INTERNAL
• BLACKMAN’S LAW OF LIMITING FACTORS
(GRAPH)
• EXPERIMENTS
• CO2 IS NECESSARY (MOLL’S EXPT.)
• EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CO2
CONCENTRATIONS
• EFFECT OF DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF
LIGHT 2
255
4. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
• (ii) Respiration in Plants
• Exchange of gases; cellular respiration - glycolysis, fermentation
(anaerobic), TCA cycle and electron transport system (aerobic);
energy relations - number of ATP molecules generated; amphibolic
pathways; respiratory quotient.
• Types of respiration; mechanism of respiration: glycolysis, Krebs’ cycle,
ETS (only flowchart). Oxidative phosphorylation – definition; Brief idea
of fermentation and Amphibolic pathway. Definition of respiratory
quotient and RQ values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
257
Glycolysis
258
259
260 RESPIRATION
• Amphibolic pathway
• Both anabolic and Catabolic
• RQ
• CO2 / O2
• Carbohydrates – 1
• Proteins <1
• Lipids < 1
261 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

• Seed germination; phases of plant growth; differentiation, dedifferentiation and
redifferentiation; sequence of developmental processes in a plant cell; growth
regulators - auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, ABA; seed dormancy;
vernalisation; photoperiodism.
• A brief idea about differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation. Phases of
growth in meristems, growth rate – definition; measurement of growth by direct
method and use of auxanometer, factors affecting growth.
• Discovery and physiological role of growth regulators in plants (such as auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid – four effects of each); application of
growth regulators, Definition of dormancy and quiescence; causes and methods of
breaking seed dormancy.
• Photomorphogenesis in plants.
• A brief idea of short day, long day and day neutral plants; critical day length, definition
and differences between photoperiodism and vernalisation.
262 PLANT GROWTH

SEED GERMINATION
• Phases of growth in meristems
• Cell formation phase - division
• Cell enlargement phase – increased turgidity &
expansion
• Cell differentiation phase – growth – structural &
physiological changes
TYPES OF GERMINATION 10/11/2023
263 • Epigeal
• elongation of hypocotyl
• cotyledons above the ground
• Hypogeal
• elongation of epicotyl
• cotyledons in the soil
• Viviparous – seed germinates inside fruit

GROWTH CURVE (PHASES OF GROWTH)
264
265 GROWTH REGULATORS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Auxins - synthetic auxins ( IAA & IBA), functions of auxins,

agricultural uses of auxins
• Gibberellins – functions & agricultural uses
• Cytokinins – functions & applications
• Ethylene – functions & applications
• Abscissic acid – growth inhibitor, effect & agricultural uses
• Factors affecting growth
266 FUNCTIONS OF AUXINS (ANY FOUR) Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Auxin participates in phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism.

• Auxin stimulates cell elongation.
• Auxins stimulate vascular differentiation.
• In callus, rooting can be generated if the auxin concentration is higher than cytokinin concentration.
• Root growth and development: Auxins promote root initiation.
• Apical dominance: Axillary buds are inhibited by auxin. When the apex of the plant is removed, the
inhibitory effect is removed and the growth of lateral buds is enhanced
• Fruit growth and development
• Exogenous auxin results in parthenocarpy .
• Flowering: Auxin plays also a minor role in the initiation of flowering and development of reproductive
organs.
• In low concentrations it can delay the senescence of flowers (Richmond Lang Effect)
267 GIBBERELLINS
• regulate growth
• stem elongation
• germination
• dormancy
• flowering
• sex expression,
• enzyme induction, and
• leaf and fruit senescence.
4. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
• (iii) Plant Growth and Development
• Seed germination; phases of plant growth; differentiation, dedifferentiation and
redifferentiation; sequence of developmental processes in a plant cell; growth
regulators - auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, ABA.
• A brief idea about differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation. Phases of
growth in meristems, growth rate – definition; measurement of growth by direct
method and use of auxanometer, factors affecting growth.
• Discovery and physiological role of growth regulators in plants (such as auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid – four effects of each);
application of growth regulators.
5. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
• (i) Breathing and exchange of gases.
• Respiratory organs in animals (recall only); Respiratory system in humans;
mechanism of breathing and its regulation - exchange of gases, transport of gases
and regulation of respiration, respiratory volumes; disorders related to
respiration.
• Organs involved in respiration; mechanism of pulmonary gas exchange; breathing
process should be explained showing the action of diaphragm and intercostal
muscles, regulation of respiration; transport of oxygen in the blood,
oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve; transport of CO2; chloride shift, pulmonary air
volumes and lung capacities; disorders of respiratory system such as - asthma,
emphysema, occupational respiratory disorders.
ANATOMY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
271 MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Inspiration. Expiration.
• External intercostal muscle. • Internal intercostal muscle.
• Ribs pulled upward and • Ribs pulled downward and inward.
outward. • Diaphragm dome shaped.
• Diaphragm straightened. • Lungs compress.
• Lungs expand. • Air pressure increases.
• Air pressure drops. • Air rushes out.
• Air enters the lungs
Pulmonary air volumes and Lung capacities;

272
REGULATION OF BREATHING
• Nervous control
• Chemical control
GAS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
274 • Pulmonary artery – lungs – capillaries – exchange of gases – pulmonary vein – heart.
• Gaseous exchange depends upon differences of PO2 and PCO2.
• In air sacs partial pr. of O2 higher / CO2 low
• In tissues partial pr. of O2 lower / CO2 high
275 TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES

Oxygen:
• As dissolved oxygen in the plasma.
• As oxyhaemoglobin in RBCs.
• Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
Carbon dioxide:
• Carbonic acid
• Carbamino compounds
• Bicarbonates
• Chloride shift (Hamburger’s phenomenon)
277 RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

- CAUSE, SYMPTOMS
• Asthma
• Emphysema
• Occupational respiratory disorders
5. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
• (ii) Body fluids and circulation.
• Composition of blood, blood groups, coagulation of blood; composition of lymph and its function; human
circulatory system - structure of human heart and blood vessels; cardiac cycle, cardiac output, ECG;
double circulation; regulation of cardiac activity; disorders of circulatory system.
• Composition of blood plasma, functions of plasma proteins, blood corpuscles. Difference between closed and
open vascular system; external and internal structure of heart; working of the heart and blood flow through the
heart during different phases should be described under the following headings - auricular systole, auricular
diastole, ventricular systole, ventricular diastole and joint diastole; definition of stroke volume and cardiac
output, regulation of heart beat, ECG; arterial blood pressure (systolic and diastolic), double circulation. The
internal structure of artery, vein and capillary. Importance of ABO groups in blood transfusion, Rh factor and
its importance in transfusion and pregnancy; clotting of blood to be taught briefly; lymphatic system – a brief
idea of lymph (composition and function), lymphatic capillaries and lymph nodes; disorders of the circulatory
system such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, angina pectoris and heart failure.
279 BLOOD
• Blood = Plasma + corpuscles
• Serum = Plasma – Clotting factors (fibrinogen)
• Plasma: straw coloured, viscous fluid, 55 %
• 90-92 % of plasma is water
• Proteins contribute 6-8 %.
• Fibrinogen
• globulins and
• albumins are the major plasma proteins
PLASMA Wednesday, October 11, 2023
280
• Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.
• Globulins primarily are involved in defence mechanisms of the body and
the albumins help in osmotic balance, transport
• Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++,
HCO3-, Cl-, etc.
• Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the plasma as they
are always in transit in the body.
FORMED ELEMENTS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed elements and they
281 constitute nearly 45% of the blood.
• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in blood. A
healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 millions to 5.5 millions of RBCs / mm3 of blood.
RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults.
• RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most of the mammals and are biconcave in shape. They
have a red coloured, iron containing complex protein called haemoglobin, hence the
colour and name of these cells.
• A healthy individual has 12-16 gms of haemoglobin/100 ml of blood.
• These molecules play a significant role in transport of respiratory gases.
• RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen
(graveyard of RBCs).
• Low count = oligocythaemia / polycythaemia 1.34 ml oxygen / 1 gm Hb
DLC: Differential leucocyte count Wednesday, October 11, 2023
TLC:Total leucocyte count

282
283
PLATELETS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from

megakaryocytes (special cells in the bone marrow).
• Blood normally contains 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets mm3.
• Platelets can release a variety of substances most of which are involved
in the coagulation or clotting of blood.
• A reduction in their number (thrombocytopaenia) can lead to clotting
disorders which will lead to excessive loss of blood from the body.
BLOOD GROUPS
284 COMPATIBILITY/ GENETICS/ RH FACTOR

TRANSFUSION/ PREGNANCY
LYMPH: COMPOSITION AND

FUNCTIONS
BLOOD GROUPS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
285 Antigen Antibody Donor’s group

(agglutinogen) (agglutinin) in
on RBCs Plasma
A A Anti-B A, O
B B Anti-A B, O
O Neither A nor B Both anti-A and O
Anti-B
AB Both A and B Neither anti-A nor A, B, O, AB
anti-B
Rh Rh No antibody
+ve
286 CLOTTING OF BLOOD
• Liberation of thromboplastin.
• Phospho-lipid by rupturing of platelets.
• Ca++ - Factor IV.
• Anti-haemophilic factor – Factor VIII.
• Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
• Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.
• Fibrin + corpuscles = clot.
287 CLOTTING OF BLOOD
• Liberation of thromboplastin.
• Phospho-lipid by rupturing of platelets.
• Ca++ - Factor IV.
• Anti-haemophilic factor – Factor VIII.
• Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
• Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.
• Fibrin + corpuscles = clot.
288
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
289
• Open and closed vascular system
• Advantages of closed vascular system
• Structure of the heart
• Course of blood in different phases
• Auricular diastole.
• Auricular systole.
• Ventricular diastole.
• Ventricular systole.
• Joint diastole.
• Neurogenic and myogenic heart.
290
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF HEART Wednesday, October 11, 2023
291
72 times (beats) in 60 sec
1 cycle in 60/72 sec 0.8 sec
Auricular systole = 0.1 sec
Auricular diastole = 0.7 sec
Ventricular systole = 0.3 sec
Ventricular diastole = 0.5 sec
Joint diastole = 0.4 sec
Epicardium
Myocardium = cardiac musclesSAN
Endocardium
Conducting system of heart

292
293 ECG
294
295
• Blood pressure – systolic and diastolic.

296
• Lymphatic system.
• Lymph.
• Lymph vessels.
• Lymph nodes.
• Functions of lymph (middle man between blood and tissue)

297
SHORT NOTES: NOT REALLY SHORT!!! Wednesday, October 11, 2023
298 • Portal system

• Double circulation
• Blood pressure
• Blood vessels (Arteries, veins, capillaries)
• Diagrams
• Structural adaptations for specific functions
DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Wednesday, October 11, 2023
299
• High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): Hypertension is the term for blood pressure
that is higher than normal (120/80).
• 120 mm Hg is the systolic, or pumping and 80 mm Hg is the diastolic pressure.
• If repeated checks of blood pressure of an individual is 140/90 or higher, it shows
hypertension.
• High blood pressure leads to heart diseases and also affects vital organs like brain
and kidney.
• Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as
atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle.
• It is caused by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes
the lumen of arteries narrower.
300 DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Angina: It is also called angina pectoris.
• A symptom of acute chest pain appears when no enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.
• Angina can occur in men and women of any age but it is more common among the middle-aged
and elderly.
• It occurs due to conditions that affect the blood flow.
• Heart Failure: Heart failure means the state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively
enough to meet the needs of the body.
• It is sometimes called congestive heart failure because congestion of the lungs is one of the main
symptoms of this disease.
• Heart failure is not the same as cardiac arrest (when the heart stops beating) or a heart attack
(when the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply).
5. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
• (iii) Excretory products and their elimination.
• Modes of excretion - ammonotelism, ureotelism, uricotelism; human excretory system - structure and function;
urine formation, osmoregulation; regulation of kidney function, renin - angiotensin, atrial natriuretic factor,
ADH and diabetes insipidus; role of erythropoietin; role of other organs in excretion; disorders of the excretory
system - uraemia, renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis; dialysis and artificial kidney.
• Define, differentiate and explain the terms ammonotelism, ureotelism and uricotelism; external and internal
structure of the kidney (L.S.); structure of nephron; physiology of urine formation - ultra filtration, selective
reabsorption and active (tubular) secretion. Counter current system, regulation of urine formation, definition of
micturition, renin-angiotensin system, role of atrial natriuretic factor, ADH and erythropoietin.
• Role of skin, liver and lungs in excretion. Homeostasis – definition. Disorders of the excretory system - uraemia,
renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis.
• Haemodialysis and artificial kidney
302 MODES OF EXCRETION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
DEAMINATION OF AMINO ACIDS

• Ammonotelic: Lower invertebrates, crustacean, aquatic insects,
cephalopods, teleosts, tadpole
• Ureotelic: Amphibians, mammals, marine fish
• Uricotelic: Terrestrial insects, terrestrial snails, reptiles, bird
• The process by which ammonia is converted into urea →
Ornithine cycle (Krebs-Henseleit cycle)
303
Human
excretory
system
• VS of kidney
NEPHRON
306
307
• Physiology of Urine Formation
• Ultrafiltration – Due to difference in diameters of afferent & efferent

308 arteriole.
• Selective reabsorption – Useful products are reabsorbed into different
parts of nephron
• Tubular secretion
• Podocytes
Visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule

• ULTRAFILTRATION
• GHP: Glomerular hydrostatic pressure = 65 mmHg
• Opposed by
• BCOP = blood colloidal osmotic pressure (POP Plasma oncotic pressure) = 30 mmHg
• Hydrostatic pressure of glomerular filtrate = 10
• Osmotic pressure of glomerular filtrate = 10
• EFP = Effective filtration pressure

• EFP = GHP – (BCOP + Hydrostatic pressure of filtrate + OP of filtrate)
• 65 – (30 +10+10)
• 65 – 50 = 15 mmHg
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION
• SEGEMNT- WISE / ACTIVE / PASSIVE / SUBSTANCES
• PCT
• DESCENDING LIMB
• ASCENDING LIMB
• DESCENDING LIMB
• DCT
• COLLECTING DUCT
• TUBULAR SECRETION
• Why active / with examples
311 COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Marking points
• 1. Operates in Juxta Medullary Nephrons
• 2. Helps in maintaining hypertonic ECF in medulla
• 3. Helps in conservation of water in the body
• 4. Counter current: Because blood in vasa recta and
filtrate in Henle’s loop flow in opposite directions
• 5. Working / mechanism
312
• Osmoregulation and Homeostasis (definition)

• Regulation of kidney function
• RAAS
• ANF
• ADH
• Erythropoietin
• Micturition – Definition
• Role of skin, liver and lungs in excretion
315
OSMOREGULATION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
316 DURING SUMMERS

• Heat
• Perspiration / sweating
• Loss of water
• Dehydration
• Increase in the OP of blood
• Detected by osmoreceptors in major arteries
• Send stimulus to hypothalamus
• Release of ADH
• Increase the permeability of DCT/CD
• Water absorbed from the filtrate
• OP of the blood is restored
HAEMODIALYSIS
318
USE OF ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
• (a) Nitrogenous waste build-up in the body

• (b) Non-elimination of potassium ions
• (c) Reduced absorption of Ca from GIT
• (d) Reduced RBC production
319
• Disorders of the excretory system

• Uraemia - excess urea in the blood
• Renal failure
• Nephrolithiasis or Renal calculus - formed by precipitation
of uric acid or oxalate crystals
• Nephritis
5. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
• (iv) Locomotion and Movement
• Types of movement - ciliary, flagellar, muscular; skeletal muscles - contractile proteins and
muscle contraction; skeletal system and its functions; joints; disorders of muscular and skeletal
system.
• Locomotion: Basic aspects of human skeleton (number and names of the bones of axial and
appendicular skeleton).
• Functions of human skeleton; different types of joints - their location and function; general
properties of muscles; structure of skeletal muscle - sliding filament theory of muscle contraction;
chemical events during muscle contraction; definition of summation, tetanus, rigor mortis,
differences between red and white muscles.
• Disorders of muscular and skeletal system: (i) Myasthenia gravis, (ii) Tetany, (iii Muscular
dystrophy, (iv) Arthritis, (v) Osteoporosis, (vi) gout.
LOCOMOTION
322 • Types of movement:
• Ciliary
• Flagellar
• Muscular
• General Properties of muscles:

• Contractility
• Excitability
• Antagonistic muscles:
• muscles which contract to produce opposite movements at the same joint
• Classification based on function- flexor extensor, rotators, levator
depressor, abductor adductor, tensors
323 FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Protection
• Framework
• Leverage
• Storehouse of minerals
• Haemopoiesis
• Sound transmission
Number and names of the bones of
324 axial and appendicular skeleton
325
DIFFERENT TYPES OF JOINTS - THEIR LOCATION
AND FUNCTION
327 DIFFERENT TYPES OF JOINTS - THEIR LOCATION
AND FUNCTION
SYNOVIAL JOINT
(i) Ball and socket joint: One bones forms a globular head while the other
forms a cup – like socket into which head fits in. It allows a free movement
in all directions e.g., pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle joints.
(ii) Hinge joint: Here the two bones are fitted like the hinge of a door so as
to allow to and fro movements in one direction only. It is seen in elbow
joint, knee joint and joints between phalanges of fingers and toes.
(iii) Pivot joint: One bone is fixed while the other moves freely over it. The
movement is, therefore, confined to a rotation around a longitudinal axis
through the centre of the pivot e.g., movement of the skull over the
odontoid processes of the first neck vertebra.
(iv) Gliding joint: The articulating bones can glide one above the other. e.g.,
wrist bones, vertebral column, bones in the palm or in the sole of foot.
(v) Saddle joint: In this joint, the projection of one bone fits in the saddle
shaped depression in another bone. It is an imperfect type of ball and socket
joint.
330 MUSCULAR SYSTEM

TYPES OF MUSCLES
331 STRUCTURE OF A MUSCLE FIBRE

332
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION Wednesday, October 11, 2023
333 The sliding filament theory

Contraction of a muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments over the thick filaments
1. Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the central nervous system (CNS) via a motor neuron.
2. The junction between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called the neuromuscular junction or motor-
end plate.
3. A neural signal reaching this junction releases Acetyl choline which generates an action potential in the sarcolemma.
4. This spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release of calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.
5. Increase in Ca++ level leads to the binding of calcium with a subunit of troponin (Tc) on actin filaments and thereby remove
the masking of active sites for myosin.
6. Utilising the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed active sites on actin to form a cross
bridge.
7. This pulls the attached actin filaments towards the centre of ‘A’ band.
8. The ‘Z’ line attached to these actins are also pulled inwards thereby causing a shortening of the sarcomere, i.e., contraction.
9. During the muscle contraction, the ‘I’ bands get reduced, whereas the ‘A’ bands retain the length.
10. The myosin, releasing the ADP and Pi goes back to its relaxed state.
11. A new ATP binds and the cross-bridge is broken. The ATP is again hydrolysed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross bridge
formation
334 SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY

• Sarcolemma depolarised
• Release of Ca++ ions
• Sliding of actin filaments in spaces between myosin
filaments
ATPase
• ATP → ADP + iP + energy
Ca++
• Formation of cross bridges

• Cross bridges broken and restoration of resting state
CHEMICAL EVENTS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
335 • Stimulation of muscle by acetyl choline

• Release of Ca++ ions
• Myosin binds to Actin
• Ca++ ions activate enzyme Myosin ATPase
• ATP → ADP +iP
• Creatine Phosphate converts ADP → ATP
• Glycogen breaks into lactic acid
• Some energy utilised for reformation of CP
• Some for conversion of lactic acid back to glycogen
• Remaining lactic acid to CO2 & H2O
337 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RED AND Wednesday, October 11, 2023
WHITE MUSCLE FIBERS

Red muscle fibers White muscle fibers
1. Thin Thick
2. More mitochondria Less mitochondria
3. Contain myoglobin No myoglobin
4. Rich in cytochromes Poor in cytochromes
5. Respire mainly aerobically Respire anaerobically
6. Do not accumulate lactic acid Accumulate lactic acid
7. Adapted for slow and sustained contraction/ Slow Adapted for fast contractions for short periods/ Fast
twitch twitch
8. Do not fatigue easily Develop fatigue
9. Deep seated Superficially placed
10. Poorly developed SR Well developed SR
11. Low glycogen content High content
12. associated with small nerve fibers Associated with large nerve fibers
5. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
• (v) Neural Control and Coordination
• Neuron and nerves; nervous system in humans - central nervous system;
peripheral nervous system and visceral nervous system; generation and
conduction of nerve impulse; reflex action; sensory perception; sense organs;
elementary structure and functions of eye and ear.
• Structure and functions of various parts of the brain and spinal cord; conduction
of nerve impulses through nerve fibre (non- myelinated and myelinated) and
through synapse; physiology of reflex action, natural reflex and conditioned reflex
- definition, examples and differences; reflex arc to be taught with diagram
showing the pathway by means of arrows; eye and ear: structure and working to be
done along with the help of diagrams. Elementary idea of nose (olfactory receptor)
and tongue (gustato receptor).
340 TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSE

• Semi (selective) permeable nature of axolemma
• Concentration gradient
• Ions move from axoplasm to interstitial fluid & vice versa
• In resting state – Na+ pump (normal polarized state)
• When excited – Na+ pump stops (Membrane depolarized)
• Reverse polarization
• Repolarization – resting potential returns
341 TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSE
• Resting potential
• Action potential
• Conduction of impulse
• Along the axon
• Across the synapse
Resting potential : when the nerve is not conducting
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
342
• Myelin sheath
• Insulates fibre
• Prevents depolarization.
• Permeable at Node of Ranvier
• Action potential
• Jumps from one node to the next
• Impulse moves faster
• Prevents mixing of impulses into adjacent neurons
NERVOUS SYSTEM Wednesday, October 11, 2023
344
• CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• BRAIN & SPINAL CORD
• Meninges
• Duramater
Arachnoid
Piamater
• Functions of cerebrospinal fluid
• Brain matter
• Grey – cytons
• White – axons
346
SPINAL CORD Wednesday, October 11, 2023
348
349 REFLEX ACTION

• Immediate involuntary response to a stimulus
• Unconditioned – inborn
• Conditioned – acquired through learning or
experience
• The structural and functional unit in a simple reflex – REFLEX ARC
• Receptor
• Sensory neuron
• Association neuron
• Motor neuron
REFLEX ACTION: NATURAL AND CONDITIONED
351
• Peripheral Nervous System
• Cranial nerves – 12 Pairs
• Spinal nerves – 31 Pairs
• Autonomic Nervous System
• Differences b/w Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS
352 Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system
All neurons forming this system originate from All neurons forming this system originate from
T1 to L2 segment of spinal cord. So it is called brain (Ill,VII, IX, X cranial nerves) and S2—S4
thoracolumbar outflow. segment of spinal cord. So it is called
craniosacral outflow.
Pre-ganglionic fibers are short Pre-ganglionic fibers are very long. Postganglionic
fibers are short
Post-ganglionic fibers are adrenergic in nature cholinergic in nature
except in sweat gland
It operates when subject is in fear, fight and flight It operates when subject is fully relaxed.
position.
Effect is widely diffused and Effect is discrete, isolated,
It supplies visceral blood vessels, skin. It only supplies viscera
It dilates skeletal muscle blood vessels Parasympathetic system has no effect on skin
Effects are directed towards mobilization of Effects are directed towards conservation and
resources and expenditure of energy during restoration of the resources of
emergency and emotional crisis
EYE Wednesday, October 11, 2023
353
354
RODS CONES
• Low light intensity • Bright light
• No colours • Various colours
• Rhodopsin • Iodopsin
EAR
356
• Working of the ear Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• Pinna collects sound waves & conducts through auditory canal

357
• Ear drum vibrates
• Vibrations magnified at stirrup due to lever –like action of first two
ear ossicles
• Vibrations transmitted to oval window
• Transmitted to perilymph in scala vestibuli -→ Reissner’s membrane
→ endolymph in scala media → Tectorial membrane → sensory cells
of Organ of Corti
• Impulses transmitted to brain by auditory nerve
• Semi circular canals – dynamic equilibrium
• Utriculus & sacculus - static equilibrium
•Nose: Olfactory receptor
•Tongue: Gustatoreceptor
5. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
• (vi) Chemical Co-ordination and Integration
• Endocrine glands and hormones; human endocrine system - hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads; mechanism of hormone action (elementary
idea); role of hormones as messengers and regulators, hypo - and hyperactivity and related
disorders; dwarfism, acromegaly, cretinism, goitre, exophthalmic goitre, diabetes mellitus and
diabetes insipidus, Grave’s disease, Addison's disease.
• Brief idea of location of endocrine glands; role of hypothalamus; hormones secreted by different
lobes of pituitary and their functions; feedback control of tropic hormones to be discussed giving
examples; hormones of pineal, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, adrenal glands, GI tract
(gastrin, secretin, GIP, CCK-PZ) and gonads; mechanism of hormone action (through cAMP and
steroid hormones only); effects of hypo secretion and hyper secretion of various hormones of the
above mentioned glands.
• Note: Diseases related to all the human physiological systems to be taught in brief.
364 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF PEPTIDE HORMONES Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• The hormone binds with the receptor protein present on the plasma membrane of the target cell and forms
a receptor-hormone complex.
• It brings about a conformational change in the structure of the receptor protein, thus stimulating it.
• The activated hormone-receptor complex stimulates a specific protein called G-protein. It found on the inner
surface of plasma membrane.
• The stimulated G-protein stimulates a membrane-bound enzyme adenylate cyclase, located adjacent to G-
protein.
• The activated adenylate cyclase catalyses the conversion of intracellular ATP molecules into cyclic AMP
(cAMP).
• cAMP stimulates the enzyme protein kinase.
• The protein kinase, in turn, activates specific enzymes involved in metabolic pathways.
• It brings about a desired change in the activity of the target cell.
365 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF PEPTIDE HORMONES

• cAMP was discovered by Sutherland and Rail.
• It is called the second messenger, because hormone
– the first messenger, cannot enter the cell itself,
instead, cAMP mediates and brings about the desired
physiological change in the activity of the cell.
366
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF STEROID HORMONES

• Unlike peptide hormones which are too large to pass through cell membranes, steroid hormones
are lipid soluble, thus can easily diffuse through cell membrane.
• Once inside the cytoplasm, the steroid hormones bind selectively to receptor molecules.
• The hormone-receptor complex, thus formed, binds with some specific genes in the nucleus and
activates or inhibits them.
• As a result gene transcription is altered, producing specific mRNA molecules.
• It affects the process of translation, leading to stimulation or inhibition of formation of specific
enzymes required for a specific metabolic activity.
• It brings about desired change in the activity of the cell.
368
371 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Pituitary – base of brain – in depression of sphenoid bone – Sella turcica

• Anterior + intermediate = Adenohypophysis.
• Posterior = Neurohypophysis.
• Adenohypophysis secretes peptide hormones
• Tropic hormones + growth hormone.
• Tropic hormones stimulate other endocrine glands to release their hormones
392 FEEDBACK REGULATION OF HORMONE ACTION
393
394
395
396
1. SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
2. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS TO BE STUDIED
LINK 1 AND 2 WITH THE RESPECTIVE CHAPTERS

SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• 1. Beijerinck – Contagium vivum fluidum

398 • 2. Carl Woese – Three domains of life
• 3. Curtis – Transpiration is a necessary evil
• 4. Engelmann – Action spectrum of photosynthesis
• 5. Ernst Mayr – Biological species concept
• 6. F. F. Blackman – Law of limiting factor
• 7. F W Went – Isolated Auxins
• 8. Farmer and Moore – Discovered meiosis
• 9. G.N. Ramachandran – Analysis of Protein structure
• 10. Garner and Allard – Photoperiodism
• 11. George Palade – Discovered ribosomes
• 12. Huxley and Niedergerke – Sliding filament theory
• 13. Ivanowsky – Discovered Tobacco Mosaic Virus
• 14. Karl Landsteiner – Blood groups
• 15. Katherine Esau – Anatomy of plants
SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
• 16. Levitt – Active K+ transport theory of stomatal movement

399 • 17. Munch – Proposed mass flow hypothesis
• 18. Peter Mitchell – Chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis
• 19. Priestley – Plants restore oxygen in the air
• 20. Renner – Coined the terms active and passive absorption of water
• 21. Robert Brown – Discovered nucleus
• 22. Singer and Nicolson – Proposed fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane
• 23. Sutherland – cyclic AMP as second messenger
• 24. T. O. Diener – Discovered viroids
• 25. Thomas Addison – Father of endocrinology
• 26.Van Neil – Oxygen released during photosynthesis comes from water
• 27. W. M. Stanley – Crystallised TMV
• 28. Waldeyer – Coined the term chromosome
• 29. Whittaker – Five kingdoms of life
• 30. William Harvey – Discovered circulatory system
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• 1. 2,4-D – 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid

400
• 2. ABA – Abscisic Acid
• 3. ANF – Atrial Natriuretic Factor
• 4. CCK –Cholecystokinin
• 5. DPD – Diffusion Pressure Deficit
• 6. ECG – Electrocardiogram
• 7. ERV – Expiratory Reserve Volume
• 8. ETS – Electron Transport System
• 9. FAD – Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
• 10. FRC – Functional Residual Capacity
• 11. GA – Gibberellic acid
• 12. GFR – Glomerular Filtration Rate
• 13. GIP – Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
• 14. IBA – Indole Butyric Acid
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Wednesday, October 11, 2023
• 15. IRV – Inspiratory Reserve Volume

401
• 16. LHC – Light Harvesting Complex
• 17. NAA – Naphthalene Acetic Acid
• 18. NADPH – Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (reduced)
• 19. OAA – Oxaloacetic Acid
• 20. PEM – Protein Energy Malnutrition
• 21. PGA – Phosphoglyceric Acid
• 22. PGRs – Plant Growth Regulators
• 23. PPLO – Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism
• 24. PZ – Pancreozymin
• 25. RQ – Respiratory Quotient
• 26. RUBISCO – Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase oxygenase
• 27. RuBP – Ribulose Bisphosphate
• 28. TMV – Tobacco Mosaic Virus

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ISC BIOLOGY

5. Human Physiology 18 Marks 45

Total 70 Marks Practical = 60

• 1. Diversity of Living Organisms

• Makes the study of different organisms very convenient

8 • Unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol

• Cells have eukaryotic organisation

• Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms.

Man Homo sapiens Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata

House fly Musca Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda

Mango Mangifera Mangifera Anacardiaceae Sapindales dicotyledonae Angiospermae

Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae

15 • Universal – same name throughout the world

• Did not reflect any natural relationship • Reflected evolutionary significance

2. Kingdom Protista– eukaryotic unicellular, Amoeba

3. Kingdom Fungi - multicellular eukaryotic, chitinous cell wall,

4. Kingdom Plantae - multicellular eukaryotic, autotrophs, mango

5. Kingdom Animalia – multicellular eukaryotic, heterotrophs, frog

• Commonly called bacteria

27 • Monera can be divided into two main groups:

1) Archaebacteria (Already covered in 1 (i)

GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIA GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA

• Aerobic bacteria, or strict aerobes - require oxygen

• ROLE IN ENERGY PRODUCTION

• Only two general characteristics and two examples of subgroups:

Protozoa Protophyta Slime mould

Rhizopoda Flagellata Ciliata

Amoeba, Trypanosoma, Paramoecium, Plasmodium,

TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION & 2

• TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION

• TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION &

• TWO CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING LOCOMOTION &

Chrysophyta Pyrrophya Euglenophyta

Reserve food Chrysolaminarin, volutin Starch or oil Paramylum

Reproduction Binary fission, auxospores Isogamous Binary fission

Examples diatoms (Pinnularia) and Gonyaulax, Noctiluca, Euglena, Phacus, Colacium

• ANY TWO CHARACTERISTICS & 2 EXAMPLES

53 1. TYPES OF FUNGAL SPORES

55 • Isogamy is a form of sexual reproduction that involves

which the cytoplasm of two parent cells (usually from the

• E.g.: Penicillium,Yeast (Saccharomyces)

• Mycelium septate, multicellular composed of

• ANY TWO CHARACTERISTICS & 2 EXAMPLES

• E.g.: Fusarium – cause wilting of vascular plants

• Is a symbiotic association of a fungus & an alga in which both the

• (characteristic features – link between living and non-

• Obligate intracellular parasite composed of:

• (a) Algae - characteristics (morphology, common

73 • ANY TWO CHARACTERISTICS & 2 EXAMPLES

• (b) Bryophyta – general characteristics, distinctive

• They have thalloid or leafy multi cellular green plant body.

shaped structure having a swollen base and a narrow neck.

• CLASS – HEPATICAE includes Liverworts

Examples: Riccia & Marchantia

81 • CLASS – MUSCI includes Mosses

• E.g. Funaria, Sphagnum

• Provide food for herbaceous mammals / birds.

• (c) Pteridophyta: characteristics; classification into classes:

• Members of this group are most primitive living vascular plants.

• Water is essential to effect fertilization as male reproductive units

• Food – rich source of starch

• Ovules not enclosed in ovary wall (naked seeds)

• (e) Angiosperms – general characteristics