ΟΛΑ 5η ΕΝΟΤΗΤΑ

«Σχολική Ψυχολογία»
BΑ
ΣΙΚΟ ΚΕΙΜΕΝΟ ΜΕΛΕΤΗΣ ΣΥΝΕΔΡΙΑΣ
ΔΙΔΑΚΤΙΚΗ ΕΝΟΤΗΤΑ: 5Η
«Επικοινωνία στη σχολική τάξη»
ΣΥΝΕΔΡΙΑ: 1Η
«Η έννοια, τα χαρακτηριστικά και ο ρόλος της επικοινωνίας στην
ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων»
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΩΝ
ΠΑΝΑΓΙΩΤΗΣ Ι. ΣΤΑΜΑΤΗΣ
Αναπληρωτής Καθηγητής ΤΕΠΑΕΣ Πανεπιστημίου Αιγαίου
ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ ΑΙΓΑΙΟΥ - ΠΡΟΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΑ ΔΙΑ ΒΙΟΥ ΜΑΘΗΣΗΣ © 2019-2020

Παναγιώτης Ι. Σταμάτης, Αναπληρωτής Καθηγητής Email: stamatis@rhodes.aegean.gr
Παιδαγωγικής Επικοινωνίας, Πανεπιστημίου Αιγαίου
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
Περιεχόμενα
Περιεχόμενα...................................................................................................................................... 1
Εισαγωγή........................................................................................................................................... 2
5.1.1 Η έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων..................................... 4
5.1.2 Τα χαρακτηριστικά και ο ρόλος της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων..6
Σύνοψη/Ανακεφαλαίωση Αντικειμένου Συνεδρίας........................................................................12
Βιβλιογραφία...................................................................................................................................13
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Εισαγωγή
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Η έννοια, τα χαρακτηριστικά και ο ρόλος της
επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων». Υπό τον τίτλο αυτό, γίνεται
αναφορά στην έννοια και στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται
στο σχολικό περιβάλλον καθώς και στο ρόλο των χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με την
επίτευξη μιας εύρυθμης λειτουργίας στη σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα, από διοικητική,
διδακτική και κοινωνική άποψη. Γίνεται, επίσης, συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των
ειδικών συνθηκών και παραμέτρων σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας.
Επιπρόσθετα, στην παρούσα ενότητα το ενδιαφέρον επικεντρώνεται έμμεσα στο ρόλο της
επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων, στην καλλιέργεια
ήπιου σχολικού κλίματος, μέσω της εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας και στη διαμόρφωση
του διδακτικού πλαισίου, με την εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας, όπως αυτές
αναπτύσσονται στο πλαίσιο μιας σχολικής επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής. Τα ζητήματα
αυτά αποτελούν μέρος μιας ενιαίας διδακτικής ενότητα η ο οποία τιτλοφορείται:
«Επικοινωνία στη σχολική τάξη». Πρόκειται για την 5η διδακτική ενότητα του Προγράμματος
«Σχολική Ψυχολογία».
Σκοπός:
Να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες τις διαστάσεις και

τους παράγοντες που διέπουν το επικοινωνιακό πλαίσιο και ευρύτερα τις δυνατότητες
επικοινωνίας μεταξύ εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή εντός του σχολικού-εκπαιδευτικού
περιβάλλοντος, εκκινώντας από την προσέγγιση θεμελιωδών γνώσεων περί επικοινωνίας.
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Προσδοκώμενα μαθησιακά αποτελέσματα:
Με τη λήξη της συνεδρίας οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες αναμένεται να:
 γνωρίζουν την έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων

 γνωρίζουν τα χαρακτηριστικά και το ρόλο της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη
διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων
Έννοιες κλειδιά:
Επικοινωνία, διαπροσωπική επικοινωνία, σχολικό κλίμα, διδακτική επικοινωνία
Συγγραφέας Βασικού Κειμένου Μελέτης
Παναγιώτης Ι. Σταμάτης
Αναπληρωτής Καθηγητής Παιδαγωγικής Επικοινωνίας
Τμήμα Επιστημών της Προσχολικής Αγωγής και Εκπαιδευτικού Σχεδιασμού
Πανεπιστημίου Αιγαίου
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5.1.1 Η έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών

σχέσεων
Η επικοινωνία αποτελεί μια πολύπλοκη διαδικασία, η οποία απαιτεί την ταυτόχρονη

ύπαρξη πολλών στοιχείων και τη μεταξύ τους συνέργεια προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί
αποτελεσματικά. Στην επικοινωνία μετέχει ολοκληρωτικά ο άνθρωπος είτε αυτός έχει το
ρόλο του ομιλητή είτε έχει το ρόλο του ακροατή. Στην επικοινωνία η σκέψη του κάθε
ανθρώπου, το σώμα και οι εκφράσεις του, τα συναισθήματα και οι προθέσεις του
δηλώνουν, με κάθε τρόπο, την παρουσία τους. Οι επιθυμίες, οι πεποιθήσεις, οι φόβοι, ο
προβληματισμός, η έκπληξη, η χαρά και κάθε άλλο συναίσθημα, συνδυάζονται με σκέψεις
για την τροπή, την έκβαση της επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας και, φυσικά, τις επιπτώσεις της
σε κάθε επικοινωνιακό περιβάλλον ή περίσταση όπου αυτή εκδηλώνεται.
Κατά συνέπεια, η επικοινωνία δεν είναι μόνο μία απλή καθημερινή συμπεριφορά, η
οποία εκδηλώνεται παρορμητικά, αλλά αποτελεί παράλληλα και μία συνειδητή πράξη, η
οποία δηλώνει ταυτόχρονα την ψυχική, γνωστική και συναισθηματική κατάσταση κάθε
ατόμου που μετέχει σε αυτή τη διαδικασία, σε συνδυασμό με τους στόχους, τις προθέσεις,
την κοινωνική του προέλευση και γενικότερα, τις επιδιώξεις που το άτομο έχει κάθε φορά
που επικοινωνεί ή που αποσκοπεί στην επίτευξή τους (Σταμάτης, 2011).
Στο ερώτημα «τι είναι επικοινωνία;» δεν θα μπορούσε κανείς να δώσει μόνο έναν
ορισμό, ακριβώς επειδή συμβαίνουν όλα όσα αναφέρονται παραπάνω και πολλά άλλα
ακόμη, τα οποία παραμένουν κρυφά, καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια μιας επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας
και που έχουν τη δυνατότητα να την κατευθύνουν σε κατευθύνσεις οι οποίες, πολλές φορές,
είναι απρόβλεπτες. Έτσι, λοιπόν, δεν θα μπορούσαμε να δώσουμε έναν μοναδικό και πλήρη
ορισμό για την επικοινωνία. Επειδή η επικοινωνία αποτελεί μία πολυδιάστατη και
πολυσύνθετη διαδικασία και μια συμπεριφορά που διέπεται από συγκεκριμένους κανόνες,
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υπάρχουν πολλοί ορισμοί οι οποίοι θα μπορούσαν να την ορίσουν συμπληρώνοντας ο ένας

τον άλλον.
Η επικοινωνία επιτυγχάνεται-πραγματώνεται λεκτικά και μη λεκτικά. Η επικοινωνία

επιτυγχάνεται ακόμα και με τη σιωπή μας, με μία απλή έκφραση του προσώπου, με μία
κίνηση των χεριών, με μία συγκεκριμένη στάση του σώματος, καθώς με όλα αυτά μπορούν
να εκφραστούν σκέψεις και συναισθήματα, χωρίς να ακουστεί ούτε μία λέξη. Η γλώσσα του
σώματος «μιλάει» πολύ περισσότερο από όσο ορισμένοι πιστεύουν. Όμως, η επικοινωνία
δεν σχετίζεται μόνο με την ομιλητική και εκφραστική ικανότητα του ανθρώπου σε σχέση με
την ανάπτυξη του λόγου.
Επικοινωνία είναι η έκφραση του ανθρώπου μέσα από τις τέχνες, τη μουσική, τα
εικαστικά, το θέατρο, το χορό. Επικοινωνία είναι η έκφραση του ανθρώπου που
εκδηλώνεται με μία σειρά αθλητικών δρώμενων και δραστηριοτήτων, μέσω των οποίων
εκφράζονται κυρίως οι άνθρωποι του αθλητικού χώρου. Επικοινωνία είναι η έκφραση του
ανθρώπου μέσα από μία σειρά δημιουργημάτων, τα οποία αποσκοπούν στην έκφραση των
δημιουργών τους, σε μία προσπάθεια επικοινωνίας τους με το ευρύ κοινό.
Η επικοινωνία αποτελεί μία ζωτικής σημασίας συμπεριφορά για τον άνθρωπο και για το
λόγο αυτό, σε καμία περίπτωση, κανείς φυσιολογικός άνθρωπος δεν μπορεί να επιβιώσει
για μακρό χρονικό διάστημα χωρίς να επικοινωνήσει, έστω και για λίγο, έστω και
περιστασιακά με τον οποιοδήποτε τρόπο ή χρησιμοποιώντας οποιοδήποτε μέσο
επικοινωνίας. Συνεπώς, η επικοινωνία αποτελεί την πεμπτουσία της ανθρώπινης ύπαρξης,
της δημιουργικής τάσης των ανθρώπων, το μέσο εκείνο που διασφαλίζει την κοινωνική
συμβίωση, το μέσο εκείνο που βοηθά στην ανάπτυξη και την πρόοδο της επιστήμης, το
μέσο εκείνο που κάνει τον άνθρωπο να διακρίνεται από όλα τα άλλα πλάσματα της φύσης
τα οποία, αν και επικοινωνούν με έναν ιδιότυπο τρόπο, εντούτοις η επικοινωνιακή τους
ικανότητα, σε καμία περίπτωση, δεν θα μπορούσε να συγκριθεί με αυτήν του ανθρώπου,
για μια σειρά από λόγους (Σταμάτης, 2011).
Σύμφωνα με σύγχρονες μελέτες, η επικοινωνία δεν θα μπορούσε να χαρακτηριστεί ως

μια καλή ή κακή διαδικασία (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2016). Κάτι τέτοιο θα ήταν πολύ
απλοϊκό. Αξιοποιείται, όμως, για καλό ή για κακό σκοπό. Η ποιότητά της εξαρτάται από την
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καλλιέργεια κάθε ανθρώπου και τα βιώματα που αυτός έχει από τις αλληλεπιδράσεις του
στο οικογενειακό στο εργασιακό ή στο ευρύτερο κοινωνικό του περιβάλλον. Ο βασικός
στόχος της επικοινωνίας είναι η συνεννόηση και η αλληλοκατανόηση μεταξύ των ανθρώπων
που επικοινωνούν. Το στοιχείο της αμοιβαιότητας είναι θεμελιώδες στην επικοινωνιακή
διαδικασία, σε κάθε επικοινωνιακή συμπεριφορά. Η γνήσια επικοινωνία πραγματώνεται
μεταξύ δυο τουλάχιστον ανθρώπων που επιχειρούν να μεταδώσουν ο ένας στον άλλον,
σκέψεις, απόψεις, γνώμες, πεποιθήσεις, αντιλήψεις, πληροφορίες ή συναισθήματα. Παρά
ταύτα, η «μονήρης επικοινωνία» είναι υπαρκτή. Δεν αποτελεί γνήσια μορφή επικοινωνίας.
Ωστόσο, γίνεται αντιληπτή και κοινωνικά αποδεκτή μόνο σε συγκεκριμένες περιστάσεις,
όπως αναφέρεται στη συνέχεια (βλ. ενδοπροσωπική επικοινωνία).
Ορισμός 1
Διαπροσωπική επικοινωνία (interpersonal communication): Η επικοινωνία που
αναπτύσσεται μεταξύ δύο ατόμων. Εμφανίζει ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά καθώς δυο
άνθρωποι με διαφορετικές προσωπικότητες, επικοινωνιακές ικανότητες και προθέσεις,
εμπλεκόμενοι σε μια πολύπλοκη διαδικασία, επιδιώκουν να μεταδώσουν, εντός
συγκεκριμένου επικοινωνιακού πλαισίου, μηνύματα, πληροφορίες, γνώσεις, απόψεις,
πεποιθήσεις, συναισθήματα κ.π.ά. ο ένας προς τον άλλο, με τρόπο αμοιβαία κατανοητό και
στοιχειωδώς αποδεκτό, κατά την κρίση τους (Wood, 2015).
5.1.2 Τα χαρακτηριστικά και ο ρόλος της επικοινωνίας στην

ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων
Επικοινωνία υπάρχει ουσιαστικά, όπως προαναφέρθηκε, στην περίπτωση που

τουλάχιστον δύο άνθρωποι επικοινωνούν μεταξύ τους. Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, η
επικοινωνία ονομάζεται διαπροσωπική. Σε περίπτωση που τρία ή περισσότερα άτομα
επικοινωνούν μεταξύ τους, η επικοινωνία ονομάζεται ομαδική. Η επικοινωνία που
αναπτύσσεται εντός της σχολικής τάξης είναι ειδική και αναφέρεται στη βιβλιογραφία ως
επικοινωνία σε μικρές ομάδες. Σε περιπτώσεις κατά τις οποίες ένα άτομο απευθύνεται σε
πολυπληθές ακροατήριο, τότε η επικοινωνία ονομάζεται δημόσια.
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Στην περίπτωση που ένα άτομο μιλάει με τον εαυτό του ή μιλάει απευθυνόμενο σε
μεταφυσικές οντότητες αναπτύσσοντας έναν εσωτερικό διάλογο ή εξωτερικεύοντας τις
σκέψεις του καθώς μονολογεί, τότε, σε αυτή την περίπτωση, η επικοινωνία ονομάζεται
ενδοπροσωπική. Κατά συνέπεια, αντιλαμβανόμαστε ότι υπάρχουν διάφορες μορφές
επικοινωνίας. Καθεμία από αυτές διέπεται από συγκεκριμένα χαρακτηριστικά και
συγκεκριμένους κανόνες, προκειμένου να είναι αποτελεσματική.
Η επικοινωνία έχει προσλάβει διαχρονικά διάφορους χαρακτηρισμούς, οι οποίοι

λειτουργούν ουσιαστικά ως επιθετικοί προσδιορισμοί σε μια προσπάθεια να περιγραφούν
συνοπτικά οι ιδιότητές της καθώς και η συμβολή της σε διάφορες περιστάσεις. Στο πλαίσιο
αυτό και ανάλογα με την κατεύθυνση στην οποία κινείται η ανταλλαγή πληροφοριών κατά
την υλοποίηση μιας επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας, η επικοινωνία ονομάζεται αναλόγως
κάθετη ή καθοδική, ανοδική, οριζόντια ή διαγώνια (Αθανασούλα-Ρέππα, 2008). Κάθετη ή
καθοδική ονομάζεται η επικοινωνία η οποία αναπτύσσεται με πρωτοβουλία ενός ιεραρχικά
ανώτερου στελέχους προς υφιστάμενο, εφόσον αυτή διεξάγεται σε επαγγελματικό ή
εργασιακό χώρο. Στην αντίθετη περίπτωση η επικοινωνία ονομάζεται ανοδική.
Οριζόντια ονομάζεται η επικοινωνία η οποία αναπτύσσεται συνήθως μεταξύ

«ομοιόβαθμων» συναδέλφων ή ισότιμων συνομιλητών, οι οποίοι βρίσκονται είτε σε κάποια
συζήτηση μεταξύ τους είτε προσπαθούν να μεταδώσουν πληροφορίες ο ένας στον άλλον
είτε προσπαθούν να διευθετήσουν διάφορα ζητήματα, με αμοιβαία συνεννόηση και
αλληλοκατανόηση σε ένα συνεργατικό πλαίσιο.
Ως διαγώνια χαρακτηρίζεται η επικοινωνία η οποία αναπτύσσεται διαμεσολαβημένα,

δηλαδή ανάμεσα σε δύο πρόσωπα διαφορετικής επικοινωνιακής ισχύος, με την παρεμβολή
ενός τρίτου προσώπου. Παραδείγματος χάριν, στο εργασιακό περιβάλλον ο υφιστάμενος-
εργαζόμενος απευθύνεται στον διευθυντή του μέσω του προϊσταμένου. Στο οικογενειακό
περιβάλλον, το παιδί απευθύνεται στον έναν γονέα μέσω του άλλου γονέα, ο οποίος παίζει
το ρόλο του διαμεσολαβητή κ.ο.κ.
Γενικότερα, τα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας διαφοροποιούνται ανάλογα με τις

επικοινωνιακές περιστάσεις ή το επικοινωνιακό πλαίσιο -όπως αλλιώς αυτό αναφέρεται σε
επιστημονικές μελέτες- και την ιδιότητα του προσώπου, το οποίο επικοινωνεί.
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Παραδείγματος χάριν, ο εκπαιδευτικός επικοινωνεί με διαφορετικό τρόπο από αυτόν που

επικοινωνεί ο γιατρός, ο δικηγόρος όταν ασκεί τα καθήκοντά του στη δικαστική αίθουσα
από έναν συμβολαιογράφο όταν συντάσσει ένα συμβόλαιο, με διαφορετικό τρόπο
επικοινωνεί ο τεχνίτης που επισκευάζει το χαλασμένο παράθυρο, ο πατέρας και η μητέρα
που απευθύνονται προς τα δικά τους ή προς τα ξένα παιδιά, ο ιερέας όταν κηρύττει στον
εκκλησιαστικό άμβωνα, η κομμώτρια όταν χτενίζει μια πελάτισσα κ.ο.κ. Η επικοινωνία των
εκπαιδευτικών ή η επικοινωνία που αναπτύσσεται στο χώρο της εκπαίδευσης ευρύτερα,
αποδίδεται διεθνώς με τον όρο «educational communication» (Simonds & Cooper, 2011),
ενώ η επικοινωνία που αναπτύσσεται αποκλειστικά κατά τη διδασκαλία αποδίδεται διεθνώς
με τον όρο «instructional communication» (Houser & Hosek, 2017).
Ο άνθρωπος είναι κοινωνικό ον, το οποίο βασίζει την επιβίωσή του στην ανάπτυξη
σχέσεων. Η επικοινωνία αποτελεί τον καταλύτη ανάπτυξης κάθε μορφής σχέσεων. Οι
σχέσεις που αναπτύσσονται μεταξύ ανθρώπων ονομάζονται διαπροσωπικές σχέσεις. Χωρίς
επικοινωνία, η ζωή του ανθρώπου γίνεται εξαιρετικά δύσκολη και επώδυνη. Ο περιορισμός
ή πολύ περισσότερο η παντελής έλλειψη επικοινωνίας, έχει τη δυνατότητα να οδηγήσει τον
άνθρωπο ακόμη και στο θάνατο, περνώντας τον ενδεχομένως από το στάδιο της κατάθλιψης
ή ακόμη και της τρέλας, ανάλογα με την ψυχοσύνθεσή του και τις ψυχικές αντιστάσεις που
διαθέτει (Slavin, 2018).
Λόγω της έμφυτης κοινωνικότητάς του ο άνθρωπος δεν μπορεί να ζήσει στερημένος από
σχέσεις, οποιασδήποτε μορφής. Αν δεν επιθυμεί ή αν δεν καταφέρει να συνάψει σχέσεις με
ανθρώπους, θα επιδιώξει να συνάψει σχέσεις με άλλα έμβια όντα ή ακόμα και με
πνεύματα. Είναι η γνωστοί οι ισχυρότατοι δεσμοί που αναπτύσσουν οι άνθρωποι με τα ζώα
συντροφιάς, όπως ονομάζονται τα κατοικίδια, με τη γάτα, το σκύλο, το ιγκουάνα, το
χάμστερ, το παπαγαλάκι τους κ.λπ. Τέτοιοι δεσμοί αναπτύσσονται συνήθως σε υπερήλικα
άτομα, τα οποία αναζητούν συντροφιά για να αντιμετωπίσουν την μοναξιά τους αλλά και σε
πολλά άλλα άτομα νεαρής ή μέσης ηλικίας, τα οποία αν και δεν στερούνται συντροφιάς,
επιλέγουν να μένουν στο σπίτι ή κυκλοφορούν με τα κατοικίδιά τους στη γειτονιά, στο
πάρκο και οπουδήποτε αλλού.
Η ανάγκη για σύναψη σχέσεων είναι αδυσώπητα σκληρή για τους ανθρώπους.
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Ορισμένες φορές αυτές οι σχέσεις οδηγούν στην ευτυχία, ενώ κάποιες άλλες στον όλεθρο,
ψυχικό, πνευματικό ή σωματικό! Εκτός από τα έμβια όντα με τα οποία οι άνθρωποι
φροντίζουν να συνάπτουν σχέσεις φιλίας, συντροφιάς, συνεργασίας, ερωτικές,
συναδελφικές, πολιτικές και κοινωνικές, σχέσεις ικανοποίησης κοινών ενδιαφερόντων
(χομπίστικες σχέσεις) κ.π.ά., σε περιπτώσεις κατά τις οποίες δεν τα καταφέρουν, ως
αντιστάθμισμα της αδυναμίας τους, συνάπτουν σχέσεις με υπερφυσικά όντα, μέσω της
αναπόλησης, της φαντασίας, της προσευχής, της πίστης ή ακόμη και της παραίσθησης, της
έκστασης κ.λπ.
Η καθημερινή επικοινωνία είτε αναπτύσσεται μέσα στο χώρο της οικογένειας είτε μέσα
στο χώρο της εργασίας, σε οποιοδήποτε περιβάλλον και αν αυτή διεξάγεται, διαμορφώνει
ένα ευρύ πλέγμα σχέσεων το οποίο, με τη σειρά του, συμβάλλει καταλυτικά στη
διαμόρφωση ενός νέου πλέγματος σχέσεων κ.ο.κ. Κατά συνέπεια, η διαρκής διαμόρφωση
και ανάπτυξη νέων πλεγμάτων σχέσεων, καθιστά την επικοινωνία μια εξαιρετικά πολύπλοκη
διαδικασία και παράλληλα μια ζωτικής σημασίας πραγματικότητα, χωρίς την οποία δεν θα
μπορούσαν να προαχθούν και να ευδοκιμήσουν ούτε οι ανθρώπινες σχέσεις ούτε καν και η
στοιχειώδης ικανοποίηση των βιοτικών αναγκών. Για να ειπωθεί αυτό με πιο απλά λόγια,
χωρίς επικοινωνία, παραδείγματος χάριν, τα ζευγάρια δεν θα μπορούσαν να συνάψουν
οικογενειακές σχέσεις, οι εργοδότες δεν θα μπορούσαν να βρουν εργαζόμενους για τις
δουλειές τους, η εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία δεν θα μπορούσε να πραγματοποιηθεί κ.λπ.
Γενικότερα, χωρίς επικοινωνία θα επικρατούσαν καταστάσεις φαυλότητας, οι οποίες,

κατά κανόνα, οδηγούν σε τέλμα και καταστροφή, σε αμέτρητες και επικίνδυνες συγκρούσεις
με διαλυτικές επιπτώσεις στην ανθρώπινη καθημερινότητα. Αντίθετα, με την επικοινωνία
και την ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων, κάθε άνθρωπος καταφέρνει, εφόσον το
επιθυμεί, να δημιουργήσει οικογένεια, να έχει εργασία ανάλογη με τα προσόντα του, να
μετέχει σε εκπαιδευτικές διαδικασίες και γενικότερα, να αναπτύσσει σχέσεις φιλίας,
συνεργασίας, αλληλεγγύης, αντιπαλότητας και κάθε άλλης μορφής σχέσεις είτε θετικές είτε
αρνητικές, έχοντας πάντα ως κριτήριο το προσωπικό του συμφέρον, χωρίς κατ’ ανάγκη να
σκέφτεται με ποιο τρόπο θα βλάψει το συμφέρον των άλλων ή το κοινωνικό συμφέρον
ευρύτερα.
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Σύμφωνα με σύγχρονες έρευνες, τα άτομα που έχουν αναπτύξει εξαιρετικές

επικοινωνιακές ικανότητες είναι εκείνα που, κατά κανόνα, σημειώνουν εξαιρετικές επιτυχίες
στην προσωπική, στην επαγγελματική και στην κοινωνική τους ζωή (Beebe, Beebe, &
Redmond, 2016; Wood, 2015). Είναι τα άτομα εκείνα που δημιουργούν, που απολαμβάνουν
την καθημερινότητά τους, παρά τις υφιστάμενες δυσκολίες και τα προβλήματα. Είναι τα
άτομα εκείνα που, συνήθως, βλέπουν το ποτήρι μισογεμάτο. Είναι τα άτομα εκείνα τα οποία
επιτυγχάνουν στον επαγγελματικό στίβο και κοινωνικό στίβο και απολαμβάνουν, κατά
κανόνα, τα αγαθά αυτής της επιτυχίας ζώντας με τον πλέον ευχάριστο και άρα, καλύτερο
δυνατό τρόπο.
Έτσι, λοιπόν, μολονότι η επικοινωνία αποτελεί μια σύνθετη έννοια και μια πολύπλοκη
διαδικασία, το γεγονός αυτό δεν εμποδίζει τον άνθρωπο που επιθυμεί να βελτιώσει την
επικοινωνιακή του ικανότητα να το καταφέρει, καθώς υπάρχουν πολλοί τρόποι οι οποίοι θα
στήριζαν αυτή του την επιθυμία και την προσπάθειά του να βελτιώσει το επικοινωνιακό του
επίπεδο. Στα βασικά κείμενα των συνεδριών που ακολουθούν καθώς και στο κείμενο που
προτείνεται για περαιτέρω μελέτη, μπορείτε να βρείτε περισσότερα στοιχεία για το θέμα
αυτό, ώστε να αποκτήσετε μια πληρέστερη εικόνα.
Ορισμός 2
Ομαδική επικοινωνία και επικοινωνία σε μικρές ομάδες (team/group communication): Η
επικοινωνία που αναπτύσσεται μεταξύ τριών, τεσσάρων ή λίγων περισσότερων ατόμων.
Εμφανίζει και αυτή ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά καθώς οι λίγοι άνθρωποι, οι οποίοι διαθέτουν
διαφορετικές προσωπικότητες, επικοινωνιακές ικανότητες και προθέσεις, εμπλεκόμενοι σε
μια πολύπλοκη διαδικασία, επιδιώκουν να μεταδώσουν, εντός συγκεκριμένου
επικοινωνιακού πλαισίου, μηνύματα, πληροφορίες, γνώσεις, απόψεις, πεποιθήσεις,
συναισθήματα κ.π.ά. ο ένας προς τον άλλο, με τρόπο αμοιβαία κατανοητό και στοιχειωδώς
αποδεκτό, κατά την κρίση τους, όπως συμβαίνει και στην περίπτωση της διαπροσωπικής
επικοινωνίας (βλ. παραπάνω Ορισμός 1 ). Όμως, σε αυτή την περίπτωση, ο αριθμός των
αλληλεπιδράσεων που αναπτύσσονται είναι πολλαπλάσιος και για αυτό πιο εξαιρετικά πιο
πολύπλοκος. Επιπλέον, στην περίπτωση της ομαδικής επικοινωνίας και ακόμη περισσότερο,
στην περίπτωση της επικοινωνίας σε μικρές ομάδες αναπτύσσεται και μια ιδιαίτερη
δυναμική, αυτή της επικράτησης ή επιβολής της κυρίαρχης άποψης σε περίπτωση λήψης
αποφάσεων, γεγονός το οποίο μετατρέπει την επικοινωνία σε μια διαδικασία η οποία
απαιτεί ειδικές δεξιότητες και οδηγεί σε ανάπτυξη ειδικών χειρισμών από πλευράς
συμμετεχόντων/μελών της ομάδας (Σταμάτης & Μούτσιος-Ρέντζος, 2017).
10
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ΠΡΟΤΑΣΗ ΠΕΡΑΙΤΕΡΩ ΜΕΛΕΤΗΣ ΜΕ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΗΛΑ ΚΕΙΜΕΝΑ
Αν επιθυμείτε να μελετήσετε περαιτέρω το ζήτημα της έννοιας της επικοινωνίας, μπορείτε

να ανατρέξετε στο κείμενο «Έννοια και μορφές της επικοινωνίας» στα Παράλληλα Κείμενα
της συνεδρίας.
Επίσης, αν επιθυμείτε, μπορείτε να ανατρέξετε στους παρακάτω δυο συνδέσμους οι

οποίοι περιλαμβάνονται στη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία:
http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fred%20C
,%20Communication%20Schooling%20V1%20N1%202010.pdf
http://ioc.edu.my/images/demo/printedMaterial/OUMH1203.pdf
Σ
ύνοψη/Ανακεφαλαίωση Αντικειμένου Συνεδρίας
Στην παρούσα συνεδρία η οποία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Η έννοια, τα χαρακτηριστικά και ο
ρόλος της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων», γίνεται αναφορά στην
έννοια και στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό
περιβάλλον καθώς και στο ρόλο των χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με την επίτευξη της
εύρυθμης λειτουργίας της σχολικής μονάδας γενικότερα, από διοικητική, διδακτική και
κοινωνική άποψη. Γίνεται, επίσης, συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών
11
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συνθηκών και παραμέτρων σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας καθώς

και στις μορφές επικοινωνίας οι οποίες εμφανίζονται στο πλέγμα των καθημερινών
αλληλεπιδράσεων που συμβαίνουν σε μια σχολική μονάδα. Επιπρόσθετα, στην παρούσα
ενότητα το ενδιαφέρον επικεντρώθηκε έμμεσα στο ρόλο της επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή
της στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων, στην καλλιέργεια ήπιου σχολικού κλίματος,
μέσω της εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας και στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου,
με την εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας, όπως αυτές αναπτύσσονται στο πλαίσιο μιας
σχολικής επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής.
Στο πλαίσιο της συνεδρίας αυτής οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες

επιχειρήθηκε να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά τις διαστάσεις και τους παράγοντες που διέπουν
το επικοινωνιακό πλαίσιο και ευρύτερα, τις δυνατότητες επικοινωνίας μεταξύ
εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή εντός του σχολικού-εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος και πιο
συγκεκριμένα, να γνωρίσουν την έννοια, τα χαρακτηριστικά και το ρόλο της επικοινωνίας
στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων, να αντιληφθούν ευρύτερα και να αποτιμούν
θετικά τη σχέση του σχολικού κλίματος με την ανάπτυξη της επικοινωνίας στη σχολική
μονάδα και να γνωρίσουν τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον.
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Βιβλιογραφία *
Ξενόγλωσση
Ansary, M. A. (2018). Classroom: Classroom Management in Five Days. The Most Effective
Classroom Management Method for Teachers: Find Out the Classroom Management
Secrets, Tips & Tricks. Independently published.
Arnold, M. (2004). Effective Communication Techniques for Child Care. USA. Cengage
Learning.
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Redmond, M. V. (2016). Interpersonal Communication: Relating
to Others. USA: Pearson.
Dowd, H., & Green, P. (2016). Classroom Management in the Digital Age: Effective Practices
for Technology-Rich Learning Spaces. Irvine, California, CA, USA: EdTechTeam.
Emmer, E. T., & Evertson, C. M. (2012). Classroom Management for Middle and High School
Teachers. USA: Pearson.
Endress, P. (2016). The Magic of Communication Styles: Understanding yourself and those
around you. Cardinal House Press.
Erwin, J. C. (2016). The School Climate Solution: Creating a Culture of Excellence from the
Classroom to the Staff Room. Mineapolis, MN, USA: Free Spirit Publishing.
Gilchrist-Petty, E. (2017). Deviant Communication in Teacher-Student Interactions: Emerging
Research and Opportunities. USA: IGI Global.
Grapin, S. L., & Kranzler, J. H. (2018). School Psychology: Professional Issues and Practices.
Springer Publishing Company.
Houser, M. L., & Hosek, A. (2017). Handbook of Instructional Communication. New York, NY,
USA: Routledge.
Johnson, K., & Robbins, M. (2004). Classroom Crisis: The Teacher's Guide: Quick and Proven
Techniques for Stabilizing Your Students and Yourself. Alameda CA, USA: Hunter House.
Porterfield, K. (2014). Why School Communication Matters: Strategies from Professionals.
USA: American Association of School Administrators and Rowman & Littlefield.
Simonds, C. J., & Cooper, P. J. (2011). Communication for the Classroom Teacher. USA:
Pearson.
Shapiro, L. E. (2003). 55 Favorite Communication Techniques that Get Kids Talking and
Thinking. Childswork/Childsplay.
Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. USA: Pearson.
Tomal, D. R. (2013). Resource Management for School Administrators: Optimizing Fiscal,
Facility, and Human Resources. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
White, D. M., & Braddy, A. H. (2017). Ready-to-Go Instructional Strategies That Build
Collaboration, Communication, and Critical Thinking. California, CA, USA: Corwin /
Sage Publishing Co.
Wood, J. T. (2015). Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters. Boston, MA, USA:
Wadsworth Publishing CENGAGE Learning.
Ελληνική
13
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Αθανασούλα-Ρέππα, Α. (2008). Εκπαιδευτική Διοίκηση & Οργανωσιακή Συμπεριφορά. Η

Παιδαγωγική της Διοίκησης της Εκπαίδευσης. Αθήνα: ΕΛΛΗΝ.
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2011). Εισαγωγή: Έννοιες και μορφές επικοινωνίας. Στο Α. Κοντάκος και
Φ. Καλαβάσης (Επιμ.), Θέματα Εκπαιδευτικού Σχεδιασμού 4 (σσ. 9-22). Αθήνα:
Ατραπός.
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2013). Επικοινωνία στην Εκπαίδευση. Αθήνα: Διάδραση.
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2015). Προσχολική και Πρωτοσχολική Παιδαγωγική. Εκπαιδευτικές
διαστάσεις της επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας. Αθήνα: Διάδραση.
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι., & Μούτσιος-Ρέντζος, Α. (2017). Θεωρίες επικοινωνίας σε μικρές ομάδες:
Μια συνοπτική επισκόπηση. Στο Α. Θ. Κοντάκος και Π. Ι. Σταμάτης (Επ. Επιμ.),
Θεωρίες και Μοντέλα Επικοινωνίας στην Εκπαίδευση (Σειρά: Επικοινωνία και
Εκπαίδευση, τ. 2, σσ. 269-301). Αθήνα: Διάδραση.
* Σημείωση: Η βιβλιογραφία που εμφανίζεται παραπάνω με έντονα γράμματα, αναφέρεται στο βασικό
κείμενο της παρούσας συνεδρίας, ενώ η βιβλιογραφία που δεν αναφέρεται με έντονα γράμματα αποτελεί
μέρος της βασικής βιβλιογραφίας της 5ης διδακτικής ενότητας.
14
Σκοπός της συνεδρίας:
Οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά τις διαστάσεις

και τους παράγοντες που διέπουν το επικοινωνιακό πλαίσιο και ευρύτερα τις
δυνατότητες επικοινωνίας μεταξύ εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή εντός του σχολικού-
εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος, εκκινώντας από την προσέγγιση θεμελιωδών γνώσεων
περί επικοινωνίας.
Αναπληρωτής Καθηγητής Παιδαγωγικής Επικοινωνίας 5η Διδακτική Ενότητα - 1η Συνεδρία
ΤΕΠΑΕΣ-Πανεπιστημίου Αιγαίου
Προσδοκώμενα μαθησιακά αποτελέσματα από τη συνεδρία:
- γνωρίζουν την έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων
- γνωρίζουν τα χαρακτηριστικά και το ρόλο της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη

διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων.
Περίγραμμα περιεχομένου συνεδρίας:
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Η έννοια, τα χαρακτηριστικά και ο ρόλος της
επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων». Υπό τον τίτλο αυτό, γίνεται αναφορά
στην έννοια και στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό
περιβάλλον καθώς και στο ρόλο των χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με την επίτευξη μιας
εύρυθμης λειτουργίας στη σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα, από διοικητική, διδακτική και κοινωνική
άποψη. Γίνεται, επίσης, συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και
παραμέτρων σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας. Επιπρόσθετα, στην
παρούσα ενότητα το ενδιαφέρον επικεντρώνεται έμμεσα στο ρόλο της επικοινωνίας και τη
συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων, στην καλλιέργεια ήπιου σχολικού
κλίματος, μέσω της εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας και στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού
πλαισίου, με την εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας, όπως αυτές αναπτύσσονται στο πλαίσιο μιας
σχολικής επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής.
ΟΡΙΣΜΟΣ 1 ΟΡΙΣΜΟΣ 2
Διαπροσωπική επικοινωνία (interpersonal Ομαδική επικοινωνία και επικοινωνία σε μικρές ομάδες (team/group
communication): Η επικοινωνία που αναπτύσσεται communication): Η επικοινωνία που αναπτύσσεται μεταξύ τριών, τεσσάρων ή λίγων
μεταξύ δυο ατόμων. Εμφανίζει ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά περισσότερων ατόμων. Εμφανίζει και αυτή ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά καθώς οι λίγοι
καθώς δυο άνθρωποι με διαφορετικές προσωπικότητες, άνθρωποι, οι οποίοι διαθέτουν διαφορετικές προσωπικότητες, επικοινωνιακές
επικοινωνιακές ικανότητες και προθέσεις, εμπλεκόμενοι ικανότητες και προθέσεις, εμπλεκόμενοι σε μια πολύπλοκη διαδικασία, επιδιώκουν
σε μια πολύπλοκη διαδικασία, επιδιώκουν να να μεταδώσουν, εντός συγκεκριμένου επικοινωνιακού πλαισίου, μηνύματα,
μεταδώσουν, εντός συγκεκριμένου επικοινωνιακού πληροφορίες, γνώσεις, απόψεις, πεποιθήσεις, συναισθήματα κ.π.ά. ο ένας προς τον
πλαισίου, μηνύματα, πληροφορίες, γνώσεις, απόψεις, άλλο, με τρόπο αμοιβαία κατανοητό και στοιχειωδώς αποδεκτό, κατά την κρίση
πεποιθήσεις, συναισθήματα κ.π.ά. ο ένας προς τον άλλο, τους, όπως συμβαίνει και στην περίπτωση της διαπροσωπικής επικοινωνίας (βλ.
με τρόπο αμοιβαία κατανοητό και στοιχειωδώς παραπάνω Ορισμός 1). Όμως, σε αυτή την περίπτωση, ο αριθμός των
αποδεκτό, κατά την κρίση τους (Wood, 2015). αλληλεπιδράσεων που αναπτύσσονται είναι πολλαπλάσιος και για αυτό πιο
εξαιρετικά πιο πολύπλοκος. Επιπλέον, στην περίπτωση της ομαδικής επικοινωνίας
και ακόμη περισσότερο, στην περίπτωση της επικοινωνίας σε μικρές ομάδες
αναπτύσσεται και μια ιδιαίτερη δυναμική, αυτή της επικράτησης ή επιβολής της
κυρίαρχης άποψης σε περίπτωση λήψης αποφάσεων, γεγονός το οποίο μετατρέπει
την επικοινωνία σε μια διαδικασία η οποία απαιτεί ειδικές δεξιότητες και οδηγεί σε
ανάπτυξη ειδικών χειρισμών από πλευράς συμμετεχόντων/μελών της ομάδας
(Σταμάτης & Μούτσιος-Ρέντζος, 2017).
Βιβλιογραφία Βασικού Κειμένου Συνεδρίας:
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Redmond, M. V. (2016). Interpersonal Communication: Relating to Others. USA: Pearson.
Houser, M. L., & Hosek, A. (2017). Handbook of Instructional Communication. New York, NY, USA: Routledge.
Simonds, C. J., & Cooper, P. J. (2011). Communication for the Classroom Teacher. USA: Pearson.
Wood, J. T. (2015). Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters. Boston, MA, USA: Wadsworth Publishing
CENGAGE Learning.
Αθανασούλα-Ρέππα, Α. (2008). Εκπαιδευτική Διοίκηση & Οργανωσιακή Συμπεριφορά. Η Παιδαγωγική της Διοίκησης
της Εκπαίδευσης. Αθήνα: ΕΛΛΗΝ.
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2011). Εισαγωγή: Έννοιες και μορφές επικοινωνίας. Στο Α. Κοντάκος και Φ. Καλαβάσης (Επιμ.), Θέματα
Εκπαιδευτικού Σχεδιασμού 4 (σσ. 9-22). Αθήνα: Ατραπός.
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι., & Μούτσιος-Ρέντζος, Α. (2017). Θεωρίες επικοινωνίας σε μικρές ομάδες: Μια συνοπτική επισκόπηση.
Στο Α. Θ. Κοντάκος και Π. Ι. Σταμάτης (Επ. Επιμ.), Θεωρίες και Μοντέλα Επικοινωνίας στην Εκπαίδευση (Σειρά:
Επικοινωνία και Εκπαίδευση, τ. 2, σσ. 269-301). Αθήνα: Διάδραση.
SCHOOLING
VOLUME 1, NUMBER1, 2010
Communication: The Process, Barriers,

And Improving Effectiveness
Fred C. Lunenburg
Sam Houston State University
________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Communication is the process of transmitting information and common

understanding from one person to another. In this article, I discuss the
communication process, barriers to communication, and improving communication
effectiveness.
________________________________________________________________________
The study of communication is important, because every administrative function

and activity involves some form of direct or indirect communication. Whether planning
and organizing or leading and monitoring, school administrators communicate with and
through other people. This implies that every person’s communication skills affect both
personal and organizational effectiveness (Brun, 2010; Summers, 2010). It seems
reasonable to conclude that one of the most inhibiting forces to organizational
effectiveness is a lack of effective communication (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2010). Moreover,
good communication skills are very important to ones success as a school administrator.
A recent study indicated that recruiters rated communication skills as the most important
characteristic of an ideal job candidate (Yate, 2009).
In this article, I will help you to better understand how school administrators can
improve their communication skills. To begin, I define what is meant by communication
and then discuss the process by which it occurs. Following this, I examine barriers to
communication and ways to improve communication effectiveness.
Defining Communication and Describing the Process
Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information and

common understanding from one person to another (Keyton, 2011). The word
communication is derived from the Latin word, communis, which means common. The
definition underscores the fact that unless a common understanding results from the
1
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exchange of information, there is no communication. Figure 1 reflects the definition and

identifies the important elements of the communication process (Cheney, 2011)
Medium
Encode Decode
Sender Message Receiver
Decode Encode
Noise
Feedback
Figure 1. The communication process.
Two common elements in every communication exchange are the sender and the
receiver. The sender initiates the communication. In a school, the sender is a person who
has a need or desire to convey an idea or concept to others. The receiver is the individual
to whom the message is sent. The sender encodes the idea by selecting words, symbols,
or gestures with which to compose a message. The message is the outcome of the
encoding, which takes the form of verbal, nonverbal, or written language. The message is
sent through a medium or channel, which is the carrier of the communication. The
medium can be a face-to-face conversation, telephone call, e-mail, or written report. The
receiver decodes the received message into meaningful information. Noise is anything
that distorts the message. Different perceptions of the message, language barriers,
interruptions, emotions, and attitudes are examples of noise. Finally, feedback occurs
when the receiver responds to the sender's message and returns the message to the sender.
Feedback allows the sender to determine whether the message has been received and
understood.
The elements in the communication process determine the quality of
communication. A problem in any one of these elements can reduce communication
effectiveness (Keyton, 2011). For example, information must be encoded into a message
that can be understood as the sender intended. Selection of the particular medium for
transmitting the message can be critical, because there are many choices.
For written media, a school administrator or other organization member may
choose from memos, letters, reports, bulletin boards, handbooks, newsletters, and the
like. For verbal media, choices include face-to-face conversations, telephone, computer,
public address systems, closed-circuit television, tape-recorded messages, sound/slide
shows, e-mail, and so on. Nonverbal gestures, facial expressions, body position, and even
clothing can transmit messages. People decode information selectively. Individuals are
more likely to perceive information favorably when it conforms to their own beliefs,
FRED C. LUNENBURG
____________________________________________________________________________________3
values, and needs (Keyton, 2010). When feedback does not occur, the communication
process is referred to as one-way communication. Two-way communication occurs with
feedback and is more desirable.
The key for being successful in the contemporary school is the ability of the
school administrator to work with other school stakeholders (faculty, support staff,
community members, parents, central office); and develop a shared sense of what the
school/school district is attempting to accomplish – where it wants to go, a shared sense
of commitments that people have to make in order to advance the school/school district
toward a shared vision and clarity of goals. As school administrators are able to build a
shared mission, vision, values, and goals, the school/school district will become more
effective. Building a relationship between school administrators and other school
stakeholders requires effective communication.
For example, research indicates that principals spend 70 to 80% of their time in
interpersonal communication with various stakeholders (Green, 2010; Lunenburg & Irby,
2006; Matthews & Crow, 2010; Sergiovanni, 2009; Tareilo, 2011; Ubben, Hughes, &
Norris, 2011). Effective principals know how to communicate, and they understand the
importance of ongoing communication, both formal and informal: faculty and department
meetings; individual conversations with parents, teachers, and students; and telephone
calls and e-mail messages with various stakeholder groups.
The one constant in the life of a principal is a lot of interruptions – they happen
daily, with a number of one- and three-minute conversations in the course of the day.
This type of communication in the work of the principal has to be done one on one - one
phone call to one person at a time, one parent at a time, one teacher at a time, one student
at a time; and a principal needs to make time for these conversations. For example, a
principal may be talking with a parent with a very serious problem. She may be talking
with a community member. She may be talking with the police about something that
went on during the school day. The principal must be able to turn herself on and off in
many different roles in any given day.
Barriers to Effective Communication
A school administrator has no greater responsibility than to develop effective

communication (Pauley, 2010). Why then does communication break down? On the
surface, the answer is relatively simple. I have identified the elements of communication
as the sender, the encoding, the message, the medium, the decoding, the receiver, and the
feedback. If noise exists in these elements in any way, complete clarity of meaning and
understanding does not occur. The author, George Bernard Shaw wrote, ‖The greatest
problem with communication is the illusion that it has been accomplished‖ (Shaw, 2011).
Four types of barriers (called ―noise,‖ see Figure 1) are process barriers, physical barriers,
semantic barriers, and psychosocial barriers (Eisenberg, 2010).
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Process Barriers
Every step in the communication process is necessary for effective and good
communication.. Blocked steps become barriers. Consider the following situations:
• Sender barrier. A new administrator with an innovative idea fails to speak up at a

meeting, chaired by the superintendent, for fear of criticism.
• Encoding barrier. A Spanish-speaking staff member cannot get an English-
speaking administrator to understand a grievance about working conditions.
• Medium barrier. A very upset staff member sends an emotionally charged letter
to the leader instead of transmitting her feelings face-to-face.
• Decoding barrier. An older principal is not sure what a young department head
means when he refers to a teacher as "spaced out."
• Receiver barrier. A school administrator who is preoccupied with the preparation
of the annual budget asks a staff member to repeat a statement, because she was
not listening attentively to the conversation.
• Feedback barrier. During a meeting, the failure of school administrators to ask
any questions causes the superintendent to wonder if any real understanding has
taken place.
Because communication is a complex, give-and-take process, breakdowns anywhere in

the cycle can block the transfer of understanding.
Physical Barriers
Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of

communication, including a telephone call, drop-in visitors, distances between people,
walls, and static on the radio. People often take physical barriers for granted, but
sometimes they can be removed. For example, an inconveniently positioned wall can be
removed. Interruptions such as telephone calls and drop-in visitors can be removed by
issuing instructions to a secretary. An appropriate choice of media can overcome distance
barriers between people.
Semantic Barriers
The words we choose, how we use them, and the meaning we attach to them
cause many communication barriers. The problem is semantic, or the meaning of the
words we use. The same word may mean different things to different people. Words and
phrases such as efficiency, increased productivity, management prerogatives, and just
cause may mean one thing to a school administrator, and something entirely different to a
staff member.
Technology also plays a part in semantic barriers to communication. Today's
complex school systems are highly specialized. Schools have staff and technical experts
developing and using specialized terminology—jargon that only other similar staff and
FRED C. LUNENBURG
____________________________________________________________________________________5
technical experts can understand. And if people don't understand the words, they cannot
understand the message.
Psychosocial Barriers
Three important concepts are associated with psychological and social barriers:
fields of experience, filtering, and psychological distance (Antos, 2011)). Fields of
experience include people's backgrounds, perceptions, values, biases, needs, and
expectations. Senders can encode and receivers decode messages only in the context of
their fields of experience. When the sender's field of experience overlaps very little with
the receiver's, communication becomes difficult. Filtering means that more often than not
we see and hear what we are emotionally tuned in to see and hear. Filtering is caused by
our own needs and interests, which guide our listening. Psychosocial barriers often
involve a psychological distance between people that is similar to actual physical
distance. For example, the school administrator talks down to a staff member, who
resents this attitude, and this resentment separates them, thereby blocking opportunity for
effective communication.
Successful communication by school administrators is the essence of a productive
school organization. However, as discussed previously, communications do break down.
Several communication theorists (Abrell, 2004; Auer, 2011; Larson, 2011; Shettleworth,
2010; Weiss, 2011) have focused on the major areas where failures in communication
most frequently occur. The following are the major areas where communication
breakdowns most frequently occur in schools:
• Sincerity. Nearly all communication theorists assert that sincerity is the

foundation on which all true communication rests. Without sincerity—honesty,
straightforwardness, and authenticity—all attempts at communication are destined to fail.
• Empathy. Research shows that lack of empathy is one of the major obstacles to
effective communication. Empathy is the ability to put one's self into another's shoes. The
empathetic person is able to see the world through the eyes of the other person.
• Self-perception. How we see ourselves affects our ability to communicate
effectively. A healthy but realistic self-perception is a necessary ingredient in
communicating with others.
• Role perception. Unless people know what their role is, the importance of their
role, and what is expected of them, they will not know what to communicate, when to
communicate, or to whom to communicate.
• Efforts to distort the message. Pitfalls in communication often occur in our
efforts—both consciously and unconsciously—to distort messages.
• Images. Another obstacle to successful communication is the sender's image of
the receiver and vice versa. For example, on the one hand, school administrators are
sometimes viewed as not too well informed about teaching, seen as out of touch with the
classroom, and looked on as paper shufflers. On the other hand, some school
administrators view teachers as lazy, inconsiderate of administrative problems, and
unrealistic about the strengths and weaknesses of their students. Such views lead to a
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"we-they" attitude.
• Vehicle for message. The vehicle by which we choose to send messages is
important in successful communication. In most cases, the vehicle to be used is defined
by the situation.
• Ability to communicate. Some of the ways we communicate raise barriers by
inhibiting discussion or causing others to feel inferior, angry, hostile, dependent,
compliant, or subservient.
• Listening ability. Frequently, people fail to appreciate the importance of listening,
do not care enough to become actively involved with what others are saying, and are not
sufficiently motivated to develop the skills necessary to acquire the art of listening.
• Culture. Our cultural heritage, biases, and prejudices often serve as barriers to
communication. The fact that we are African-American or white, young or old, male or
female have all proved to be obstacles in communicating effectively.
• Tradition. Past practice in a school helps determine how, when, and what we send
and receive. For example, a school administrator who has an authoritative style may find
that his staff will not share information readily. If a new administrator with a
collaborative style replaces the authoritarian one, the new administrator may find that it
takes a while for his colleagues to speak out on important issues.
• Conditioning. The manner in which communication is conditioned by the
environment influences the accuracy of messages sent and received. If we work for
administrators who set a climate in which we are encouraged to share information, we
soon become conditioned to communicate accordingly.
• Noise. A major barrier to communication is what communication experts call
noise. Noise consists of the external factors in the channels and the internal perceptions
and experiences within the source and the receiver that affect communication.
• Feedback. Faculty and staff tell their leaders that they want feedback. However,
feedback improperly given can impede communication rather than improve it.
Administrators and followers both need more training in how to use feedback more
productively.
Improving Communication Effectiveness
Effective communication is a two-way process that requires effort and skill by

both sender and receiver. Administrators will at times assume each of these roles in the
communication process. In this section, I discuss guidelines for improving
communication effectiveness, including senders’ and receivers’ responsibilities, and
listening.
Sender's Responsibilities
Several communication theorists (Cheney, 2011; Keyton, 2011; Tourish, 2010)

have gleaned ten commandments of good communication, which are particularly
applicable to the sender. These commandments, together with a basic understanding of
the communication process itself, should provide a good foundation for developing and
maintaining an effective set of interpersonal communication skills, which school
FRED C. LUNENBURG
____________________________________________________________________________________7
administrators can use when communicating with various school stakeholders.
1. School administrators need to clarify their ideas before communicating. The

more systematically administrators analyze the problem or idea to be communicated, the
clearer it becomes. This is the first step toward effective communication. Many
communications fail because of inadequate planning. Good planning must consider the
goals, attitudes, and needs of those who will receive the communication and those who
will be affected by it.
2. Administrators need to examine the true purpose of each communication. Before
administrators communicate, they must ask themselves what they really want to
accomplish with their message—obtain information, initiate action, or change another
person's attitude? Administrators need to identify their most important goal and then
adapt their language, tone, and total approach to serve that specific objective.
Administrators should not try to accomplish too much with each communication. The
sharper the focus of their message, the greater its chances of success.
3. Administrators need to consider the total physical and human setting. Meaning
and intent are conveyed by more than words alone. Many other factors influence the
overall impact of a communication, and administrators must be sensitive to the total
setting in which they communicate: the circumstances under which an announcement or
decision is made; the physical setting—whether the communication is made in private or
otherwise; the social climate that pervades work relationships within the school or
department and sets the tone of its communications; custom and practice—the degree to
which the communication conforms to, or departs from, the expectations of the audience.
Be constantly aware of the total setting in which you communicate. Like all living things,
communication must be capable of adapting to its environment.
4. Administrators need to consult with others, when appropriate, in planning
communications. Frequently, it is desirable or necessary to seek the participation of
others in planning a communication or in developing the facts on which to base the
communication. Such consultation often lends additional insight and objectivity to the
message. Moreover, those who have helped plan the communication will give it their
active support.
5. Administrators need to be mindful, while communicating, of the overtones as
well as the basic content of the message. The administrator’s tone of voice, expression,
and apparent receptiveness to the responses of others all have tremendous impact on
those the administrator wishes to reach. Frequently overlooked, these subtleties of
communication often affect a listener's reaction to a message even more than its basic
content. Similarly, the administrator’s choice of language—particularly her awareness of
the fine shades of meaning and emotion in the words used—predetermine in large part
the reactions of the listeners.
6. Administrators need to take the opportunity, when it arises, to convey something
of help or value to the receiver. Consideration of the other person's interests and needs—
trying to look at things from the other person's point of view—frequently points up
opportunities to convey something of immediate benefit or long-range value to the other
person. Staff members are most responsive to administrators whose messages take staff
interests into account.
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7. Administrators need to follow up their communication. An administrator’s best

efforts at communication may be wasted, and she may never know whether she has
succeeded in expressing her true meaning and intent if she does not follow up to see how
well she has put her message across. An administrator can do this by asking questions, by
encouraging the receiver to express his or her reactions, by follow-up contacts, and by
subsequent review of performance. An administrator needs to make certain that every
important communication has feedback so that complete understanding and appropriate
action result.
8. Administrators need to communicate for tomorrow as well as today. Although
communications may be aimed primarily at meeting the demands of an immediate
situation, they must be planned with the past in mind if they are to maintain consistency
in the receiver's view. Most important, however, communications must be consistent with
long-range interests and goals. For example, it is not easy to communicate frankly on
such matters as poor performance or the shortcomings of a loyal staff member, but
postponing disagreeable communications makes these matters more difficult in the long
run and is actually unfair to your staff and your school organization.
9. Administrators need to be sure that their actions support their communications.
In the final analysis, the most persuasive kind of communication is not what
administrators say, but what they do. When leaders’ actions or attitudes contradict their
words, others tend to discount what they have said. For every administrator, this means
that good supervisory practices—such as clear assignment of responsibility and authority,
fair rewards for effort, and sound policy enforcement—serve to communicate more than
all the gifts of oratory.
10. Administrators need to seek, not only to be understood, but to understand—be a
good listener. When an administrator starts talking, he often ceases to listen, at least in
that larger sense of being attuned to the other person's unspoken reactions and attitudes.
Even more serious is the occasional inattentiveness a leader may be guilty of when others
are attempting to communicate with him. Listening is one of the most important, most
difficult, and most neglected skills in communication. It demands that the administrator
concentrate not only on the explicit meanings another person is expressing, but also on
the implicit meanings, unspoken words, and undertones that may be far more significant.
Thus, an administrator must learn to listen with the inner ear if he is to know the inner
person.
Receiver's Responsibilities
Communication depends on the ability not only to send but also to receive
messages. So the ability to listen effectively greatly enhances the communication process.
But many of us are not good listeners. Effective listening skills can be developed,
however. Summarized following are ten rules for good listening (Kneen, 2011)):
1. Stop talking. You cannot listen if you are talking. For example, Polonius in
Hamlet said: "Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice."
2. Put the talker at ease. Help a person feel free to talk. This is often called a
permissive environment.
FRED C. LUNENBURG
____________________________________________________________________________________9
3. Show a talker that you want to listen. Look and act interested. Do not read your
mail while someone talks. Listen to understand rather than to oppose.
4. Remove distractions. Don't doodle, tap, or shuffle papers. Will it be quieter if you
shut the door?
5. Empathize with talkers. Try to help yourself see the other person's point of view.
6. Be patient. Allow plenty of time. Do not interrupt a talker. Don't start for the door
or walk away.
7. Hold your temper. An angry person takes the wrong meaning from words.
8. Go easy on argument and criticism. These put people on the defensive, and they
may clam up or become angry. Do not argue: Even if you win, you lose.
9. Ask questions. This encourages a talker and shows that you are listening. It helps
to develop points further.
10. Stop talking. This is first and last, because all other guides depend on it. You
cannot do an effective listening job while you are talking.
Nature gave people two ears but only one tongue, which is a gentle hint that they
should listen more than they talk. Listening requires two ears, one for meaning and one
for feeling. Leaders who do not listen have less information for making sound decisions.
Active Listening
Active listening is a term popularized by the work of Carl Rogers and Richard
Farson (n.d.) and advocated by counselors and therapists (Brownell, 2009; Burstein,
2010). The concept recognizes that a sender's message contains both verbal and
nonverbal content as well as a feeling component. The receiver should be aware of both
components in order to comprehend the total meaning of the message. For instance, when
a staff member says to her supervisor, "Next time you ask me to prepare a report, please
give me some advance notice." The content conveys that the staff member needs time,
but the feeling component may indicate resentment for being pressured to meet a
deadline with such short notice. The supervisor, therefore, must recognize this feeling to
understand the staff member's message. There are five guidelines that can help school
administrators to become more active listeners (Rogers & Farson, n.d.).
1. Listen for message content. The receiver must try to hear exactly what the sender
is saying in the message.
2. Listen for feelings. The receiver must try to identify how the sender feels in terms
of the message content. This can be done by asking: "What is he trying to say?"
3. Respond to feelings. The receiver must let the sender know that her feelings, as
well as the message content are recognized.
4. Note all cues, verbal and nonverbal. The receiver must be sensitive to the
nonverbal messages as well as the verbal ones. If the receiver identifies mixed messages,
he may ask for clarification.
5. Rephrase the sender's message. The receiver may restate or paraphrase the verbal
and nonverbal messages as feedback to the sender. The receiver can do this by allowing
the sender to respond with further information.
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The last guideline is one of the most powerful of the active listening techniques
and is used regularly by counselors and therapists. It helps the receiver avoid passing
judgment or giving advice, and encourages the sender to provide more information about
what is really the problem.
Conclusion
Communication is the process of transmitting information and common

understanding from one person to another. The elements of the communication process
are the sender, encoding the message, transmitting the message through a medium,
receiving the message, decoding the message, feedback, and noise.
A number of barriers retard effective communication. These can be divided into
four categories: process barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers, and psychosocial
barriers. To improve the effectiveness of communications, schools must develop an
awareness of the importance of sender's and receiver's responsibilities and adhere to
active listening skills.
References
Abrell, R. (2004). Preventing communication breakdowns. Reston, VA: National

Association of Secondary School Principals.
Antos, G. (2011). Handbook of interpersonal communication. The Hague, The
Netherlands: Mouton De Gruyter.
Auer, P. (2011). Theories and methods. The Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton De
Gruyter.
Brownell, J. (2009). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Brun, J. P. (2010). Missing pieces: 7 ways to improve employee well-being and
organizational effectiveness. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Burstein, J. (2010). Have you heard?: Active listening. New York, NY: Crabtree
Publishing.
Canary, H. (2011). Communication and organizational knowledge: Contemporary issues
for theory and practice. Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis.
Cheney, G. (2011). Organizational communication in an age of globalization: Issues,
reflections, practices. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Eisenberg, E. M. (2010). Organizational communication: Balancing creativity and
constraint. New York, NY: Saint Martin’s.
Green, R. L. (2010). The four dimensions of principal leadership: A framework for
leading 21st century schools. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Keyton, J. (2010). Case studies for organizational communication: Understanding
communication processes. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Keyton, J. (2011). Communication and organizational culture: A key to understanding
work experience. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kneen, J. (2011). Essential skills: Essential speaking and listening skills. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
FRED C. LUNENBURG
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Larson, R. K. (2011). The evolution of human language: Biolinguistic perspectives. New

York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Lunenburg, F.C,& Irby, B. J. (2006). The principalship: Vision to action. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Cengage.
Lutgen-Sandvik, P. (2010). Destructive organizational communication: Processes,
consequences, and constructive ways of organizing. New York, NY: Routledge.
Matthews, L. J., & G. M. Crow (2010). The principalship: New roles in a professional
learning community. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Pauley, J. A. (2010). Communication: The key to effective leadership. Milwaukee, WI:
ASQ Quality Press.
Rogers, C. R., & Farson, R. F. (n.d.). Active listening. Chicago, IL; Industrial Relations
Center, University of Chicago.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (2009). The principalship: A reflective practice perspective. Boson,
MA: Pearson.
Shaw, G. B. (2011). The wit and wisdom of George Bernard Shaw. Mineola, NY; Dover
Publications.
Shettleworth, S. J. (2010). Cognition, evolution, and behavior. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Summers, D. C. (2010). Quality management: Creating and sustaining organizational
effectiveness. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Tareilo, J. (2011). Other side of the desk: A 20/20 look at the principalship. Lanham,
MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Tourish, D. (2010). Auditing organizational communication: A handbook of research,
theory, and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.
Ubben, G. C., Hughes, L. W., & Norris, C. J. (2010). The principal: Creative leadership
for excellence in schools (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Weiss, B. (2011). How to understand language: A philosophical inquiry. Montreal, QUE:
McGill University Press.
Yate, M. (2009). Hiring the best: A manager’s guide to effective interviewing and
recruiting. Cincinnati, OH: F & W Media.
Topic X Introduction to
1 Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by the word „communication‰ in general;
2. Identify the main elements in the communication process;
3. Differentiate between oral and written communication;
4. Highlight some basic tips on writing; and
5. List the common pitfalls to avoid in written communication.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic gives you an overview of communication and introduces you to the
main elements in the communication process. It also highlights the importance of
writing clear, positive messages and offers you some basic tips and guidelines on
this form of communication so that you may become more proficient in the kind
of writing needed at home as well as in the college and workplace. You will also
learn about some of the common pitfalls which may impede the effectiveness of
written communication.
1.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the
physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special
efforts to develop and refine this skill further. Very often, we take the ease with
which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we
sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is.
2 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
1.1.1 Elements in Communication

Have you ever wondered why some people can communicate so well while
others fail to get their message across? What are the elements that must be
present in the communication process before it can be successful and effective?
Well, communication has been defined as the act of giving, receiving or

exchanging information, ideas and opinions so that the „message‰ is completely
understood by both parties. Look at Figure 1.1 below. The illustration shows
clearly that in a communication process, there must be a sender who speaks or
sends a message, and a receiver who listens or receives the message.
Figure 1.1: The communication process
The sender sends a message with a certain intention in mind. The receiver of the
message tries to understand and interpret the message sent. He then gives
feedback to the original sender, who in turn interprets the feedback. This process,
repeated continuously, constitutes communication.
Clearly, there are several major elements in the communication process ă a

sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context. There is both a speakerÊs
intention to convey a message and a listenerÊs reception of what has been said.
Thus, listening skills are just as important as speaking skills in order for
communication to be effective.
This means that if you want to get your message across accurately, you need to
consider these three things:
• The message;
• The audience or receiver; and
• How the message is likely to be received.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION W 3
A message is only considered successfully communicated when both the sender

and the receiver perceive and understand it in the same way. If this does not
happen, then there may be a breakdown in communication, which may
ultimately stand in the way of you realising your goals, either personally or
professionally.
ACTIVITY 1.1
The meaning of communication lies in the way that it is received.

Do you agree with the above statement? Discuss with your friends
during the next tutorial session.
1.1.2 Factors Affecting Communication

As mentioned earlier, effective communication is a two-way process but there are
a number of factors which may disrupt this process and affect the overall
interpretation and understanding of what was communicated. Myriad problems
can pop up at different stages of the communication process. These can relate to
any of the elements involved ă the sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback
and context. It is therefore important to understand some of the factors that affect
communication so that you can try to get your message across with minimal
misunderstanding and confusion.
Below are some possible problem areas that may turn out to to be barriers to
effective communication:
(a) Status/Role
The sender and receiver of a message may be of equal status within a
hierarchy (e.g. managers in an organisation) or they may be at different
levels (e.g. manager/employee, lecturer/student, business owner/clients).
This difference in status sometimes affects the effectiveness of the
communication process.
(b) Cultural Differences

Cultural differences, both within or outside the organisation (for example,
inter-departmental dealings and communication with outside organisations
or ethnic minorities) may impede the communication process.
(c) Choice of Communication Channels

Before you choose your communication channel, you should ask yourself
whether the channel is appropriate for a particular purpose and the
person/receiver you have in mind. Sending messages via inappropriate
channels can send out wrong signals and end up creating confusion.
(d) Length of Communication

The length of the message also affects the communication process. You
need to be sure that it serves the purpose and is appropriate for the
receiver. Is the message too long or too brief?
(e) Use of Language

Poor choice of words or weak sentence structure also hampers
communication. The same goes for inappropriate punctuation. The two
sentences below illustrate clearly how different placement of punctuation
can change the entire meaning of a sentence:
Woman, without her, man is nothing.

Woman, without her man, is nothing.
(f) Disabilities
Disabilities such as impaired sight, dyslexia and poor mental health can
also be barriers to good communication, and should be taken into
consideration when evaluating the effectiveness of the communication
process. You may need to use hearing aids, sign language, magnifying
systems, and symbols to alleviate problems caused by disabilities.
(g) Known or Unknown Receiver

Whether the receiver is known or unknown to you also plays a major role
in determining the effectiveness of your communication. A known receiver
may be better able to understand your message despite having insufficient
information as both of you probably have common experiences and a
shared schemata. An unknown receiver, on the other hand, may require
more information and time to decode the message.
(h) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalities

Sometimes, the method of communication needs to take into consideration the
receiverÊs personality traits, age and preferred style. The elderly and children,
for example, have different communication needs and preferences when
compared to young adults. Is the receiver of your message a visual, auditory,
or kinesthetic sort of person? How do you think they will react to your
message? Can you adapt your communication style to suit theirs?
(i) Atmosphere/Noise/Distraction
Our surroundings can sometimes pose as barriers to effective communication.
A noisy place (a party, for instance) usually puts a strain on oral
communication as both the sender and the receiver need to put extra effort to
get the message across and ensure that it is understood clearly and correctly.
(j) Clarity of Message

Is the message conveyed in a clear or ambiguous manner?
(k) Lack of Feedback

Feedback is important as it enables confirmation of understanding to be
made by both parties. The lack of feedback can sometimes create problems
as it can lead to uncertainty and confusion.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Your father is not keen on your decision to study medicine in the

United Kingdom. How can you persuade him, bearing in mind the
barriers to communication that you might encounter?
When choosing the most appropriate channel of communication, you should

heed the following:
(a) Consider all aspects of the communication process (interpretation,
understanding, feedback).
(b) Think carefully about possible barriers.
(c) Evaluate the complexity of the message and decide how it might be best
conveyed.
(d) Ask yourself these questions:
• Who? ă Characteristics of the receiver(s).
• Why? ă Purpose of the communication.
• What? ă Content of the message.
• How? ă Oral, written, visual or a combination of all three.
• Where? ă Location of the meeting.
• When? ă Timing/time limit/expected response time.
(e) Determine whether you are meeting or writing to the people concerned. Is
the communication via face-to-face interaction, telephone, letter, e-mail,
memo or a report?
(f) Decisions about the most appropriate channel of communication also
depend on factors such as cost, time, confidentiality, convention, urgency
and whether written documentation is required.
1.2 DEFINING WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

As mentioned earlier, communication can be oral or in written form. What is the
difference between these two main types of communication?
Oral communication involves conveying ideas, thoughts or information via a
spoken language. In written communication, however, information is exchanged
using written symbols, that is, via words and sentences. Written communication
is the sharing and exchanging of written symbols between individuals or groups.
It is also the presentation of ideas in a coherent manner in written form.
Written communication can take place via:

• Letters;
• Faxes;
• Email;
• Reports;
• Memos; and
• Advertisements.
You can acquire good writing skills through extensive reading, note-taking and
listening. In order to communicate effectively via writing, you need to have a
sound grounding in grammar and vocabulary so that you can present ideas,
together with supporting details, in a unified and coherent manner.
1.3 WHY WRITTEN COMMUNICATION?

The next question that arises is: „Why do we need to communicate in written
form? Why is there a need to document our work or keep written records?‰ The
answers to these questions are many and varied.
For one thing, once you put something into writing, the message is there for
posterity, so that others can read it again and again, whenever they like. This is
especially useful for research purposes where you need to build up on existing
pools of knowledge.
Writing also means that information can be stored and transferred from
individual to individual and group to group without relying on memory.
Through the written word, records can exist independently of the writer.
The written document also helps you to keep abreast of development in

whatever project you are involved in as it provides an avenue not only for the
sharing of ideas or opinions, but also for the presenting and defending of
viewpoints.
Written communication can also serve as a form of acknowledgement ă proof

that something has been done in case verification is needed later.
Sometimes, documenting work helps to clarify thoughts and thinking processes

as it allows you to mull over things slowly, at your own pace. It is „thinking
made public‰.
So, what must be documented? Any idea, logic, argument or phraseology

derived from an outside source must be documented. In academic writing, you
must give credit for all borrowed materials, for example, quotations, references,
information from primary and secondary sources, facts, data, statistics, opinions,
ideas and interpretations which you have gathered from your reading and
research.
Such material must be acknowledged and cited, irrespective of whether you have
paraphrased, summarised or quoted directly. The only exception is what is
loosely termed „general knowledge‰ or „common knowledge‰, which is
information or ideas generally known and accepted by everyone, including the
writer and the audience.
You must cite and document all ideas and arguments borrowed from an
outside source.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Why do you think formal work should always be documented?

1.4 TIPS ON WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
„We all use language to communicate, express ourselves, get our ideas
across and connect with the person to whom we are speaking. When a
relationship is working, the act of communication seems to flow relatively
effortlessly. When a relationship is deteriorating, the act of communicating
can be as frustrating as climbing a hill of sand.‰
(Chip Rose)
As the above quote shows, writing is a complex process. There is no short cut to
being a good writer. If you want to write well, you need to first of all, read
extensively. You must read not just books on writing but magazines, websites,
newspapers, newsletters and others ă anything that you can get your hands on.
Do not be overly concerned with grammar and spelling when you first start out.
You can always fix those later. What is important is to put your thoughts down
on paper first. The next section will outline some tips and guidelines to help you
get started.
1.4.1 The Writing Process

Successful written communication requires careful thought and planning. It
should contain comprehensive information about a specific subject and yet be
clear, correct and easy to read.
A well-written piece of work requires you to pay attention to the following three
stages in the writing process:
• Planning;
• Writing; and
• Editing.
(a) Planning
To write a good report, you need to plan what you want to say. After you
have decided on what you want to say, list down all the points and arrange
them in a logical and suitable sequence. This approach will ensure the
clarity of your message and help you to avoid omitting relevant details.
(b) Writing
The writing stage requires careful planning. It includes a pre-writing stage
where you gather all the information necessary to ensure that there is
substance to your writing. Start writing in simple and plain English and
move from something concrete to something more abstract and expressive.
In order to improve your writing skills, you need to practise writing in the
target language everyday until you are able to express yourself clearly and
meet the needs of your reader. Once you start writing, the words,
sentences, paragraphs and lay-outs become writing tools which you can use
to convey your message concisely, courteously, and confidently.
Sebranek, Meyer and Kemper (1996) summed it up in a nutshell when they
say that writing is like „...basketball and juggling, (it) is not a God-given
mysterious talent given only to a chosen few but, rather, a skill that gets
better with practice, practice that involves increased challenges and,
therefore, risk.‰
Adopt a plain, straightforward style when writing as this makes your work
easy to understand and reduces the chances of misunderstanding arising
from ambiguity.
(c) Editing
The third stage in the writing process is editing. It is crucial to check for
grammatical errors and ensure that there is smooth language flow. The
longer the report, the more editing is usually required. It can be useful to
get someone else to read through the written piece for you.
1.4.2 Pitfalls to Avoid

Basically, there are four types of errors that you must try to avoid in written
communication, as shown in Figure 1.2.
(a) Confusing Language

Confusing language refers to words that mislead the reader and cause
communication breakdown. It may also result in barriers being erected
between the writer and the reader. Avoid words which are ambiguous,
bombastic, vague, sexist, exaggerated, inflated and archaic. Remember to
write in plain, good English.
Figure 1.2: Common errors in writing
(b) Verbosity
Verbosity means the use of too many words, so much so that they interfere
with understanding. If verbosity persists, it may antagonise, confuse, and
bore the reader.
Check out the examples below:

(i) Adnin was the winner! (OK)
Adnin won! (Better)
(ii) The rugby ball flew all the way up, over to the centre field. (OK)
The rugby ball sailed to the centre field. (Better)
(iii) The stability and quality of our financial performance will be
developed through the profitable execution of our existing business,
as well as the acquisition or development of new businesses. (Too
long, too wordy, passive voice.)
We will improve our financial performance not only by executing our

existing business more profitably but by acquiring or developing new
businesses. (Better, shorter, active voice.)
ACTIVITY 1.4
In writing, why do you think it is better to omit needless words?

Discuss.
(c) Poor Sentence Structure

Poor sentence structure often leads to fragmented writing and choppy
sentences that impede understanding. Try to keep your sentence(s) short
and concise to ensure that they are correct, logical and easy to understand.
Word order is important for meaning. Remember that words should be
structured in such a way that those which precede should be in accordance
with those that follow.
ACTIVITY 1.5
The following examples have misplaced modifiers*. Re-order the
words to make them acceptable, presentable and grammatically
correct.
• For sale. Antique desk suitable for lady with thick legs and
large drawers.
• Enraged cow injures farmer with an axe.
(Ratner, B.D., 2004)
(*A modifier is an adjective or adverb that changes the meaning of a noun
or verb. It is an optional element in a sentence.)
(d) Information Overload

Information overload means giving so much information till you feel
overwhelmed and confused. This may cause frustration and cast doubts on
the writerÊs credibility. Therefore, as a writer, you must decide on the type
of information required and present this to produce a clear, concise and
relevant piece of written work.
ACTIVITY 1.6
Tell me and IÊll forget.
Show me and I may not remember.
Involve me and IÊll understand.
In your opinion, how does this saying relate to the art of written
communication?
1.5 CHALLENGES IN WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION
Although some people are intimidated by writing, there are times when writing
is perceived as the best way to communicate and to get your message across.
Some people consider written communication to be more concrete and „solid‰, as
there is less room for errors and mistakes when compared with other forms of
communication like oral communication.
1.5.1 New Technologies

Written communication, however, poses challenges such as spelling, grammar,
punctuation, style of writing, and actual wording. Thankfully, todayÊs
technology makes writing memos, reports, letters, and proposals a breeze by
providing tools that can check and even correct misspelt words and incorrect
grammar.
Unfortunately, these tools are not foolproof and will require your attention, thus
making knowledge in this area important. Currently, you can even send
messages electronically via e-mails or networking technologies such as SMS.
Irrespective of the form that written communication takes, you need to adhere to
certain accepted norms when communicating; otherwise, others might not be
able, or want to, communicate with you.
1.5.2 When Others Fail to Respond

In order to get messages conveyed effectively, you must understand what your
message is, who you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You must
also be able to carefully consider the circumstances surrounding your
communication such as the situation, context, culture, and whether it is formal or
informal.
Sometimes, people may not respond to your communication for the following
reasons:
• Their own poor writing skills (for example, language deficiencies).
• Too much information in the text/message.
• Too many grammatical errors and mistakes.
• Barriers between the sender and receiver (cultural, status, role).
• Message is not clear or precise.
• Wrong choice of delivery channel/ format.

• Past experiences (e.g. treatment received).
• Documents not structured, messy or not laid out well.
ACTIVITY 1.7
Think of possible reasons why people have failed to respond to

your written communication in the past. Share this with your
friends at the next tutorial session.
1.5.3 Asking the Right Questions

If a channel of communication is blocked or has come to a standstill, you may
need to pause a moment, and re-evaluate the situation. You have to find out
where things have gone wrong. One way to start doing this is by posing
questions to yourself:
• Where did it go wrong?
• Why was the message not understood or misinterpreted by the receiver?
• Was the timing bad?
• Did I use the correct channel to deliver the message?
• Are there many errors or mistakes in the document?
The answers to these questions may shed some light on where the
communication had gone wrong.
In order to make it easy for others to understand your communication and

respond accordingly, you should make sure that you provide the following:
• A clear indication of your purpose.
• Accurate and objective information.
• Appropriate headings and sub-headings.
• A suitable order of information.
• Concise and precise instructions.
• Desired action clearly spelled out.
Upon receiving the written communication or report, the reader should

understand the contents of the report clearly; know precisely what action needs
to be taken; how to do it; when to do it; and in what manner it should be done.
• This topic highlights the importance of communication, its meaning, and the
relationship between the message, sender and receiver.
• Communication is defined as the giving, receiving or exchanging of

information, opinions or ideas so that the message is completely understood
by everybody involved.
• A two-way process, communication comprises the following elements ă the

sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, and context.
• Barriers to effective communication include status and roles, cultural

differences, choice of communication channel, length of communication,
disabilities, use of language, individual perceptions, noise and distraction,
clarity of message, and feedback.
• There are three important stages to producing good written communication:

ă Planning;
ă Writing; and
ă Editing.
• The pitfalls to avoid in written communication are using confusing language,

verbosity, poor sentence structure, and information overload.
• All borrowed materials must be cited.
• People sometimes fail to respond to written forms of communication for

various reasons, for instance, the message is not clear, the language is weak
or there is too much information.
• The receiver of any written report should be able to understand the contents
of the report, know precisely what action needs to be taken, how to do it and
in what manner it should be done.
Communication channel Sender

Information overload Status/roles
Receiver Verbosity
Cook, C. (2002). Line by line. New York: Longman.
Flesch, R. (1996). The art of plain talk. New York: Harper Brothers Publishers.
Hacker, D. (2003). A writerÊs reference (5th ed.). Boston/New York: Bedford/

St. MartinÊs.
Ludlow, R., & Panton, F. (1992). The essence of effective communication.

New York: Prentice Hall.
Strunk, W. Jr., White, E. B., & Roger, A. (2004). The elements of style: A style of
gender for writers (4th ed.). New York: Longman.
Taylor, S. (2000). Essential communication skills: The ultimate guide to successful
business communication. Boston: Pearson Educational.
Έννοια και μορφές της επικοινωνίας1
Αν η κοινωνική συμβίωση αποτελεί αξιοθαύμαστο επίτευγμα του ανθρώπινου εί-

δους, τότε η επικοινωνία αποτελεί την γενεσιουργό αιτία αυτού του επιτεύγματος. Η
επικοινωνία αποτελεί την πεμπτουσία της ανθρώπινης συνύπαρξης, το μέσο και το
σκοπό σε μια αλληλοτροφοδοτική, αειφορική και αέναη, φυσιολογική διαδικασία αυ-
τοσυνειδησίας και τελικά, αυτοέκφρασης και αυτοπραγμάτωσης. Με την επικοινωνία
και χάριν της επικοινωνίας, αναπτύχθηκε ο ανθρώπινος Λόγος και ο μεταφυσικός
διάλογος, η «κοινωνία» μεταξύ ανθρώπινων και μεταφυσικών όντων. Με την επικοι-
νωνία αναπτύχθηκε ο ανθρώπινος πολιτισμός, όπως εκφράζεται με την πνευματική,
την καλλιτεχνική και την τεχνολογική δημιουργία, σε όλα τα επιστημονικά και τε-
χνολογικά επιτεύγματα ανά τους αιώνες. Συνεπώς, η σημασία της επικοινωνίας για
κάθε άνθρωπο αλλά και για κάθε έμβιο ον – στο βαθμό και με τη μορφή που μπορεί
να επικοινωνεί– αναμφισβήτητα είναι τεράστια, καθώς συνταυτίζεται με την ουσία
και το σκοπό της ύπαρξής του (Miller, 2000. Devito, 2004). Η επικοινωνία συμβάλλει
εποικοδομητικά στη διανοητική ανάπτυξη του ανθρώπου, διότι μέσω αυτής εμπλέκε-
ται σε αλληλεπιδράσεις ανταλλάσσοντας απόψεις, βιώματα, προβληματισμούς, επι-
θυμίες ή συναισθήματα. Συμβάλλει, επίσης, στην ομαλή του προσαρμογή στο κοινω-
νικό περιβάλλον, καθώς αποτελεί μια κατεξοχήν κοινωνικοποιητική διαδικασία, κατά
την οποία το άτομο μαθαίνει να διαχειρίζεται τη συμπεριφορά του σε σχέση με την
ανεκτικότητα και την αποδοχή των άλλων ή τους κανόνες που θέτει η κοινωνική
συμβίωση. Τέλος, συμβάλλει στη δυνατότητα του ανθρώπου να τροποποιεί τις περι-
βαλλοντικές παραμέτρους που επηρεάζουν την ποιότητα της ζωής του, μέσα από
διαρκή εμπλουτισμό εμπειριών.
Το εύλογο ερώτημα, ωστόσο, για τον ορισμό της επικοινωνίας, της ύψιστης,
συμβιωτικής διαδικασίας αλληλοκατανόησης, δεν βρίσκει εύκολα απάντηση, καθώς
έχουν διατυπωθεί δεκάδες ορισμοί, κατά καιρούς. Το γεγονός αυτό, καταδεικνύει ότι
η επικοινωνία αποτελεί σύνθετη και πολύπλοκη διαδικασία που ανάγεται στην ανώ-
τερη διανοητική σφαίρα του ανθρώπινου είδους η οποία, μολονότι δείχνει να οφείλε-
ται σε έμφυτες ικανότητες, έχει τη δυνατότητα να αναπτύσσεται και να βελτιώνεται
με κατάλληλη διδασκαλία και άσκηση. Η έννοια της επικοινωνίας έχει προσεγγιστεί
ποικιλοτρόπως, επί σειρά δεκαετιών, κατά το πρόσφατο παρελθόν αλλά και κατά την
αρχαιότητα, από κορυφαίους φιλοσόφους, όπως π.χ. ο Αριστοτέλης κ.ά. Κάθε επι-
στημολογική σκοπιά αποδίδει διαφορετική έννοια στον όρο «επικοινωνία», χωρίς να
κινδυνεύει να αποκλίνει από την ορθότητα της ουσίας αυτού του φαινομένου ζωής –
περί αυτού τελικά πρόκειται. Συνεπώς, εάν θέλαμε να δώσουμε έναν ορισμό για την
επικοινωνία, θα μπορούσαμε διακινδυνεύοντας να αναφέρουμε ότι πρόκειται για πο-
λυσύνθετο φαινόμενο ζωής κατά το οποίο, συμμετέχοντας συνολικά ο άνθρωπος, ως
ψυχοπνευματική και σωματική οντότητα, καταφέρνει, αξιοποιώντας δια του συνόλου
των αισθήσεων, εσωτερικά κίνητρα και περιβαλλοντικά ερεθίσματα, τα οποία μετα-
τρέπει σε κωδικοποιημένα σήματα, να ανταλλάξει κατανοητές πληροφορίες, σκέψεις
και συναισθήματα, εξυπηρετώντας πολυπληθείς στόχους κάθε φορά, σε πολλαπλά
επίπεδα (επικοινωνιακά πλαίσια) της επαγγελματικής, της επιστημονικής, της οικογε-
νειακής, της προσωπικής και κάθε άλλης κοινωνικής του πραγματικότητας (Σταμά-
1
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2011). Εισαγωγή: Έννοιες και μορφές επικοινωνίας. Στο Α. Κοντάκος και Φ. Καλα-
βάσης (Επιμ.), Θέματα Εκπαιδευτικού Σχεδιασμού 4, 9-22. Αθήνα: Ατραπός. ISBN 978-960-9541-70-1.
1
της, 2009). Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, καθίσταται άμεσα αντιληπτή η σχέση της επικοινωνίας
με τα αντικείμενα μελέτης διαφόρων επιστημονικών κλάδων και κυρίως των επιστη-
μών του ανθρώπου, που ερευνούν την ανθρώπινη δράση και συμπεριφορά. Καθίστα-
ται, επίσης, άμεσα αντιληπτή η σχέση της επικοινωνίας με τα αντίστοιχα επαγγέλμα-
τα που αποσκοπούν στην παροχή υπηρεσιών στον άνθρωπο, σε πολλαπλά επίπεδα,
όπως π.χ. στην υγεία, στην εκπαίδευση, στον πολιτισμό, στην ψυχαγωγία, στη διοί-
κηση, στην ασφάλεια, στο εμπόριο, στην πολιτική, στη δικαιοσύνη κ.π.ά.
Πιο συγκεκριμένα, επισημαίνεται ότι η επικοινωνία, ως θεμελιώδης μορφή συμπε-
ριφοράς, απασχόλησε τον άνθρωπο διαχρονικά, δημιουργώντας του προβληματι-
σμούς και ερωτήματα αναφορικά με τα δομικά της στοιχεία, τις διαδικασίες και τα
εμπόδια με τα οποία συσχετίζεται, τους όρους και τις προϋποθέσεις που την καθι-
στούν αποτελεσματική κ.ά. (Morris, 1998). Στην εποχή μας, η επιστήμη της Ψυχολο-
γίας την συμπεριέλαβε στη θεματολογία των ενδιαφερόντων της, θεωρώντας την από
την κοινωνική της σκοπιά, γι’ αυτό και την ενέταξε στα αντικείμενα της Κοινωνικής
Ψυχολογίας (Lippa, 2003). Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, η επικοινωνία εξετάζεται ως κινητή-
ριος μοχλός της ανθρώπινης συμπεριφοράς που εξαρτάται από κοινωνιοψυχολογι-
κούς παράγοντες, όπως π.χ. η αντιληπτική ικανότητα, η έκφραση των συναισθημά-
των, οι προκαταλήψεις, η επιθετικότητα κ.ά. Εντούτοις, επειδή η ψυχολογία εξέλαβε
την επικοινωνία και ως ένα αξιοσημείωτο φαινόμενο ζωής που δρα καθοριστικά στην
ψυχοσυναισθηματική εξέλιξη της προσωπικότητας και της κοινωνικής προσαρμογής
και ανέλιξης του ανθρώπου, την περιέλαβε με ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον κάνοντας λόγο
ακόμη και για ψυχολογία της επικοινωνίας (Σακαλάκη, 1994).
Μαζί με τις επιστήμες της κοινωνιολογίας και της ψυχολογίας, οι Επιστήμες της
Αγωγής, όπως ήταν επόμενο, εστίασαν το ενδιαφέρον τους στην επικοινωνία, εξετά-
ζοντας στην παιδαγωγική της διάσταση, κυρίως στο επίπεδο διαμόρφωσης σχέσεων
μεταξύ μελών κάθε εκπαιδευτικής κοινότητας και ευρύτερα με το σύνολο των εμπλε-
κόμενων στη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας με στόχο την υλοποίηση του εκπαι-
δευτικού έργου. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, αναπτύσσεται η Παιδαγωγική Επικοινωνία κα-
θώς και η Υποστηρικτική Εναλλακτική Επικοινωνία, η οποία αποσκοπεί στην αντι-
μετώπιση προβλημάτων σε παιδιά που χρειάζονται ειδική αγωγή.
Καθώς η επικοινωνία αποτελεί την πεμπτουσία της ανθρώπινης, ψυχοκοινωνικής
συνύπαρξης, προσλαμβάνει ποικίλες διαστάσεις. Μια από τις σημαντικότερες αποτε-
λεί η δυνατότητα αγχολυτικής παρέμβασης και ψυχολογικής υποστήριξης που παρέ-
χεται σε άτομα τα οποία αντιμετωπίζουν χρόνια ή προσωρινά προβλήματα υγείας. Η
επικοινωνιακή δυναμική που αναπτύσσεται μεταξύ νοσηλευτών, γιατρών, και ασθε-
νών ή συγγενών τους, σε πολλές περιπτώσεις, προσλαμβάνει εξαιρετικά ιδιαίτερες
διαστάσεις, κινούμενες συχνά στο όριο του μεταφυσικού. Η «παρηγοριά στον άρρω-
στο» αλλά και η ευχερής ενημέρωσή του για την κατάσταση και τις προοπτικές της
υγείας του, πέρα από ψυχοκοινωνικά αποτελέσματα, μπορεί να συμβάλει θετικά στην
ίαση του ασθενούς. Το γεγονός αυτό, επέβαλε την ανάπτυξη του κλάδου της επικοι-
νωνίας στις Επιστήμες της Υγείας (DiMatteo & Martin, 2006).
Εκτός από όσα αναφέρθηκαν στις προηγούμενες παραγράφους, η επικοινωνία α-
ποτελεί το επίκεντρο του ενδιαφέροντος σε σύγχρονες επιστήμες, όπως αυτές που θε-
ραπεύονται από πανεπιστημιακά τμήματα με αντικείμενο τα Μέσα Μαζικής Επικοι-
νωνίας προετοιμάζοντας φοιτητές για επαγγελματίες του χώρου της δημοσιογραφίας,
των πολιτικών ή κοινωνικών επιστημών, καθώς και αυτές που επικουρούνται στα
τμήματα των Τεχνολογιών της Πληροφορίας και της Επικοινωνίας και καταρτίζουν
ειδικούς για το αντίστοιχο επιστημονικό πεδίο, προσφέροντας πολύτιμες υπηρεσίες
στην εποχή των παγκοσμιοποιημένων «Νέων Τεχνολογιών». Σε μια εποχή, όπου τα
ανθρώπινα συστήματα κρίνονται για την αποτελεσματικότητά τους με κυρίαρχο δεί-
2
κτη την οργανωσιακή/επιχειρησιακή τους ικανότητα, η οποία εδράζεται στην ανά-
πτυξη συνεργατικών μορφών διοίκησης με προεξάρχοντα το ρόλο της ηγεσίας στην
ομάδα εργασίας, ώστε να διασφαλίζεται η αποτελεσματικότητα με όρους κοινωνικής
συνοχής και συναίνεσης. Συνεπώς, η έννοια της επικοινωνίας είναι άρρηκτα συνδε-
δεμένη με τη διακυβέρνηση ανθρώπινων συστημάτων στον τομέα της διοίκησης, της
διαφήμισης και της βελτίωσης των οικονομικών δεικτών καθώς και με διεθνείς όρους
όπως administration, marketing, management κ.ά. (Frederick, 1997. Himstreet, Baty
& Lehman, 2008).
Πέρα, όμως, από τους σύγχρονους εννοιολογικούς όρους με τους οποίους διασυν-
δέεται η επικοινωνία, δεν πρέπει να παραβλέπεται η κλασσική επιστήμη η οποία α-
σχολείται με την επικοινωνιακή διάσταση της γλώσσας και γενικότερα της ομιλητι-
κής ικανότητας του ανθρώπου (Pinker, 2000). Η Γλωσσολογία εξετάζει το γλωσσικό
φαινόμενο συγχρονικά και διαχρονικά, καθώς και τις γλωσσικές ιδιαιτερότητες, με
κοινωνικά και πολιτισμικά κριτήρια (κοινωνιογλωσσολογία). Κοντά στην επιστήμη
της γλωσσολογίας, δηλαδή της μελέτης της λεκτικής επικοινωνίας, αναπτύσσεται τα
τελευταία χρόνια παγκόσμιο ενδιαφέρον για τη μελέτη της μη λεκτικής επικοινωνίας.
Το ενδιαφέρον αυτό αναδεικνύεται με έρευνες που επισημαίνουν τον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο
της επικοινωνίας σε μη λεκτικό επίπεδο (Kοντάκος & Πολεμικός, 2000. Knapp &
Hall, 2002).
Σύμφωνα με όσα προαναφέρθηκαν, καθίσταται σαφής ο ιδιαίτερος ρόλος της ε-
πικοινωνίας, μιας πολύπλοκης διαδικασίας κι ενός φαινομένου ζωής, το οποίο δίνει
νόημα στην ανθρώπινη ύπαρξη δρώντας ως καταλύτης στη διαμόρφωση των διαπρο-
σωπικών σχέσεων. Η διασύνδεση της επικοινωνίας με πλήθος επιστημών, επισημαί-
νει επακριβώς το γεγονός της ιδιαιτερότητάς της. Επιπλέον, έπειτα από την παραπά-
νω, σύντομη σκιαγράφηση της σημασίας και της έννοιας της επικοινωνίας, ανακύπτει
ένα μείζον ερώτημα. Μπορούν όλοι οι άνθρωποι να επικοινωνούν απρόσκοπτα και
αποτελεσματικά, επιτυγχάνοντας κάθε στόχο επιβίωσης με όρους καλής διαβίωσης;
Σε θετική ή αρνητική περίπτωση, ποια είναι τα χαρακτηριστικά των ανθρώπων αυτών
και ποιες μορφές επικοινωνίας αναπτύσσουν σε κάθε επικοινωνιακή περίσταση; Ποιο
ρόλο διαδραματίζουν οι αισθήσεις στην επίτευξη αυτού του σπουδαίου φαινομένου
ζωής; Ποια μέσα μπορούν να αξιοποιηθούν ώστε να καταστεί πιο αποτελεσματική η
επικοινωνιακή διαδικασία; Μπορεί η εκπαίδευση να συμβάλει στη βελτίωση της επι-
κοινωνιακής ικανότητας του ανθρώπου και ιδιαίτερα του παιδιού; Ο εκπαιδευτικός,
στο ελληνικό εκπαιδευτικό σύστημα, έχει δυνατότητες βελτίωσης της επικοινωνιακής
του ικανότητας αφενός και αφετέρου των μαθητών του; Ποιες στρατηγικές παιδαγω-
γικής επικοινωνίας μπορούν να αναπτυχθούν στο χώρο της ελληνικής εκπαίδευσης,
ιδιαίτερα σε περιπτώσεις παιδιών που παρουσιάζουν διαταραχές επικοινωνίας; Ποιες
στρατηγικές μπορούν να αξιοποιηθούν στην οργανωτική δομή του ελληνικού εκπαι-
δευτικού συστήματος, οι οποίες θα συμβάλουν στην ανάπτυξη μορφών αποτελεσμα-
τικής διακυβέρνησης; Η ικανοποιητική απάντηση στη σειρά αυτών των ερωτημάτων
δεν μπορεί παρά να περνάει μέσα από τη μελέτη του φαινομένου της επικοινωνίας, σε
επιστημολογικό επίπεδο, εστιάζοντας τόσο στο θεωρητικά επικρατέστερο μοντέλο
επικοινωνίας όσο και στις μορφές της. Παράλληλα, δεν μπορεί παρά να περνάει από
την ενημέρωση κάθε ενδιαφερόμενου σχετικά με τα προβλήματα που παρεμποδίζουν
την απρόσκοπτη πραγμάτωσή της και τελικά, στην ανάπτυξη επικοινωνιακών στρα-
τηγικών αντιμετώπισής τους, σε επίπεδο συμβουλευτικής, συνεκτιμώντας ότι ο καθέ-
νας και ειδικά ο κάθε εκπαιδευτικός, μπορεί και οφείλει να γνωρίζει θεμελιώδη στοι-
χεία και έννοιες επικοινωνίας που συμβάλλουν στη βελτίωση των αλληλεπιδράσεων
στην τάξη για γνωστικούς ή και ψυχοσυναισθηματικούς λόγους. Η αποτελεσματική
επικοινωνία συμβάλλει πάντοτε θετικά τόσο στη βελτίωση των επιδόσεων των μαθη-
3
τών όσο και στην ανάπτυξη των διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων μεταξύ των μελών κάθε
εκπαιδευτικής κοινότητας (Balter & Tamis-Lemonda, 2006), στοιχεία απαραίτητα
στην αντιμετώπιση κρίσεων, συγκρούσεων και προβλημάτων συμπεριφοράς.
Ο όρος «επικοινωνία» συνοδεύεται, σχεδόν πάντα, από επίθετα τα οποία προσδιο-
ρίζουν τη μορφή της επικοινωνίας που κάθε φορά πραγματώνεται. Το γεγονός αυτό
παραπέμπει στην πολλαπλή διάσταση του επικοινωνιακού φαινομένου αναφορικά με
το σκοπό που επιτελεί σε κάθε περίσταση. Είναι προφανές ότι οι άνθρωποι επηρεα-
ζόμενοι από παράγοντες όπως το φύλο, η ηλικία, το μορφωτικό, το οικονομικό επίπε-
δο ή το κοινωνικοπολιτισμικό περιβάλλον, επικοινωνούν με διαφορετικό τρόπο σε
διαφορετικές περιστάσεις, αλληλεπιδρώντας ενδεχομένως με διαφορετικά πρόσωπα
και προσπαθώντας να επιτύχουν κάθε φορά διαφορετικούς πληροφοριακούς – γνω-
στικούς ή συναισθηματικούς στόχους. Έτσι, διαμορφώνουν διαφορετικές επικοινω-
νιακές συμπεριφορές, αξιοποιώντας ποικίλους κώδικες, τους οποίους συχνά εναλ-
λάσσουν, αναπτύσσοντας συγκεκριμένες μορφές επικοινωνίας. Αυτές προσδιορίζο-
νται συνήθως και αναφέρονται στη βιβλιογραφία με τους προσδιορισμούς «λεκτική»,
«μη λεκτική», «ενδοπροσωπική», «διαπροσωπική», «ομαδική», «μαζική», «διαπολι-
τισμική» και «υποστηρικτική εναλλακτική επικοινωνία». Οι μορφές αυτές, περιγρά-
φονται συνοπτικά στη συνέχεια.
Λεκτική επικοινωνία (Verbal Communication)
Πρόκειται για την πλέον αναπτυγμένη μορφή, η οποία συνίσταται στη χρήση ενός
γλωσσικού κώδικα. Η γλώσσα, το κορυφαίο επίτευγμα της ανθρώπινης διάνοιας, που
αποτελείται από δυναμικό σύνολο χιλιάδων λέξεων, οι οποίες υπακούουν σε γραμμα-
τικούς, συντακτικούς και πραγματολογικούς κανόνες, προσφέρει το υπόβαθρο ανά-
πτυξης της λεκτικής επικοινωνίας, δηλαδή της επικοινωνίας μέσω της ομιλίας. Έν-
νοιες και συναισθήματα εκφράζονται με την ομιλία, καταστάσεις και πράγματα περι-
γράφονται, μεγέθη ταξινομούνται μέσω του προφορικού ή του γραπτού λόγου. Η έ-
ντεχνη ομιλία υπήρξε πάντοτε μια αξιοθαύμαστη ικανότητα του ανθρώπου, γι’ αυτό
και καλλιεργείται συστηματικά, από την αρχαιότητα έως σήμερα. Η ικανότητα αυτή,
συνήθως «εξαργυρώνεται» ικανοποιητικά, όταν ασκείται σε ορισμένους επαγγελμα-
τικούς κύκλους.
Αναφορικά με την ανάπτυξη της ομιλίας, αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι η γλώσσα απο-
τελεί ένα ζωντανό κώδικα, ο οποίος αφενός διαμορφώθηκε στο πέρασμα χιλιετιών
και αφετέρου εξακολουθεί να διαμορφώνεται προσλαμβάνοντας νέα, δάνεια στοιχεία
ή νέες λέξεις ενώ παράλληλα, επιτρέπει την αχρησία των παλαιότερων. Συνεπώς, το
λεξιλόγιο κάθε εποχής μεταβάλλεται διότι κάθε φορά ο κύριος στόχος στον προφορι-
κό λόγο είναι η αποτελεσματικότητα της επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας, ανεξάρτητα
από την προσήλωση σε λεξιλογικά στοιχεία, η οποία θεωρείται πιο επίσημη και γι’
αυτό υιοθετείται από το γραπτό λόγο.
Η ικανότητα ανάπτυξης λεκτικής επικοινωνίας, μολονότι θεωρείται αυτονόητη ως
φυσιολογική και έμφυτη, συναντά ιδιαίτερες δυσκολίες καθώς πρέπει να πληρούνται
σειρά προϋποθέσεων, οι οποίες κυρίως σχετίζονται με νευροβιολογικά χαρακτηριστι-
κά αλλά και από ψυχολογικούς ή ακόμη και κοινωνικο – πολιτιστικούς παράγοντες
(Pinker, 2000). Η αποτελεσματικότητα της λεκτικής επικοινωνίας αποτελεί τόσο στο
σύγχρονο εκπαιδευτικό σύστημα όσο και στις υφιστάμενες κοινωνικές σχέσεις, μεί-
ζον κριτήριο ικανότητας και συνεπώς, διάκρισης του ατόμου. Το γεγονός αυτό κατα-
δεικνύει την ιδιαιτερότητα της λεκτικής επικοινωνίας και την αγωνιώδη προσπάθεια
κάθε ανθρώπου να την επιτύχει στο μέγιστο δυνατό βαθμό αποτελεσματικότητας και
μάλιστα, με τρόπο εντυπωσιακό και αξιοθαύμαστο.
4
Mη λεκτική επικοινωνία (Non Verbal Communication)
Σύμφωνα με έρευνες, η χρήση της μη λεκτικής επικοινωνίας, δηλαδή της έκφρα-

σης σημάτων με τη γλώσσα του σώματος, καταλαμβάνει περισσότερο από το 70%
του συνόλου της επικοινωνιακής ικανότητας του ανθρώπου (Miller, 2000. Ritchmont
& McCroskey, 2000). Επιτυγχάνεται με συσπάσεις των μυών του προσώπου και με
κινήσεις των μελών του σώματος, ανεξάρτητα ή συνδυαστικά, προκειμένου να εκ-
φραστούν κυρίως συναισθήματα ή να διανθιστεί η ομιλία με πραγματολογικά στοι-
χεία, τα οποία δίνουν το ακριβές νόημα στις λέξεις (Ekman, 2003). Κάθε άνθρωπος
μπορεί να επικοινωνήσει μη λεκτικά αξιοποιώντας το πρόσωπο, τα χέρια, ολόκληρο
το σώμα ή ορισμένα μέλη του, ως διαύλους εξωτερίκευσης-έκφρασης μηνυμάτων,
ακούσιων και εκούσιων. Έτσι, διαμορφώνεται ο κώδικας της μη λεκτικής επικοινω-
νίας, ο οποίος εκτιμάται ότι προϋπήρχε της ομιλίας και πως, ουσιαστικά, δίνει νόημα
σ’ αυτήν, δεδομένου ότι η αποστερημένη από μη λεκτικά στοιχεία ομιλία μοιάζει σα
στερεότυπη και ψυχρή γλώσσα υπολογιστικής μηχανής.
Τα νεύματα, οι μορφασμοί, οι χειρονομίες, τα παραγλωσσικά στοιχεία της ομιλίας
και τα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της φωνής διαμορφώνουν έναν περιεκτικό σε νοή-
ματα κώδικα επικοινωνίας (Pease & Pease, 2004). Παραδείγματος χάρη, ο τρόπος
που κλείνει κανείς το μάτι, που χαμογελάει ή χειρονομεί σε σχέση με τα χείλη ή το
κορμί μπορεί να περικλείει νοήματα που θα μπορούσαν να περιέχονται σε πλήρεις
προτάσεις έκφρασης απόψεων ή συναισθημάτων. Επίσης, επιμέρους συμπεριφορές
και στάσεις απέναντι σε πρόσωπα, πράγματα ή καταστάσεις μπορούν να αποτελέσουν
αποκαλυπτικές ενδείξεις της ψυχοπνευματικής ή σωματικής κατάστασης του ατόμου,
κατά το χρόνο πραγμάτωσης της επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας, όπως επισημαίνουν
αρκετά μοντέλα επικοινωνίας (Σταμάτης, 2005).
Η γλώσσα του σώματος ερευνάται σήμερα συστηματικά σε επιστημονικό επίπεδο.
Τα πορίσματα αυτών των ερευνών αποτελούν θεμελιώδη γνώση που παρέχεται σε
συγκεκριμένες επαγγελματικές ειδικότητες, όπως π.χ. ψυχολόγους, επικοινωνιολό-
γους, εκπαιδευτικούς, αστυνομικούς, πολιτικούς, νομικούς, γιατρούς και νοσηλευτές,
πωλητές κ.π.ά. που απασχολούνται κυρίως στους τομείς παροχής υπηρεσιών, market-
ing και Μ.Μ.Ε.
Ενδοπροσωπική επικοινωνία (Intrapersonal Communication)
Πρόκειται για άτυπη μορφή επικοινωνίας, η οποία ταυτίζεται ουσιαστικά με τον

εσωτερικευμένο λόγο, δηλαδή τη σκέψη του ατόμου όταν αναπτύσσει «διάλογο» με
τον εαυτό του (Goldstein et al., 2001). Ο εγκέφαλος κάθε ανθρώπου είναι συνεχώς
απασχολημένος με σκέψεις, οι οποίες αποτελούν είτε προϊόντα επεξεργασίας περι-
βαλλοντικών ερεθισμάτων είτε αποτελέσματα επιλογών για λήψη αποφάσεων.
Για παράδειγμα, καθώς περπατάμε βλέπουμε, παρατηρούμε ή εκτιμούμε αποστά-
σεις, όταν πίνουμε μόνοι τον καφέ μας σκεπτόμαστε, υποβάλλοντας ερωτήματα στον
εαυτό μας, για επαγγελματικές αποφάσεις ή ζητήματα της καθημερινής μας ζωής, ε-
πιζητώντας και λαμβάνοντας απαντήσεις για την ανάπτυξη συμπεριφορών ή τα μελ-
λοντικά μας σχέδια. Άλλοτε πάλι, όταν μιλάμε με κάποιο άτομο, σκεπτόμαστε την
ακρίβεια ή την ειλικρίνεια ή την πρόθεση των πληροφοριών που μας παρέχει, σε μια
προσπάθεια να κατανοήσουμε πληρέστερα κάνοντας συχνά ακόμη και εικασίες, προ-
κειμένου να καταστήσουμε πιο αποτελεσματικά τα επικοινωνιακά δεδομένα. Αυτή,
λοιπόν, η επικοινωνία με τον εαυτό μας, ο πολύπλοκος, εσωτερικευμένος λόγος, δεν
εκλαμβάνεται ως γνήσια μορφή επικοινωνίας, επειδή θεωρείται πως η επικοινωνία
5
προϋποθέτει την ύπαρξη δυο τουλάχιστον ατόμων, τα οποία ανταλλάσσουν μεταξύ
τους μηνύματα με συγκεκριμένη πρόθεση, δομή ή μορφή και περιεχόμενο και για συ-
γκεκριμένο σκοπό. Ωστόσο, η μελέτη της ενδοπροσωπικής επικοινωνίας αποτελεί
σπουδαίο αντικείμενο μελέτης, δεδομένου ότι συμβάλλει στη διαμόρφωση και βελτί-
ωση των διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων (Lederman, 2002).
Στην ενδοπροσωπική μορφή επικοινωνίας εντάσσονται και οι μεταφυσικές προ-
σπάθειες του ανθρώπου να επικοινωνήσει με πνεύματα, με προγόνους ή με τα θεία
(transpersonal communication). Οι προσπάθειες αυτές θεωρούνται ύψιστης σημασίας
για όσους ανθρώπους καταφεύγουν στο μοναχισμό ή στον κλήρο, σε πνευματιστικά
κέντρα ή σε πρόσωπα που αναλαμβάνουν, ως διαμεσολαβητές, να διεκπεραιώσουν
τις πνευματικές ανάγκες για μεταφυσική επικοινωνία, όπως συμβαίνει σε αρκετούς
πολιτισμούς ή φυλές (σαμάνοι κ.ά.). Η διαδικασία αυτής της μορφής καταδεικνύει
μια βαθύτερη, εσωτερική αναγκαιότητα που αναδύεται κυρίως σε άτομα τα οποία αι-
σθάνονται χρήσιμη την επικοινωνία με τις αόρατες, υπερφυσικές δυνάμεις, στις οποί-
ες πιστεύουν, ειδικά όταν βρίσκονται σε μεγάλο κίνδυνο.
Διαπροσωπική επικοινωνία (Interpersonal Communication/Face-to-face Commu-

nication)
Όταν μεταξύ δύο προσώπων ανταλλάσσονται μηνύματα λεκτικά ή και μη λεκτικά,

τότε γίνεται λόγος για διαπροσωπική ή πρόσωπο με πρόσωπο επικοινωνία
(Delamater, 2006). Η επικοινωνία αυτής της μορφής θεωρείται γνήσια καθώς υφίστα-
ται ο αποστολέας, ο παραλήπτης και το μήνυμα, στοιχεία τα οποία θεωρούνται θεμε-
λιώδη για την ανάπτυξη μιας στοιχειώδους μορφής διαπροσωπικής επικοινωνίας. Για
τη μορφή αυτή της επικοινωνίας έχουν αναπτυχθεί τα περισσότερα θεωρητικά μοντέ-
λα προσέγγισης του επικοινωνιακού φαινομένου (Κοντάκος & Σταμάτης, 2002) και
έχουν διατυπωθεί όροι και έννοιες που προσδιορίζουν το επίπεδο της επικοινωνιακής
σχέσης, όπως π.χ. συμμετρική επικοινωνία, όταν οι επικοινωνιακοί σύντροφοι θεω-
ρούνται ισότιμοι συνομιλητές ή συμπληρωματική επικοινωνία, όταν οι επικοινωνιακοί
σύντροφοι θεωρούνται μη ισότιμοι συνομιλητές, δηλαδή ο ένας έχει πάντα τον πρώτο
λόγο, αναπτύσσει σχέση εξουσίας έναντι του άλλου κ.λπ. (Watzlawick et al., 2005).
Βασισμένος στις δυο αυτές καταστάσεις, ο Habermas κάνει λόγο για επικοινωνιακές
δράσεις, όταν σε μια επικοινωνιακή διαδικασία υπερισχύει η πειθώ και για στρατηγι-
κές δράσεις, όταν υπερισχύουν η άσκηση κάθε μορφής βίας για την επιβολή μιας ά-
ποψης ή την εκτέλεση μιας πράξης καθώς και τα δελεαστικά κίνητρα (χρήμα, εξουσία
κ.ά.) (Σταμάτης, 2009).
Επίσης, γίνεται λόγος, ιδιαίτερα στο χώρο άσκησης διοίκησης, για επικοινωνία ο-
ριζόντια όταν θεωρούνται ισότιμοι οι συνομιλητές, όπως συμβαίνει π.χ. κατά την επι-
κοινωνία με ομοιόβαθμο συνάδελφο, για ανοδική επικοινωνία, όταν ο κατώτερος α-
ναφέρεται στον ανώτερό του ή τέλος, για καθοδική επικοινωνία, όταν ο προϊστάμενος
απευθύνεται στον υφιστάμενό του (Montana & Charnow, 2004).
Στο χώρο της εκπαίδευσης αναπτύσσονται όλες αυτές οι υπομορφές επικοινωνίας,
όπως εξάλλου συμβαίνει στο σύνολο των εκφάνσεων της καθημερινότητας, δεδομέ-
νου ότι οι άνθρωποι δεν επικοινωνούν ποτέ με τον ίδιο τρόπο. Επιλέγουν διαφορετικό
τρόπο επικοινωνίας ανάλογα με τα πρόσωπα, το χώρο, το χρόνο ή τις ιδιαίτερες συν-
θήκες ανάπτυξης κάθε επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας. Το φαινόμενο αυτό θα μπορούσε
να ονομαστεί επικοινωνιακή προσαρμοστικότητα του ανθρώπου και εξυπηρετεί την
ανάγκη κατανόησης του λόγου κάθε επικοινωνιακού συντρόφου, επενδύοντας πα-
ράλληλα και σε στοιχεία άσκησης κοινωνικής επιρροής. Για παράδειγμα, όταν κά-
ποιος ενήλικας μιλάει σε ένα παιδί μπορεί, αν επιθυμεί, να εκφραστεί με πιο απλό
6
λεξιλόγιο απ’ αυτό που συνήθως χρησιμοποιεί ενώ παράλληλα, μπορεί να επιχειρήσει
να οριοθετήσει το επίπεδο της επικοινωνιακής σχέσης καθιστώντας την τυπική ή πιο
οικεία, ανάλογα με τα μη λεκτικά στοιχεία που θα εκδηλώσει. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, α-
ναπτύσσονται επικοινωνιακές ή στρατηγικές δράσεις, όταν το μέσο για την επίτευξη
του επιθυμητού επικοινωνιακού αποτελέσματος είναι αντίστοιχα η πειθώ αφενός και
αφετέρου το δέλεαρ ή και η άσκηση βίας κάθε μορφής.
Ομαδική και μαζική επικοινωνία (Group/Mass Communication)
Όταν ένα άτομο απευθύνεται σε ομάδα ή πλήθος ανθρώπων, όπως π.χ. σε μια ενη-
μέρωση στελεχών, σε μια διδασκαλία ή σε μια πολιτική συγκέντρωση κ.λπ. τότε
πραγματώνεται ομαδική ή μαζική επικοινωνία αντίστοιχα (Burr, 2002. Gordon,
2005). Η επικοινωνία αυτής της μορφής μπορεί να είναι άμεση ή διαμεσολαβημένη,
δηλαδή να πραγματοποιηθεί δια ζώσης ή διαμέσου κάποιου μαζικού μέσου ενημέρω-
σης. Στις περιπτώσεις αυτές, εμφανίζεται συνήθως ένας ομιλητής και πολλοί ακροα-
τές (ακροατήριο). Συνεπώς, η αμεσότητα στην εναλλαγή επικοινωνιακών ρόλων πε-
ριορίζεται εκ των πραγμάτων ώστε να παραχωρηθεί επαρκής χρόνος στον ομιλητή
για να παρουσιάσει-εκθέσει τις απόψεις του.
Ενώ στην περίπτωση της ομαδικής επικοινωνίας υπάρχει δυνατότητα διαλόγου,
στην περίπτωση της μαζικής επικοινωνίας η δυνατότητα αυτή είναι πολύ περιορισμέ-
νη έως αδύνατη, ενώ επικρατεί εκατέρωθεν, κυρίως, ο συνθηματικός – κηρυγματικός
λόγος, ο οποίος αποσκοπεί στη διαμόρφωση κοινής συνείδησης για συγκεκριμένο
θέμα, στα άτομα ενός πολυπληθούς ακροατηρίου, συνήθως. Κοινό χαρακτηριστικό
όλων των παραπάνω μορφών επικοινωνίας αποτελεί η διαπροσωπική απόσταση, η
οποία διαφοροποιείται κλιμακωτά σε κάθε περίπτωση, κυμαινόμενη από την εγγύτη-
τα στη διαπροσωπική επικοινωνία έως την απομάκρυνση των ατόμων στη μαζική ε-
πικοινωνία.
Διαπολιτισμική Επικοινωνία (Intercultural Communication)
Στοχεύει στην ανταλλαγή αμοιβαίας πληροφόρησης μεταξύ διαφορετικών πολιτι-

σμών, προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί αλληλοσεβασμός ώστε να μειωθεί ο ανταγωνισμός,
η μισαλλοδοξία και οι συγκρούσεις σε διάφορα επίπεδα. Για τους λόγους αυτούς,
κάθε πολιτισμός θεωρείται ως ένα σύστημα που περιλαμβάνει κανόνες συμπεριφο-
ράς, σύμβολα, πεποιθήσεις, στάσεις, αξίες και προσδοκίες στις οποίες μπορεί κανείς
να εστιάζει προκειμένου να χειριστεί πολιτικά, κοινωνικά και ανθρωπιστικά ζητήμα-
τα ειρηνικής συμβίωσης, τόσο σε τοπικό επίπεδο μεταξύ διαφορετικών κοινωνικών ή
εθνικών ομάδων όσο και σε παγκόσμιο επίπεδο (Brooklyn Derr et al., 2002).
Σήμερα υπάρχουν δυο παράγοντες οι οποίοι διευκολύνουν τη διαπολιτισμική επι-
κοινωνία (Dana, 2005). Ο πρώτος είναι η μείωση των αποστάσεων που επιτυγχάνεται
με την βελτίωση των δικτύων ηλεκτρονικής τηλεπικοινωνίας, όπως π.χ. το internet,
δια του οποίου οι άνθρωποι επικοινωνούν ανεμπόδιστα και άμεσα σε όλα τα μήκη και
πλάτη της γης. Επίσης, επιτυγχάνεται με την ανάπτυξη των αερομεταφορών, οι οποί-
ες επιτρέπουν τη μετακίνηση των πολιτών από διαφορετικές εθνότητες προκειμένου
να επισκέπτονται, να γνωρίζουν και να μετέχουν στα πολιτισμικά δρώμενα, αμβλύνο-
ντας τις προκαταλήψεις και το φόβο για τον άγνωστο ξένο και τα ήθη του. Ο δεύτε-
ρος είναι η πολύ κοινή αντίληψη ότι το φαινόμενο της παγκοσμιοποίησης έχει μειώσει
την πολιτισμική διαφορετικότητα και συνεπώς τις «παρεξηγήσεις» θεωρώντας όλους
τους ανθρώπους σαν μια ομογενοποιημένη αγορά. Κάθε προϊόν μπορεί κανείς να το
βρίσκει παντού. Έτσι, όμως, κάθε τοπική αγορά χάνει τη δυνατότητά της να πουλάει
7
παραδοσιακά προϊόντα, τα οποία δεν θα ήταν άλλοτε δυνατόν να τα βρει κανείς που-
θενά, εκτός του τόπου παραγωγής τους. Συνεπώς, κάθε τοπική οικονομία, ιδιαίτερα
στις αναπτυσσόμενες χώρες, χάνει το προνόμιο του μονοπωλίου των ντόπιων αγα-
θών. Το γεγονός αυτό, μολονότι δημιουργεί δυσφορία στα κατώτερα οικονομικά
στρώματα, σηματοδοτεί ταυτόχρονα τη δυνατότητα του ανθρώπου να παγκοσμιοποιεί
τις δραστηριότητές του με πολύ μεγάλη ευχέρεια, σε σχέση με το παρελθόν. Οι πα-
ραπάνω παράγοντες καταδεικνύουν τη σύγχρονη ανάγκη ανάπτυξης δικτύων διαπολι-
τισμικής επικοινωνίας, η οποία μπορεί να εισχωρήσει σε όλους ανεξαίρετα τους το-
μείς των ανθρώπινων δραστηριοτήτων (Lull, 2001) αφού, ούτως ή άλλως, η ζωή των
ανθρώπων και οι διαπροσωπικές τους σχέσεις υφίστανται με όρους κοινωνικής δι-
κτύωσης (Christakis & Fowler, 2010). Στο χώρο της εκπαίδευσης η διαπολιτισμική
επικοινωνία εντάσσεται στο ευρύτερο πλαίσιο της διαπολιτισμικής αγωγής.
Υποστηρικτική ή Εναλλακτική Επικοινωνία (Augmentative /Alternative / Assis-

tive Communication)
Ο όρος «υποστηρικτική» ή «εναλλακτική» επικοινωνία αναφέρεται στους τρόπους

εκτός ομιλίας και στα τεχνικά μέσα που αξιοποιούνται στην παραγωγή και αποστολή
ενός μηνύματος από ένα άτομο το οποίο αντιμετωπίζει σοβαρά προβλήματα ομιλίας
και γενικότερα γλωσσικής ικανότητας, συνήθως εξαιτίας εγκεφαλικής βλάβης
(Beukelman & Mirenda, 1995). Όλοι χρησιμοποιούμε καθημερινά τεχνικές υποστη-
ρικτικής και εναλλακτικής επικοινωνίας υπό την ευρεία έννοια, όπως π.χ. εκφράσεις
προσώπου, νοήματα ή γραφή. Σε μια δύσκολη ακουστική κατάσταση, όπως σ’ ένα
θορυβώδες δωμάτιο, για παράδειγμα, προσπαθούμε να υποστηρίξουμε τις λέξεις μας
με περισσότερα νεύματα και εξειδικευμένες γκριμάτσες. Χρησιμοποιούμε, επίσης,
ορισμένες τεχνικές που περιλαμβάνουν εξειδικευμένα νεύματα, μη λεκτική επικοινω-
νία ή τον κώδικα Mors κ.ά.
Άλλες τεχνικές χρησιμοποιούν ειδικά μέσα επικοινωνίας όπως χάρτες, βραχιόλια,
γλωσσικούς πίνακες και εικόνες, προκειμένου να δηλώσουν τις ανάγκες του πάσχο-
ντος, απλά με το πάτημα ενός κουμπιού. Σε τέτοιου είδους ηλεκτρονικά μέσα, τα
διάφορα αντικείμενα μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν με εικόνες, ζωγραφιές, γράμματα,
λέξεις, προτάσεις, ειδικά σύμβολα ή με συνδυασμό όλων αυτών. Υπάρχουν ηλεκτρο-
νικές συσκευές, οι οποίες μπορούν να απαντήσουν σε εισαγωγές δεδομένων από ένα
πληκτρολόγιο ή άλλες μεθόδους εισαγωγής στοιχείων. Οι συσκευές αυτές ενεργοποι-
ούνται είτε πιέζοντας ένα κουμπί είτε εκπνέοντας αέρα είτε ανασηκώνοντας τα φρύ-
δια. Οι δυνατότητες επικοινωνίας αυξάνουν εντυπωσιακά κάθε μέρα. Παράλληλα, οι
χρήστες των μέσων της υποστηρικτικής επικοινωνίας δεν σταματούν να χρησιμοποι-
ούν το λόγο. Με τον τρόπο αυτό, όχι μόνο αυξάνουν οι επικοινωνιακές δυνατότητες
αλλά ταυτόχρονα, βελτιώνονται και οι κοινωνικές αλληλεπιδράσεις, η σχολική επί-
δοση, το συναίσθημα αυτοεκτίμησης του ατόμου και οι ευκαιρίες εργασίας. Οι προ-
σπάθειες αυτές εντάσσονται στις προτεραιότητες της υποστηρικτικής επικοινωνίας, η
οποία αποσκοπεί γενικότερα στην κατασκευή συσκευών που θα συνδυάζουν την α-
ναπαράσταση συμβόλων (αντικειμένων, λέξεων, εικόνων, φωτογραφιών κ.ά.) με την
επιλογή συμβόλων μέσω ειδικής συσκευής λήψης εγκεφαλικών σημάτων και με τη
μετάδοση του επιθυμητού μηνύματος με εικόνα ή και ήχο.
8
Βιβλιογραφία
Balter, L. & Tamis-Lemonda, C. S. (ed. 2006). Child Psychology. A handbook of con-

temporary issues. 2nd ed. USA: Psychology Press.
Beukelman, D. R. & Mirenda, P. (1995). Augmentative and Alternative Communica-
tion: Management of Severe Communication Disorders in Children and
Adults. USA: Paul H. Brookes Pub Co.
Brooklyn Derr C., Roussillon, S. & Bournois, F. (eds- 2002). Cross-Cultural
Aproaches to Leadership Development. USA: Quorum Books.
Burr, V. (2002). The person in Social Psychology. USA: Psychology Press – Taylor
and Francis Group.
Christakis, N.A. & Fowler, J.H. (2010). Συνδεδεμένοι. Η εκπληκτική δύναμη των κοι-
νωνικών δικτύων και πώς αυτά διαμορφώνουν τη ζωή μας. Αθήνα: Κάτοπτρο.
Delamater, J. (ed.-2006). Handbook of Social Psychology. USA: Springer.
Devito, J.A. (2004). Ανθρώπινη επικοινωνία. Αθήνα: Έλλην
DiMatteo, M.R. & Martin, L.R. (2oo6). Εισαγωγή στην ψυχολογία της υγείας. Αθήνα:
Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Ekman, P. (2003). Emotions Revealed. Recognizing faces and feelings to improve
communication and emotional life. USA: Time Books.
Frederick, H.H. (1997). Παγκόσμια επικοινωνία και διεθνείς σχέσεις. Αθήνα: Έλλην
Goldstein, H., Kaczmarek, L. A. & English, K. M. (2001). Promoting Social Commu-
nication. Children with Developmental Disabilities from Birth to Adolescence.
USA: Paul H Brookes Pub Co.
Gordon, L. A. (2005). Popular Psychology: an encyclopedia. London: Greenwood
Press.
Himstreet, W.C., Baty, W.M. & Lehman, C.M. (2008). Επιχειρησιακές επικοινωνίες.
Αθήνα: Έλλην
Knapp, M.L. & Hall, J.A. (2002). Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction.
5th ed., USA: Wadsworth-Thomson Learning.
Lederman, L. C. (2002). Intrapersonal communication. In Encyclopedia of Communi-
cation and Information. USA: MacMillan Reference. Gale Group, pp. 490-
492.
Lippa, R.A. (2003). Κοινωνική ψυχολογία. Αθήνα: Έλλην
Lull, J. (ed.-2001). Culture in the Communication Age. USA: Routledge.
Miller, P.W. (2000). Nonverbal communication in the classroom. USA: P.W. Miller
& Ass.
Montana, P. J. & Charnow, B. H. (2004). Μάνατζμεντ. Αθήνα: Κλειδάριθμος.
Morris, D. (1998). Ανθρωποπαρατήρηση. Η ανθρώπινη συμπεριφορά. Αθήνα: Αρσενί-
δη.
Pease, A. & Pease, B. (2004). The definitive book of Body Language. Australia: Pease
International.
Pinker, S. (2000). Tο γλωσσικό ένστικτο. Πως ο νους δημιουργεί τη γλώσσα. Aθήνα:
Kάτοπτρο.
Richmont, V. P. & McCroskey, T. C. (2000). Nonverbal Behavior in International
Relations (4th ed.). USA: Allyn & Bacon.
Watzlawick. P., Beavin Bavelas, J. & Jackson, D. D. (2005). Ανθρώπινη επικοινωνία
και οι επιδράσεις της στη συμπεριφορά. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
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Aθήνα: Eλληνικά Γράμματα
9
Κοντάκος, Α. & Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2002). Αρχές μιας επικοινωνιακής ‘υγιεινής’ στο
νηπιαγωγείο. Στο Ν. Πολεμικός, Μ. Καΐλα & Φ. Καλαβάσης (επιμ.), Εκπαι-
δευτική, Οικογενειακή και Πολιτική Ψυχοπαθολογία, τομ. Γ΄: Αποκλίσειςστο
χώρο της εκπαίδευσης. Αθήνα: Ατραπός.
Σακαλάκη, M. (1994). Ψυχολογία της επικοινωνίας. Θεωρητικά και ρεύματα και προ-
οπτικές της έρευνας. Aθήνα: Παπαζήση
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συμπεριφοράς στην προσχολική και πρωτοσχολική ηλικία. Αθήνα: Ατραπός
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2009). Παιδαγωγική επικοινωνία στην προσχολική και πρωτοσχολική
εκπαίδευση. Αθήνα: Ατραπός.
10
BΑ
«Σχολικό κλίμα και επικοινωνία»
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΩΝ

(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
Περιεχόμενα...................................................................................................................................... 1
Εισαγωγή........................................................................................................................................... 2
Εννοια και βασικοί τύποι σχολικού κλίματος.................................................................................... 4
Σχολικό κλίμα και επικοινωνία.......................................................................................................... 7
Βιβλιογραφία...................................................................................................................................14
1
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
Εισαγωγή
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Σχολικό κλίμα και επικοινωνία». Υπό τον τίτλο
αυτό, γίνεται αναφορά στην καλλιέργεια ήπιου σχολικού κλίματος, μέσω της εφαρμογής
κανόνων επικοινωνίας και στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου, με την εφαρμογή
τεχνικών επικοινωνίας, όπως αυτές αναπτύσσονται στο πλαίσιο μιας σχολικής
επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής. Στην συνεδρία αυτή, επίσης, γίνεται έμμεση αναφορά
στην έννοια και στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο
σχολικό περιβάλλον καθώς και στο ρόλο των χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με την
επίτευξη μιας εύρυθμης λειτουργίας στη σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα, από διοικητική,
διδακτική και κοινωνική άποψη.
Γίνεται, επίσης, συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και
παραμέτρων σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται από
επικοινωνιακές διαδικασίες και νόρμες ποικίλων επικοινωνιακών μορφών, όπως αυτές
αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη
διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων. Τα ζητήματα αυτά αποτελούν μέρος μιας ενιαίας διδακτικής
ενότητα, η ο οποία τιτλοφορείται: «Επικοινωνία στη σχολική τάξη». Πρόκειται για την 5η
διδακτική ενότητα του Προγράμματος «Σχολική Ψυχολογία».
Σκοπός:
Να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες τη δυναμική της

επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη παιδαγωγικού κλίματος και τη συμβολή του παιδαγωγικού
κλίματος στη διδακτική και εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία.
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Μετά τη λήξη της συνεδρίας, οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες που θα

συμμετάσχουν ενεργά σε αυτήν, αφού μελετήσουν το παρεχόμενο εκπαιδευτικό υλικό και
αναπτύξουν τις προτεινόμενες μαθησιακές δραστηριότητες αναμένεται να:
 γνωρίζουν την έννοια του σχολικού κλίματος

 γνωρίζουν το ρόλο της επικοινωνίας στη βελτίωση του σχολικού κλίματος και κατ’
επέκταση, τη συμβολή του σχολικού κλίματος στη βελτίωση των συνθηκών διδασκαλίας
και μάθησης στο εκπαιδευτικό περιβάλλον
Σχολικό κλίμα, σχολική διοίκηση, διαχείριση σχολικής τάξης, διδακτική επικοινωνία
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5.2.1 Έννοια και βασικοί τύποι σχολικού κλίματος
Πολλοί επιστήμονες έχουν γράψει για το σχολικό κλίμα, προσπαθώντας να το

περιγράψουν με βάση τα κυριότερα, τυπολογικά χαρακτηριστικά που εμφανίζονται σε κάθε
σχολική περίπτωση. Με τον τρόπο αυτό, αναπτύχθηκαν αρκετές τυπολογίες σχολικού
κλίματος, ορισμένες από τις οποίες θα δούμε στην παρούσα ενότητα, στην οποία
αναφέρονται οι βασικοί τύποι σχολικού κλίματος. Έτσι, λοιπόν, σύμφωνα με τους McCarley,
Peters και Decman (2016), υπάρχουν τρεις τύποι παιδαγωγικού κλίματος, που
διαμορφώνονται από την ισορροπία μεταξύ του εξωτερικού και εσωτερικού συστήματος του
σχολείου, όπως αναφέρονται παρακάτω. Με την ισορροπία μεταξύ του εξωτερικού και του
εσωτερικού συστήματος, προκύπτουν οι εξής τρεις τύποι παιδαγωγικού κλίματος: το τυπικό-
απρόσωπο, το αδιάφορο και το τυπικό-προσωπικό. Το τυπικό-απρόσωπο κλίμα
χαρακτηρίζεται από κυριαρχία και εξαφάνιση διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων, με αποτέλεσμα την
απουσία προσωπικής επικοινωνίας και συνεργασίας μεταξύ των μελών του σχολείου. Το
αδιάφορο κλίμα συμβαίνει όταν το εξωτερικό σύστημα ακυρωθεί από το εσωτερικό. Σε
αυτό το κλίμα το σχολείο είναι κακοδιοικούμενο, οι άνθρωποι δεν έχουν σαφή
συνειδητοποίηση των ρόλων και των ευθυνών τους, παραμελώντας και αδιαφορώντας,
τελικά, για τις γνώσεις και τις δεξιότητες των μαθητών. Τέλος, το τυπικό-προσωπικό κλίμα
χαρακτηρίζεται από την ισορροπία μεταξύ του εξωτερικού και εσωτερικού συστήματος του
σχολείου, με αποτέλεσμα τη συνεργασία, την κατανόηση και την εφαρμογή των σύγχρονων
αντιλήψεων στη σχολική μονάδα (Polychroniou, 2008).
Είναι σαφές από τη βιβλιογραφία ότι οι ερευνητές περιγράφουν το σχολικό κλίμα με
ποικίλους τρόπους, δημιουργώντας μια διαφωνία μεταξύ τους ως προς τις μεταβλητές που
καθορίζουν το σχολικό κλίμα μιας σχολικής μονάδας (Chirkina & Khavenson, 2018.
Pashiardis, 2001. Conley & Muncey, 1999). Έτσι, η έρευνα που πραγματοποιήθηκε από τους
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Halpin και Groft (1963) με ερωτηματολόγιο που διερευνά την επαλήθευση των
αποτελεσμάτων "σχετικά με τις αλληλεπιδράσεις μεταξύ των εκπαιδευτικών, αλλά και
μεταξύ αυτών και του διευθυντή του σχολείου", ανέδειξε έξι (6) τύπους σχολικού κλίματος,
οι οποίοι είναι το:
• Ανοιχτό κλίμα. Χαρακτηριστικά του είναι η έντονη δραστηριότητα, η μεθοδική
εκπλήρωση των στόχων και η κάλυψη των αναγκών των μελών της ομάδας. Δεν υπάρχει
εξαναγκασμός αλλά ειλικρινής συνεργασία μεταξύ των διευθυντών και των εκπαιδευτικών.
Το κύριο χαρακτηριστικό αυτού του κλίματος είναι η "αυθεντικότητα" της συμπεριφοράς
όλων των μελών.
• Αυτόνομο κλίμα. Παρουσιάζει μια ατμόσφαιρα μέσα στην οποία οι εκπαιδευτικοί
έχουν στη διάθεσή τους ένα σημαντικό βαθμό ελευθερίας να δρουν στο σχολείο. Επικρατεί
πολύ ομαδικό πνεύμα, καθώς ο διευθυντής ασκεί μικρό έλεγχο και υποστηρίζει τα μοντέλα
του ενθουσιασμού και του ζήλου. Δεν υπάρχουν εξωτερικές απειλές ή επιρροές. Οι
εκπαιδευτικοί έχουν έντονη επιθυμία να διδάξουν και οι μαθητές έχουν κίνητρα για να
μάθουν. Υπάρχει καλή σχέση μεταξύ των διευθυντών, των εκπαιδευτικών, των παιδιών και
των γονέων.
• Ελεγχόμενο κλίμα. Χαρακτηρίζεται ως απρόσωπο και είναι προσανατολισμένο στις
εργασίες, δίνοντας σχετικά μικρή προσοχή στη συμπεριφορά, με στόχο την ικανοποίηση των
αναγκών, ενώ το ομαδικό πνεύμα είναι αρκετά υψηλό.
• Φιλικό κλίμα. Σε αυτό επικρατούν φιλικές σχέσεις. Τα μέλη της σχολικής μονάδας
ικανοποιούν τις ανάγκες τους, αλλά δίνουν σχετικά λίγη προσοχή στον κοινωνικό έλεγχο σε
σύγκριση με την εκτέλεση του έργου, ενώ το ομαδικό πνεύμα δεν είναι υψηλό.
• Πατερναλιστικό κλίμα. Ο διευθυντής υλοποιεί τις περισσότερες ενέργειες ως
αποτέλεσμα της προσωπικής του ευθύνης. Χαρακτηρίζεται από μικρή ικανοποίηση που
επιτυγχάνεται είτε με την εκτέλεση του έργου είτε με τις ανάγκες, έτσι ώστε το ομαδικό
πνεύμα των μελών του να είναι χαμηλό.
• Κλειστό κλίμα. Χαρακτηρίζεται από υψηλό βαθμό απάθειας, χαμηλό ομαδικό
πνεύμα, ψυχρή και επίσημη σχέση εργασίας, με αποτέλεσμα την εμφάνιση ενός εντελώς
αναποτελεσματικού σχολείου.
Είναι προφανές ότι τα σχολεία διαφέρουν ως προς τον τύπο του κλίματος. Το σχολικό
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κλίμα είναι ένας από τους σημαντικότερους παράγοντες που καθορίζουν την
αποτελεσματικότητα του εκπαιδευτικού έργου. Ο ρόλος του διευθυντή είναι κρίσιμος για τη
διαμόρφωση του σχολικού κλίματος επειδή είναι το πρόσωπο που έχει την εξουσία και την
υποχρέωση να συμπεριφέρεται με τον κατάλληλο τρόπο, ώστε το σχολείο να λειτουργεί
εύρυθμα. Σε μια έρευνα που εκπονήθηκε από την Καβούρη (1998) για το οργανωτικό κλίμα
που επικρατεί στην ελληνική διοίκηση της εκπαίδευσης, αποκαλύφθηκαν τέσσερις τύποι
σχολικού κλίματος: το ανοικτό, το κλειστό, το συμμετοχικό κλίμα και το κλίμα
αποστασιοποίησης, τα οποία περιγράφονται ως ακολούθως:
• Ανοικτό σχολικό κλίμα. Όλοι οι εκπαιδευτικοί συνεργάζονται μεταξύ τους
αρμονικά, έχουν αίσθημα επαγγελματικής υπευθυνότητας και πλήρη υποστήριξη από τον
διευθυντή του σχολείου, ο οποίος χαρακτηρίζεται από χαμηλό επίπεδο κατευθυντικής
συμπεριφοράς και επιβολή περιορισμών.
• Κλειστό σχολικό κλίμα. Ο υπεύθυνος δίνει κατευθύνσεις και θέτει περιορισμούς,
αντί να ενθαρρύνει και να υποστηρίζει τις πρωτοβουλίες των εκπαιδευτικών και έτσι οι
εκπαιδευτικοί είναι αδιάφοροι και αποστασιοποιούνται από τα σχολικά ζητήματα.
• Συμμετοχικό κλίμα. Οι διευθυντές είναι ανοικτοί με το διδακτικό προσωπικό,
συνεργάζονται και αφιερώνουν τον εαυτό τους στο έργο τους.
• Κλίμα αποστασιοποίησης. Οι διευθυντές δεν είναι αυστηροί, υποστηρίζουν τους
δασκάλους, αλλά δεν είναι αφοσιωμένοι στο έργο τους, επιδεικνύοντας υψηλό βαθμό
απάθειας για την υλοποίηση του εκπαιδευτικού έργου.
Σύμφωνα με τα παραπάνω, η Καβούρη (1998), μελετώντας τις ιδιότητες του σχολικού
κλίματος, επικεντρώθηκε στις διαπροσωπικές σχέσεις που αναπτύσσονται στη σχολική
μονάδα, μετρώντας την κοινωνική αλληλεπίδραση που διαμορφώνεται μεταξύ των
εκπαιδευτικών και μεταξύ των εκπαιδευτικών και των διευθυντών του σχολείου. Ομοίως, οι
Thapa, Cohen, Guffey και Higgins-D'Alessandro (2013), που μελέτησαν τα χαρακτηριστικά
του παιδαγωγικού κλίματος, υπογραμμίζουν τη σημασία των διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων
μεταξύ των μελών της σχολικής κοινότητας. Η έρευνα αυτή που επικεντρώθηκε στις
σχολικές επικοινωνιακές σχέσεις, την αμοιβαία κατανόηση και τις δημοκρατικές διαδικασίες
οι οποίες αναπτύχθηκαν μεταξύ των μελών της σχολικής κοινότητας, κατέληξε στο
συμπέρασμα ότι όλες αυτές οι πτυχές επηρεάζουν σημαντικά το σχολικό κλίμα.
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Ορισμός 1
Σχολικό κλίμα (school climate): Κοντολογίς, ο όρος «σχολικό κλίμα» παραπέμπει στην
ποιότητα των συνθηκών που επικρατούν σε μια σχολική μονάδα και αφορούν συνολικά στις
σχέσεις και τις συμπεριφορές που αναπτύσσονται μεταξύ των μελών της και στους στόχους
που έχουν τεθεί, αναφορικά με τη διοικητική και εκπαιδευτική της λειτουργία εν γένει
(Erwin, 2016).
5.2.2 Σχολικό κλίμα και επικοινωνία
Ένας από τους πιο βασικούς παράγοντες διδακτικής και μαθησιακής

αποτελεσματικότητας είναι το «σχολικό κλίμα». Ο όρος αυτός, όπως αναφέρθηκε
παραπάνω, παραπέμπει στις συνθήκες που επικρατούν στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και μέσα
στην τάξη κατά τη διάρκεια του μαθήματος. Εάν υπάρχει ησυχία ή αν υπάρχει διαρκής
ένταση, θόρυβος και αταξία, αν υπάρχει ή όχι ενδιαφέρον από την πλευρά του
εκπαιδευτικού ή από την πλευρά των μαθητών για το μάθημα, αν τηρούνται οι κανόνες
διδασκαλίας και γενικότερα, οι κλασικοί κανόνες λειτουργίας μιας τάξης, τότε το κλίμα
θεωρείται θετικό ήπιο και κατάλληλο. Στην αντίθετη περίπτωση, το κλίμα θεωρείται
ακατάλληλο και η ατμόσφαιρα της τάξης θεωρείται μη παιδαγωγική.
Σύμφωνα με διεθνή βιβλιογραφία, το σχολικό κλίμα συνθέτουν συγκεκριμένα
χαρακτηριστικά, τα οποία είναι η ασφάλεια, η ποιότητα της διδασκαλίας και της μάθησης, ο
σχολικός χώρος, οι διδακτηριακές εγκαταστάσεις και οι υποδομές, η συστηματική μέριμνα
για τη διαρκή ποιοτική αναβάθμιση του σχολικού κλίματος και η δυνατότητα ακρόασης των
απόψεων των μαθητών σχετικά με την ποιότητα του σχολικού κλίματος (Erwin, 2016).
Αυτό που συνήθως αναμένει κανείς σε μία αίθουσα διδασκαλίας, οποιασδήποτε
σχολικής μονάδας, είναι να τηρούνται, στοιχειωδώς τουλάχιστον, συγκεκριμένοι κανόνες
διδασκαλίας από την πλευρά των εκπαιδευτικών και ορισμένοι θεμελιώδεις κανόνες
παρακολούθησης από την πλευρά των μαθητών, όπως αυτοί που αναφέρονται συνοπτικά
στη συνέχεια (Ansary, 2018. Emmer & Evertson, 2012).
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Οι μεν εκπαιδευτικοί, θα πρέπει να πραγματοποιούν τη διδασκαλία τους όντας

προετοιμασμένοι κατάλληλα και να απευθύνονται στους μαθητές με ηρεμία και σεβασμό,
χωρίς να τους προσβάλλουν, να χρησιμοποιούν τη φωνή τους με τέτοιο τρόπο που να
προσελκύει το ενδιαφέρον των μαθητών και γενικότερα, να φροντίζουν ώστε το μάθημα να
είναι ελκυστικό, κατανοητό και ενδιαφέρον. Οι μαθητές θα πρέπει να παρακολουθούν το
μάθημα χωρίς να ενοχλούν ούτε τον εκπαιδευτικό, ειδικά την ώρα που διδάσκει, ούτε τους
συμμαθητές και τις συμμαθήτριες που παρακολουθούν τη διδασκαλία. Οφείλουν να
εκδηλώνουν διαρκώς προσοχή και ενδιαφέρον για το μάθημα και σε περίπτωση που έχουν
οποιαδήποτε απορία, να ζητάνε διευκρινίσεις από το δάσκαλο. Επίσης, οι μαθητές έχουν τη
δυνατότητα, όταν θέλουν να εκφράσουν τη γνώμη τους, να ζητάνε το λόγο σηκώνοντας το
χέρι και εφόσον λάβουν την έγκριση του δασκάλου να απευθύνονται στο σύνολο της τάξης,
λέγοντας αυτά που θέλουν, χωρίς να προσβάλλουν κανέναν.
Σήμερα, αυτό που θα μπορούσε να παρατηρήσει κανείς παρακολουθώντας τη διεξαγωγή
μαθημάτων σε σχολικές τάξεις είναι συνήθως ότι δεν υπάρχει αυτό που αποκαλείται
«πειθαρχία» την ώρα του μαθήματος, δηλαδή η υπακοή στους κανόνες της τάξης, ειδικά
κατά την ώρα της διδασκαλίας (Johnson & Robbins, 2004). Έτσι, οι εκπαιδευτικοί
αναγκάζονται να κάνουν παρατηρήσεις στους μαθητές που δεν τηρούν τους κανόνες της
τάξης, διακόπτοντας προφανώς το μάθημα, με αρνητικές συνέπειες στη διδακτική τους
αποτελεσματικότητα.
Οι εκπαιδευτικοί, συνήθως, θεωρούν απαξιωτική τη συγκεκριμένη συμπεριφορά των
μαθητών τόσο για το μάθημά τους όσο και για την ίδια τους την προσωπικότητα.
Ταυτόχρονα, ορισμένοι μαθητές που δημιουργούν συνήθως προβλήματα απειθαρχίας στην
τάξη, μιλάνε ακατάπαυστα, παρενοχλούν ή χλευάζουν τους συμμαθητές, διακόπτουν
σκόπιμα τον εκπαιδευτικό όταν μιλάει και γενικότερα, δημιουργούν με τη στάση και τη
συμπεριφορά τους προβλήματα μέσα στην τάξη, θέλοντας να βρεθούν, προφανώς, στο
επίκεντρο του ενδιαφέροντος.
Ασφαλώς, η πλειοψηφία των μαθητών σε κάθε τάξη αποτελείται από παιδιά τα οποία
εκδηλώνουν το ενδιαφέρον τους για τα διδακτικά τεκταινόμενα, συμμετέχουν ενεργά στη
διδακτική διαδικασία και ως εκ τούτου, επιτυγχάνουν καλύτερα μαθησιακά αποτελέσματα,
σε σχέση με τους οχλαγωγούντες μαθητές που αναφέρθηκαν στην προηγούμενη
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παράγραφο. Ουσιαστικά, μέσα στις συνθήκες εκδήλωσης απειθαρχίας στους κανόνες της
τάξης, εκείνο που διαταράσσεται είναι η επικοινωνία ανάμεσα σε εκπαιδευτικούς και
μαθητές. Αποτέλεσμα αυτής της κατάστασης είναι η μη επιτυχής έκβαση, δηλαδή η
αναποτελεσματικότητα του μαθήματος.
Σε πολλές τάξεις σχολείων του εξωτερικού, οι εκπαιδευτικοί προβαίνουν στη σύνταξη
ενός πλαισίου κανόνων επικοινωνίας μέσα στην τάξη αξιώνοντας να τηρούνται απαρέγκλιτα
οι κανόνες αυτοί από το σύνολο των μαθητών. Το κανονιστικό αυτό πλαίσιο αναπτύσσεται
με κοινή συναίνεση μεταξύ όλων των μελών της σχολικής κοινότητας, δηλαδή των
εκπαιδευτικών, των μαθητών και των γονέων. Η αποτελεσματική διδασκαλία αποτελεί τον
κορυφαίο στόχο της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας. Εφόσον αυτή δεν πραγματοποιείται με τον
κατάλληλο τρόπο, τότε πλήττεται η πεμπτουσία της εκπαίδευσης και το κυριότερο μέσο
ανάπτυξης μαθησιακών συνθηκών και αποτελεσμάτων. Από αυτό αξιολογείται και κρίνεται
τελικά, η ποιότητα του παρεχόμενου εκπαιδευτικού έργου σε κάθε σχολική μονάδα.
Η επικοινωνία μέσα στην τάξη έχει ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά. Ο εκπαιδευτικός οφείλει
να απευθύνεται σε όλα τα παιδιά της τάξης και ταυτόχρονα, εφόσον είναι αναγκαίο ή
εφόσον του ζητηθεί, να απευθύνεται σε καθένα από αυτά ιδιαιτέρως. Έτσι, λοιπόν,
παρατηρείται η διαδικασία της ομαδικής επικοινωνίας μέσα στην τάξη να εξελίσσεται
παράλληλα με τις διαδικασίες της διαπροσωπικής επικοινωνίας και το αντίστροφο.
Μολονότι και οι δύο αυτές μορφές επικοινωνίας εμφανίζουν διαφορετικά χαρακτηριστικά
και διέπονται από διαφορετικούς κανόνες, οι οποίοι στη συγκεκριμένη περίπτωση φαίνεται
να λειτουργούν συμπληρωματικά, η επικοινωνία μέσα στην τάξη δεν αποτελεί εύκολη
υπόθεση, ειδικότερα εφόσον δημιουργούνται εστίες παρενόχλησης του μαθήματος, δηλαδή
σκόπιμες ενέργειες καταστρατήγησης των κανόνων επικοινωνίας. Ποιος μιλάει σε κάθε
χρονική στιγμή, ποιος είναι ο τρόπος έκφρασής του, ποιο είναι το περιεχόμενο των
λεγομένων του και μία σειρά ακόμα από κρίσιμες παραμέτρους της διδασκαλίας,
αποτελούν δομικά στοιχεία της επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας, τα οποία επηρεάζουν
καθοριστικά τη διδακτική και μαθησιακή αποτελεσματικότητα κατ’ επέκταση.
Όλοι σχεδόν οι εκπαιδευτικοί θεωρούν, κατά κανόνα, τον εαυτό τους ικανό να
επικοινωνεί με το μαθητικό ακροατήριο ή με κάθε μαθητή προσωπικά. Θεωρούν, επίσης,
τον εαυτό τους ικανό να επικοινωνεί αποτελεσματικά με τους υπηρεσιακούς παράγοντες,
9
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
τους συναδέλφους τους και φυσικά, με τους γονείς των μαθητών τους. Στην
πραγματικότητα, από το σύνολο των εκπαιδευτικών της Ελλάδας, μόνο ένας εξαιρετικά
μικρός αριθμός έχει εκπαιδευτεί παρεμπιπτόντως σε ζητήματα επικοινωνίας κατά τη
διάρκεια των βασικών του σπουδών, μολονότι η επικοινωνία στο εκπαιδευτικό περιβάλλον,
η Παιδαγωγική Επικοινωνία, έχει πολλά και ιδιαίτερα «μυστικά», τα οποία όλοι οι
εκπαιδευτικοί οφείλουν να γνωρίζουν. Παρά το γεγονός αυτό, δεν αμφισβητείται επισήμως
η επικοινωνιακή ικανότητα των Ελλήνων εκπαιδευτικών. Ωστόσο, σε ποιο βαθμό βρίσκεται
πράγματι η ικανότητα αυτή; Κάθε εκπαιδευτικός είναι χαρισματικός σε ζητήματα
επικοινωνίας; Κάθε εκπαιδευτικός έχει τα ίδια βιώματα αναφορικά με τη συμμετοχή του σε
μια επικοινωνιακή διαδικασία με μαθητές, εκπαιδευτικούς ή γονείς;
Οι απαντήσεις σε αυτά τα ερωτήματα είναι προφανείς. Όντας επικοινωνιακά
ανεκπαίδευτοι οι εκπαιδευτικοί, οι περισσότεροι νομίζουν, λόγω άγνοιας, ότι είναι
επικοινωνιακά επαρκείς (Dowd & Green, 2016). Πώς θα μπορούσαν, άλλωστε, να
αμφισβητήσουν τον εαυτό τους; Είναι προφανές, επίσης, ότι δεν είναι όλοι οι εκπαιδευτικοί
επικοινωνιακά χαρισματικοί. Υπάρχουν εκπαιδευτικοί που έχουν το επικοινωνιακό χάρισμα
και άλλοι οι οποίοι θα ήταν καλύτερα να προσέχουν εξαιρετικά τον τρόπο με τον οποίο
επικοινωνούν και εκφράζονται γενικότερα, επειδή ο τρόπος αυτός, σε πολλές περιπτώσεις,
δεν συνάδει με την ιδιότητά τους.
Επιπλέον, είναι γνωστό και κατανοητό ότι κάθε εκπαιδευτικός δεν διαθέτει τα
επικοινωνιακά βιώματα που διαθέτει ένας άλλος συνάδελφός του. Το περιβάλλον μέσα στο
οποίο κάθε εκπαιδευτικός ζει και μεγαλώνει, οι σχολικές μονάδες μέσα στις οποίες έχει
φοιτήσει, οι παρέες με τις οποίες έχει αναπτύξει δεσμούς και μια σειρά από πολλές άλλες
παραμέτρους, έχουν ασφαλώς επηρεάσει την επικοινωνιακή του ικανότητα, μέσα από το
πλήθος των αλληλεπιδράσεων που έχει αναπτύξει στη διάρκεια της ζωής του.
Αντίθετα, ένα μεγάλο πλήθος εκπαιδευτικών έχουν θετικά επικοινωνιακά βιώματα και
έχουν τη δυνατότητα να διαχειρίζονται επικοινωνιακά τους μαθητές, τους συναδέλφους και
τους γονείς, χωρίς να δημιουργούνται προβλήματα στις σχέσεις τους. Θεωρείται δεδομένο
ότι εφόσον η επικοινωνία αποτυγχάνει, τότε παρέχεται έδαφος για την ανάπτυξη ποικίλων
μορφών συγκρούσεων ανάμεσα στους εκπαιδευτικούς και στους μαθητές αρχικά και στη
συνέχεια, ανάμεσα στους εκπαιδευτικούς, τα διευθυντικά στελέχη και τους γονείς. Σε τέτοια
10
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
περίπτωση, γίνεται αντιληπτό ότι από τη στιγμή που η επικοινωνία δεν λειτουργεί και δεν
επιτελεί αποτελεσματικά το ρόλο της, τότε μια σειρά από προβλήματα ανακύπτουν, τα
οποία δημιουργούν ένα εξαιρετικά αρνητικό σχολικό κλίμα, με σειρά δυσμενών
επιπτώσεων στη διδακτική και μαθησιακή διαδικασία. Η κατάσταση αυτή είναι εντελώς
απευκταία στη σύγχρονη εκπαιδευτική συγκυρία.
Ορισμός 2
Κανόνες της τάξης (classroom rules): Ο όρος «κανόνες της τάξης» παραπέμπει στις
συνθήκες που επικρατούν σε μια σχολική τάξη και αφορούν συνολικά στις σχέσεις και τις
συμπεριφορές που αναπτύσσονται μεταξύ των μελών της, οι οποίες βασίζονται σε μια
σειρά δεδομένων που επιτρέπουν ή απαγορεύουν την ανάπτυξη συγκεκριμένων
συμπεριφορών σε μαθητές και εκπαιδευτικούς (Gilchrist-Petty, 2017). Η εύρυθμη
λειτουργία κάθε σχολικής τάξης, διαχρονικά, βασίζεται σε συγκεκριμένους κανόνες, οι
οποίοι είτε εδράζονται στη σχολική νομοθεσία είτε προκύπτουν από τον σχολικό κανονισμό
είτε αποτελούν δημιούργημα συζήτησης και κοινής συναίνεσης μεταξύ των μελών της τάξης
είτε συνδυασμό όλων των προηγούμενων. Στις πλέον δασκαλοκεντρικές-αυταρχικές τάξεις,
οι κανόνες τίθενται αποκλειστικά από τον εκπαιδευτικό προς τους μαθητές, με την αξίωση
της απόλυτης εφαρμογής τους και με απειλή τιμωρίας σε αντίθετη περίπτωση. Μεταξύ
των κανόνων της τάξης περιλαμβάνονται και οι κανόνες επικοινωνίας.
Δραστηριότητα πρόκλησης δημόσιου διαλόγου

Με βάση τα βιώματά σου, πώς θα χαρακτήριζες το σχολικό κλίμα και τις σχέσεις επικοινωνίας που
αναπτύσσονταν στη σχολική μονάδα που φοίτησες ή εργάστηκες τελευταία; Αν πιστεύεις ότι
χρειάζονται βελτιώσεις ως προς αυτά τα ζητήματα, τι θα πρότεινες να αλλάξει;
Κατέγραψε τις απόψεις σου στον αντίστοιχο χώρο συζητήσεων στο Moodle.

Επίσης, αν επιθυμείτε, μπορείτε να ανατρέξετε στους παρακάτω δυο συνδέσμους οι οποίοι

περιλαμβάνονται στη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία:
https://www.academia.edu/36975726/SCHOOL_CLIMATE_AND_STUDENTS_OUTCOME
https://kelvin.education/90910290192.pdf
11
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Σύνοψη/Ανακεφαλαίωση Αντικειμένου Συνεδρίας
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Σχολικό κλίμα και επικοινωνία». Στο πλαίσιο της
παρούσας συνεδρίας έγινε αναφορά στην έννοια του σχολικού κλίματος, μέσω της
εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας και στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου, με την
εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας, όπως αυτές αναπτύσσονται στο πλαίσιο μιας σχολικής
επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής. Στην συνεδρία αυτή, επίσης, γίνεται έμμεση αναφορά
στην καλλιέργεια ήπιου παιδαγωγικού κλίματος, στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της
επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό περιβάλλον με αυτό το κλίμα καθώς και στο
ρόλο των χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με την επίτευξη εύρυθμης λειτουργίας στη
σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα, από διοικητική, διδακτική και κοινωνική άποψη. Γίνεται,
επίσης, συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και παραμέτρων σε
ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται από επικοινωνιακές
διαδικασίες και νόρμες ποικίλων επικοινωνιακών μορφών, όπως αυτές αποτυπώνονται στον
ιδιαίτερο ρόλο του σχολικού κλίματος και της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται σε σχέση με
αυτό, καθώς και στη συμβολή της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων.
Στο πλαίσιο της συνεδρίας αυτής, οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες
επιχειρήθηκε να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά τη δυναμική της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη
παιδαγωγικού κλίματος και τη συμβολή του κλίματος αυτού στη διδακτική και εκπαιδευτική
διαδικασία. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες αφού μελέτησαν
το παρεχόμενο εκπαιδευτικό υλικό έχουν τη δυνατότητα να γνωρίζουν την έννοια του
σχολικού κλίματος, το ρόλο της επικοινωνίας στη βελτίωση του σχολικού κλίματος και κατ’
επέκταση, τη συμβολή του σχολικού κλίματος στη βελτίωση των συνθηκών διδασκαλίας και
μάθησης στο εκπαιδευτικό περιβάλλον, ώστε να μεριμνούν καθημερινά για την ανάπτυξη
και καλλιέργειά του.
12
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Learning.
Chirkina, T. A., & Khavenson, T. (2018). School climate: A history of the concept and
approaches to defining and measuring it on PISA Questionnaires. Russian Education
& Society, 60(2), 133-160.
Conley, S., & Muncey, D. E. (1999). Organizational climate and teacher professionalism:
Identifying teacher work environment’s dimensions. In H. J. Freiberg (Ed.), School
Climate: Measuring, improving and sustaining healthy learning environments (pp.
103-123). London: Flamer Press.
Gilchrist-Petty, E. (2017). Deviant Communication in Teacher-Student Interactions:
Emerging Research and Opportunities. USA: IGI Global.
Halpin, A. W., & Croft, D. B. (1963). The Organizational Climate of Schools. Chicago, IL:
Midwest Administration Center of the University of Chicago.
USA: Routledge.
Techniques for Stabilizing Your Students and Yourself. Alameda CA, USA: Hunter
House.
Kavouri, P. (1998). School climate in primary education: An important factor of evaluation
and school unit efficiency. Pedagogiki Epitheorisi, 27, 181-201.
McCarley, T. A., Peters, M. L., & Decman, J. M. (2016). Transformational leadership related
to school climate: A multi-level analysis. Educational Management Administration &
Leadership, 44(2), 322-342.
Pashiardis, G. (2001). School Climate: A theoretical analysis and an empirical investigation
13
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
of its basic parameters. Athens: Typothito.

Pearson.
Sage Publishing Co.
Ελληνική
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2011). Εισαγωγή: Έννοιες και μορφές επικοινωνίας. Στο Α. Κοντάκος και Φ.
Καλαβάσης (Επιμ.), Θέματα Εκπαιδευτικού Σχεδιασμού 4 (σσ. 9-22). Αθήνα: Ατραπός.
Μια συνοπτική επισκόπηση. Στο Α. Θ. Κοντάκος και Π. Ι. Σταμάτης (Επ. Επιμ.), Θεωρίες
και Μοντέλα Επικοινωνίας στην Εκπαίδευση (Σειρά: Επικοινωνία και Εκπαίδευση, τ. 2,
σσ. 269-301). Αθήνα: Διάδραση.
κείμενο της παρούσας συνεδρίας, ενώ η βιβλιογραφία που δεν αναφέρεται με έντονα γράμματα
αποτελεί μέρος της βασικής βιβλιογραφίας της 5ης διδακτικής ενότητας.
14
«Σχολικό κλίμα και επικοινωνία»
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΩΝ

Οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά τη

δυναμική της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη παιδαγωγικού κλίματος και τη
συμβολή του παιδαγωγικού κλίματος στη διδακτική και εκπαιδευτική
διαδικασία.
- γνωρίζουν την έννοια του σχολικού κλίματος
- γνωρίζουν το ρόλο της επικοινωνίας στη βελτίωση του σχολικού κλίματος και κατ’
επέκταση, τη συμβολή του σχολικού κλίματος στη βελτίωση των συνθηκών
διδασκαλίας και μάθησης στο εκπαιδευτικό περιβάλλον.
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Σχολικό κλίμα και επικοινωνία». Υπό τον τίτλο αυτό, γίνεται
αναφορά στην καλλιέργεια ήπιου σχολικού κλίματος, μέσω της εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας και
στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου, με την εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας, όπως αυτές
αναπτύσσονται στο πλαίσιο μιας σχολικής επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής. Στην συνεδρία αυτή,
επίσης, γίνεται έμμεση αναφορά στην έννοια και στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας που
αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό περιβάλλον καθώς και στο ρόλο των χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με
την επίτευξη μιας εύρυθμης λειτουργίας στη σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα, από διοικητική, διδακτική
και κοινωνική άποψη. Γίνεται, επίσης, συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών
και παραμέτρων σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται από
επικοινωνιακές διαδικασίες και νόρμες ποικίλων επικοινωνιακών μορφών, όπως αυτές
αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη
διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων.
Σχολικό κλίμα (school climate): Κοντολογίς, ο όρος Κανόνες της τάξης (classroom rules): Ο όρος «κανόνες της τάξης»
«σχολικό κλίμα» παραπέμπει στην ποιότητα των παραπέμπει στις συνθήκες που επικρατούν σε μια σχολική τάξη και
συνθηκών που επικρατούν σε μια σχολική μονάδα αφορούν συνολικά στις σχέσεις και τις συμπεριφορές που αναπτύσσονται
και αφορούν συνολικά στις σχέσεις και τις μεταξύ των μελών της, οι οποίες βασίζονται σε μια σειρά δεδομένων που
συμπεριφορές που αναπτύσσονται μεταξύ των επιτρέπουν ή απαγορεύουν την ανάπτυξη συγκεκριμένων συμπεριφορών
μελών της και στους στόχους που έχουν τεθεί, σε μαθητές και εκπαιδευτικούς (Gilchrist-Petty, 2017). Η εύρυθμη
αναφορικά με τη διοικητική και εκπαιδευτική της λειτουργία κάθε σχολικής τάξης, διαχρονικά, βασίζεται σε συγκεκριμένους
λειτουργία εν γένει (Erwin, 2016). κανόνες, οι οποίοι είτε εδράζονται στη σχολική νομοθεσία είτε
προκύπτουν από τον σχολικό κανονισμό είτε αποτελούν δημιούργημα
συζήτησης και κοινής συναίνεσης μεταξύ των μελών της τάξης είτε
συνδυασμό όλων των προηγούμενων. Στις πλέον δασκαλοκεντρικές-
αυταρχικές τάξεις, οι κανόνες τίθενται αποκλειστικά από τον εκπαιδευτικό
προς τους μαθητές, με την αξίωση της απόλυτης εφαρμογής τους και με
απειλή τιμωρίας σε αντίθετη περίπτωση. Μεταξύ των κανόνων της τάξης
περιλαμβάνονται και οι κανόνες επικοινωνίας.
Ansary, M. A. (2018). Classroom: Classroom Management in Five Days. The Most Effective Classroom Management Method for Teachers: Find Out the Classroom
Management Secrets, Tips & Tricks. Independently published.
Chirkina, T. A., & Khavenson, T. (2018). School climate: A history of the concept and approaches to defining and measuring it on PISA Questionnaires. Russian
Education & Society, 60(2), 133-160.
Conley, S., & Muncey, D. E. (1999). Organizational climate and teacher professionalism: Identifying teacher work environment’s dimensions. In H. J. Freiberg (Ed.),
School Climate: Measuring, improving and sustaining healthy learning environments (pp. 103-123). London: Flamer Press.
Dowd, H., & Green, P. (2016). Classroom Management in the Digital Age: Effective Practices for Technology-Rich Learning Spaces. Irvine, California, CA, USA:
EdTechTeam.
Emmer, E. T., & Evertson, C. M. (2012). Classroom Management for Middle and High School Teachers. USA: Pearson.
Erwin, J. C. (2016). The School Climate Solution: Creating a Culture of Excellence from the Classroom to the Staff Room. Mineapolis, MN, USA: Free Spirit
Publishing.
Gilchrist-Petty, E. (2017). Deviant Communication in Teacher-Student Interactions: Emerging Research and Opportunities. USA: IGI Global.
Halpin, A. W., & Croft, D. B. (1963). The Organizational Climate of Schools. Chicago, IL: Midwest Administration Center of the University of Chicago.
Johnson, K., & Robbins, M. (2004). Classroom Crisis: The Teacher's Guide: Quick and Proven Techniques for Stabilizing Your Students and Yourself. Alameda CA,
USA: Hunter House.
Kavouri, P. (1998). School climate in primary education: An important factor of evaluation and school unit efficiency. Pedagogiki Epitheorisi, 27, 181-201.
McCarley, T. A., Peters, M. L., & Decman, J. M. (2016). Transformational leadership related to school climate: A multi-level analysis. Educational Management
Administration & Leadership, 44(2), 322-342.
Pashiardis, G. (2001). School Climate: A theoretical analysis and an empirical investigation of its basic parameters. Athens: Typothito.
University of Rhode Island
DigitalCommons@URI
Open Access Dissertations
2015
THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SCHOOL

CLIMATE AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE
POLICIES AND PRACTICES IN RHODE
ISLAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Anna G. Lubiner
University of Rhode Island, alubiner@my.uri.edu
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oa_diss
Terms of Use
All rights reserved under copyright.
Recommended Citation
Lubiner, Anna G., "THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE POLICIES AND
PRACTICES IN RHODE ISLAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS" (2015). Open Access Dissertations. Paper 360.
http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oa_diss/360
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Dissertations
by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact digitalcommons@etal.uri.edu.
THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND SCHOOL
DISCIPLINE POLICIES AND PRACTICES IN RHODE ISLAND PUBLIC
SCHOOLS
BY
ANNA G. LUBINER
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
PSYCHOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND
2015
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DISSERTATION
OF
ANNA G. LUBINER
APPROVED:
Dissertation Committee:
Major Professor: Kathleen Gorman
Margaret Rogers
Diane Kern
Nasser H. Zawia
DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND

2015
ABSTRACT
Exclusionary discipline practices are associated with a range of negative
student outcomes, both academic and behavioral, as well as a higher likelihood of later
school drop-out and involvement in the juvenile justice system. Alternatively, more
positive school climate has been associated with a variety of favorable student
outcomes including higher levels of academic achievement and fewer behavioral
infractions. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between school
climate and exclusionary discipline practices and policies in the Rhode Island public
elementary and secondary schools. More specifically the study sought to investigate
the association between teacher and student perceptions of school climate and
variations in the number of in-school suspensions (ISS), out-of-school suspensions
(OSS), and alternative placement programs (APP). Additionally, we examined
whether school discipline policies, that is more reactive or more proactive policies,
were associated with school climate and discipline practices and whether the type of
policy moderated the relationship between school climate and school discipline
practices.
Data from 261 elementary and secondary schools were included. Measures of
teacher and student ratings of school climate, school discipline practices (i.e.,
suspensions and alternative program placements) and demographic variables were
publicly available through the Rhode Island Department of Education (RIDE) through
their website InfoWorks!. School discipline policies were publicly available via school
and school district website and analyzed using content analysis.

Significant disparities in suspension rates and perceptions of school climate
were found between groups, such that schools that served higher proportions of
historically marginalized students (e.g., racial/ethnic minorities, low income) were
associated with lower ratings of school climate among students and teachers, and the
more frequent use of ISS, OSS, and APP. Bivariate associations indicated that more
positive ratings of school climate by teachers and students were significantly
associated with lower rates of OSS, ISS and APP and to a great number of discipline
policies overall. After controlling for student racial and ethnic composition and school
characteristics, student perceptions of school climate remained significantly inversely
related to OSS. Contrary to expectations, more proactive and less reactive school
discipline policies were associated with higher rates of APP. There were no
significant associations between school climate and school discipline policies after
controlling for demographic variables. Results of the moderation analyses were
inconclusive.
Most notable were our findings that school discipline policies and practices
were not aligned. This is critical information as large-scale school-wide interventions
are launched to address the disproportionality and overuse of exclusionary discipline
practices. It is helpful then to consider who is writing the discipline policies, the
degree to which they are implemented and enforced in schools, and to identify the
ways in which they can be improved, and aligned with more proactive discipline
practices.
!
ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS
First, I extend a heartfelt thank you to my major professor, Dr. Kathleen
Gorman. Kathleen you have been an incomparable mentor, friend, and guide through
this journey. You have encouraged my intellectual curiosity and honed my critical
thinking skills. I am grateful to you for your patience, dedication and support, which
have been vital to my success.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to my committee members Drs.
Margaret Rogers, Diane Kern, Gary Stoner and Chair, Dr. Jayne Richmond, as they
were integral to the completion of this product. A special thanks to Margie for your
encouragement, enthusiasm, and belief in my abilities, as I navigated the sometimes
rocky terrain of graduate school.
This achievement would not have been possible without the support of my
friends and family who have cheered and supported me throughout this journey.
To Jen, my friend and colleague, we have celebrated, commiserated and
laughed until we cried. I cannot imagine sharing this journey with anyone else.
To my father, thank you for you endless encouragement, unconditional love
and support. You have been my greatest cheerleader and strongest advocate.
To Dave, my bashert, I could not have done this without you. You have
cheered, and comforted me, cooked, cleaned, and walked our fur-baby, all without
complaint. There are not enough thank yous in the world.
iv#
DEDICATION
To my mother
v#
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………… ii
ACKNOWELDGEMENTS…………………………………………… iv
DEDICATION………………………………………………………… v
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………… vi
LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………….. vii
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................ x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................ 1
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………… 13
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY…………………………………… 32
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS……………………………………………… 51
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION………………………………………… 94
APPENDICES………………………………………………………… 103
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………… 118
vi#
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
Table 3.1. Behavioral Infraction Categorization by Severity…………….. 37
Table 3.2. Categorization of Discipline Consequences Included in
Policy……………………………………………………………............... 38
Table 3.3 Reliability Coefficients: School Climate by Group……………. 43
Table 4.1. School Characteristics by Geographic Region………………... 52
Table 4.2. Descriptive Statistics: School Discipline Practices by High
Frequency Offenses and Exclusion Type…………………........................ 54
Table 4.3. Descriptive Statistics: Discipline practices by racial/ethnic
group……………………………………………….................................... 57
Table 4.4. Descriptive Statistics: School Discipline Policy……………… 59
Table 4.5. Descriptive Statistics: School Climate………………………… 60
Table 4.6 .Pearson Product Moment Correlations: School Climate and
Demographic Variables…………………………………………………... 61
Table 4.7. Pearson Product Moment Correlations, School Discipline
Policies and Demographic Variable…………………................................ 63
Table 4.8. Pearson Product Moment Correlations, School Discipline
Practices and Demographic Variables………………................................. 65
Table 4.9. Pearson Product Moment Correlations: School Climate,
School Discipline Policies and School Discipline Practices………........... 68
vii#
4.10. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Out-of-School Suspension
Regressed on School Climate……………………...................................... 71
4.11. Hierarchical Linear Regression: In-School Suspension Regressed
on School Climate………………………………………………………… 72
4.12. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Alternative Program Placements
Regressed on School Climate…………………………………………….. 73
4.13. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Out-of-School Suspensions
Regressed on School Discipline Policies…………………………………. 77
4.14. Hierarchical Linear Regression. In-School Suspensions Regressed
on School Discipline Policies…………………………….......................... 78
4.15. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Alternative Program Placements
Regressed on School Discipline Policies…………………………………. 79
4.16. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Proactive School Discipline
Policies on School Climate……………………………………………….. 82
4.17. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Reactive Discipline Policies
Regressed on School Climate…………………………………………… 83
4.18. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Discipline Orientation Regressed
on School Climate………………………………………………………… 84
4.19. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Moderated Regression Analyses
Examining the Relationship Between OSS and School............................... 89
Examining the Relationship Between ISS and School…………………… 90
viii#
Examining the Relationship Between APP and School Climate with
Discipline Policies………………………………………………………... 93
ix#
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
Figure 2.1. Path Model for Hypothesized Interactions among School
Climate, School Discipline Policies and School Discipline Practices… 31
Figure 4.1.Overrepresentation of Racial/Ethnic Minority Students in
Rates of Exclusionary Discipline by Geographic Region……….......... 56
Figure 4.2. Interaction Effects of Student Perceptions of School
Climate and Proactive School Discipline Polices on Out-of-School
Suspensions When School Climate is Higher and Lower………….. 88
Climate and Proactive School Discipline Polices on Alternative
Program Placements When School Climate is Higher and Lower…… 91
Climate and Reaction School Discipline Polices on Alternative
Program Placements When School Climate is Higher and Lower…… 92
x#
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
“The great majority of suspensions do not serve any demonstrated valid
interests of children or schools. Instead they harm the children involved and
jeopardize their prospects for securing a decent education…They have
become a crutch enabling school people to avoid the tougher issues of
ineffective and inflexible school programs; poor communications with
students, parents, and community; and a lack of understanding about and
commitment to serving children from many different backgrounds and with
many different needs in our public schools.”
Children’s Defense Fund, 1975, p. 9-10
Statement of the Problem
The use of exclusionary discipline in schools, referring to practices that
remove students from the classroom, has increased exponentially since the 1970’s
(Losen & Skiba, 2010; Marchbanks et al., 2013). Despite myriad evidence that
suggests exclusionary discipline practices (i.e., suspension, expulsion, and/or
alternative program placement), are differentially applied and ineffective, schools
continue to use these punishments with startling frequency (Fenning et al., 2012;
Losen & Martinez, 2013; Reynolds et al., 2008; Skiba & Knesting, 2002; Skiba &
Rauch, 2006). Students are suspended and expelled for a variety of behavioral
infractions, from mild (e.g., tardiness) to severe (e.g., physical violence), and
though expulsions are typically reserved for the most egregious behavioral
violations, both suspensions and expulsions have been found to affect
disproportionately students from historically marginalized populations (e.g.,
1
children of color, English language learners, students with disabilities) (Nichols,
2004; Skiba & Rauch, 2006; Skiba, Trachok, Chung, Baker, & Hughes, 2012). An
analysis of data by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights
(2012) found that Black students were three and half times more likely to be
suspended or expelled than their White counterparts, while students with
documented disabilities were more than twice as likely to be suspended when
compared to their typically developing peers. Furthermore, in districts that
implemented zero-tolerance policies, that is rigid discipline policies that impose
severe punishment for a variety of infractions (e.g., illicit drugs, weapons)
regardless of extenuating circumstances, 56% of expelled students were Black and
Hispanic despite representing only 45% of the student population (U.S. Department
of Education, 2012).
Exclusionary discipline practices are associated with a variety of deleterious
outcomes, both immediate (loss of school time) and long-term. Students who are
suspended or expelled are significantly more likely to drop-out of school and be
involved in the criminal justice system (Balfanz, Byrnes, & Fox, 2013; Christle,
Joviette, & Nelson, 2005). These findings are made more troubling by research that
suggests that such practices do little to curb problem behavior and instead
contribute to disparities in student outcomes (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010;
Noguera, 1995; Reynolds et al., 2008).
The use of exclusionary discipline practices by schools is attributable to a
constellation of factors. Government and school discipline policies (e.g., Gun-Free
Schools Act of 1994, zero-tolerance policies), individual characteristics of the
2
student(s), neighborhood, community, and family factors, all affect school
discipline practices, as well as student outcomes (Casella, 2003; Noltemeyer &
McLoughlin, 2010). In addition, researchers have found characteristics of the
school environment (e.g., instructional time and curriculum, quality of interpersonal
relationships, organizational structure), cumulatively known as school climate,
appreciably affect discipline outcomes, particularly among children from
historically marginalized groups (Brown, Benkovitz, Mutillo, & Urban, 2006;
Ferguson, Hackman, Hanna, & Ballantine, 2008).
Justification for and Significance of the Study
School climate. There is little debate that the school environment plays a
vital role in the development of children (Catalano, Oesterle, Fleming, Hawkins,
2004; Eccles, et al., 1993; Way, Reddy, Rhodes, 2007). While many features of the
school environment are relatively fixed (e.g., poverty, urbanicity, and school-size),
school climate is comparatively malleable, making it an important area of inquiry
(Gottfredson, Gottfredson, Payne, & Gottfredson, 2005; PISA, 2005). School
climate generally refers to the qualities and characteristics of the school
environment that are reflected in the collective experience of students, faculty and
staff. While there is no unitary definition of school climate, most theorists agree
that embedded within the construct are the goals, values, norms, interpersonal
relationships, teaching and learning methods, and the organizational and physical
structure of the school (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli & Pickeral, 2009; Hopson & Lee,
2011; Thapa et al., 2013). A positive school climate generally includes: supportive
and nurturing relationships among and between students, teachers, and school
3
administrators; feelings of safety, both physical and emotional; and an emphasis on
learning that is supportive and encouraging (National School Climate Council,
2007).
Although positive school climate is not a panacea for structural and social
inequality, research suggests it can serve as a protective factor, particularly for
vulnerable students, attenuating risk and fostering resilience (Hopson & Lee, 2011).
The extant literature finds that positive school climate is associated with a variety
of favorable student outcomes, including a narrowing of the achievement gap
between students of color and their White counterparts (e.g., Balfanz & Byrnes,
2006; Lee & Burkham, 1989); lower levels of reported substance use (Sznitman,
Dunlop, Nalkur, Khurana, & Romer, 2012); lower levels of absenteeism (e.g.,
Gregory, Cornell. & Fan, 2011; Haynes, Emmons, Ben-Avie, 1997); and fewer
risk-taking behaviors (Klein, Cornell & Konold, 2012; LaRusso, Romer & Selman,
2008), when compared to students enrolled in schools with less positive school
climates. Collectively, these findings suggest that positive school climate has a
widespread salutary effect on student outcomes making it an important area of
inquiry for researchers examining school level factors that contribute to variations
in student success.
As a result of the promising student outcomes associated with a more
positive school climate, social scientists and educators have begun to explore the
relationship between school climate and student discipline outcomes (e.g.,
Gottfredson, Gottfredson, Payne, & Gottfredson, 2005; PISA, 2005; Skiba &
Peterson, 2005). Initial findings suggest that a more positive school climate is
4
associated with fewer and/or less extreme problem behaviors among students
(Wang, Selman, Dishion, & Stormshak, 2010; Wilson, 2004), as well as less
exclusionary discipline practices employed by school personnel (Gregory, Cornell
& Fan, 2011; Mattison & Aber, 2007), which together lead to better student
discipline outcomes (i.e., fewer suspensions and expulsions). These data become
particularly relevant as the ill effects of exclusionary discipline practices become
more widely known (e.g., Duncan, 2014).
School discipline practices. The goals of school discipline are generally to
maintain safety and order and to foster the development of self-discipline among
students (Bear, 2010). Myriad studies suggest that proactive school discipline
policies teach and encourage prosocial behaviors are associated with safer schools
and fewer behavior problems among students (e.g., Fenning & Rose, 2007; Horner
et al., 2009; Rosenberg & Jackman, 2003; Sugai & Horner, 2002, 2006). Despite
the evidence, many schools continue to rely school discipline practices that are
more reactive (i.e., punitive) and often exclusionary, in nature (e.g., detention,
suspension, expulsion) (Fenning & Rose, 2007; Sugai & Horner, 2002, 2006).
Research examining the use of exclusionary discipline practices finds that
race/ethnicity, disability status, and socioeconomic status are significant predictors
of suspensions and expulsions (Skiba et al., 2012). More specifically, schools with
higher proportions of low-income students, and schools with higher proportions of
students of color, use exclusionary discipline practices with greater frequency than
do schools that serve more privileged populations (Losen & Skiba, 2010; Welch &
Payne, 2010). Additionally, schools with more resources (i.e., suburban schools)
5
are less likely to employ reactive discipline practices than schools that serve
historically marginalized populations. However, higher resource schools are more
likely to differentially apply exclusionary discipline practices, such that students of
color are more likely to be suspended than their White counterparts for similar or
more minor infractions (Fenning & Rose, 2007; Skiba et al., 2012; Wallace,
Goodkind, Wallace, & Bachman, 2008).
Despite this discouraging trend, some schools report fewer discipline
problems, lower rates of suspensions and expulsions, and smaller gaps between
groups than would be expected given the student population(s) (e.g., Gregory &
Weinstein, 2008; Bradshaw, Mitchell & Leaf, 2010). In schools with fewer than
expected suspensions and expulsions, where school climate has also been assessed,
it has been found to be an important predictive factor of less reactive types of
discipline practices used by schools (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2005; Christle,
Nelson, Jolivette, 2004; Skiba & Sprague, 2008).
School climate and school discipline practices. Initial studies examining
school climate, discipline practices, and student outcomes suggest that school
climate is a small but significant predictor of discipline practices in schools
(Gottfredson et al., 2005; Lippman et al., 1996). Studies have assessed both the
effect of existing school climate levels on discipline practices (Gregory, Cornell, &
Fan, 2011; Mattison & Aber, 2007), as well as rates of suspensions and expulsions
after implementation of positive school climate interventions (Barrett, Bradshaw &
Lewis-Palmer, 2008; Bradshaw, Mitchell & Leaf, 2010), with promising results.
Findings suggests that positive school climate is associated with higher GPA’s and
6
fewer discipline referrals among Black students (Mattison & Aber, 2007), lower
than expected suspension rates among all students, and more equal suspension rates
between White and Black students (Gregory, et al, 2011).
The research surrounding school climate and discipline referrals and
practices is bolstered by studies examining the effects of School-Wide Positive
Behavior Intervention and Supports (SWPBIS)1, a behavioral intervention and
prevention model designed to improve school climate and behavioral outcomes.
SWPBIS strives to teach and reinforce positive behavior and improve relationships
among students, teachers and staff, through proactive discipline policies and
procedures (Horner, Sugai, & Anderson, 2010). Schools that have implemented
SWPBIS, report improved school climate (Bradshaw, Koth, Thornton & Leaf,
2009; Mitchell & Bradshaw, 2009), decreased numbers of discipline referrals, and
fewer out-of-school suspensions and expulsions (e.g., Barrett et al., 2008;
Bradshaw et al., 2010; Curtis, Van Horne, Robertson, & Karvonen, 2010; Tobin &
Vincent, 2011) post intervention.
Taken together the literature suggests that school climate is an important
factor in predicting the use of exclusionary discipline practices in schools.
However, school climate is only one factor that affects the use of exclusionary
discipline practices. School discipline policies (i.e., written codes of conduct) guide
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! 1!SWPBIS is also called Positive Behavioral Intervention and Support
(PBIS) and Positive Behavioral Support (PBS) in the literature.!

2
1n 2013-2014 the term “alternative program placement” was eliminated,
7
discipline practices and influence the degree to which schools mete out suspensions
and expulsions.
School discipline policies and practices. School discipline practices
reflect, at least in part, the school and school district’s discipline policies, typically
operationalized as written codes of conduct (Fenning, Golomb, et al, 2008;
Fenning, Piggott et al., 2011; Fenning & Rose, 2007). Formally mandated as part of
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) (2001), schools and school districts have long used
discipline policies to communicate expectations and consequences of student
behavior (Lally, 1982; Fenning & Rose, 2007). While NCLB (2001) requires
school districts to provide broad written codes of conduct regarding student
behavior, many schools expand district policies to address the particular demands
of their school environment. Despite the overwhelming evidence that school
suspension and expulsion are not effective deterrents of problem behavior (e.g.,
APA, 2008), such punishments continue to be a fundamental feature of many
school discipline policies (Fenning et al., 2012). In several content analyses of
school and district level written codes of conduct, Fenning and colleagues found
that suspension, in particular, was used to address a variety of behavior problems
from tardiness to weapons and fighting, with school discipline policies influencing
the discipline practices (i.e., number of suspensions and expulsions) of schools
(Fenning et al., 2008, 2012, 2013).
While reactive (exclusionary) school discipline policies continue to be
promulgated by many schools, there is growing support for more proactive
approaches to school discipline policies. Influenced by the Positive Behavioral
8
Support (PBS) movement, more proactive school discipline policies typically
include a clearly stated discipline strategy that reflects a partnership among
families, schools and communities (Steinberg, Allensworth, & Johnson, 2011; U.S.
Department of Education, 2014). In addition, proactive discipline policies may
address the academic needs of the students, define behavioral expectations and
include a positive reward system (Fenning, Theodos, Benner, Bohanon-Edmonson,
2004). Furthermore, such polices tend to be progressive in nature, establishing a
continuum of consequences for inappropriate behavior that includes opportunities
to teach and learn, and are developmentally appropriate (e.g., community service,
restitution), with suspension and expulsion reserved for the most egregious offenses
(Rohler, 2008; Sugai, Sprague, Horner, Walker, 2000). The aim of the progressive
discipline policies is to provide clarity and to improve consistency in enforcement,
thereby reducing discriminatory discipline practices (Roher, 2008; Sugai et al.,
2000). The extant literature suggests that such policies are associated with
improved student outcomes and fewer disciplinary incidents (e.g., Fenning et al.,
2004, 2008, 2012, 2012; Sugai et al., 2000).
School climate, school discipline policies and school discipline practices.
Although there is research that links school climate to school discipline practice
(Gottfredson, et al., 2005; Lippman et al., 1996) and studies that examine the
relationship between discipline policies and school discipline practices (Fenning et
al., 2008, 2012, 2013), there is a dearth of research that explores the relationship
among school climate, discipline policies and school discipline practices. To date,
only one study has explicitly explored the relationship among school discipline
9
policies, school climate and discipline practices. Fenning, Piggott and colleagues
(2013) recently examined school discipline policies (i.e., written codes of conduct)
and discipline practices in four high schools after the implementation of School-
Wide Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports (SWPBIS) intervention. The
authors found that despite having access to proactive discipline tools via SWPBIS,
schools continued to rely on (reactive) zero-tolerance (district-level) discipline
policies to guide discipline decisions. While this study suggests that discipline
policies may be a stronger predictor of school discipline practices than a positive
school climate intervention (i.e., SWPBIS), it is the first study of its kind,
suggesting the need for further inquiry
Purpose
This study aimed to contribute to and build on the existing literature by
examining the association between school climate and school discipline policies
and practice, and to explore the ways race/ethnicity and SES influence these
variables. Based on current research it was expected that school climate would
account for variation in school discipline practices. It was predicted that a more
positive school climate would be associated with fewer suspensions and alternative
program placements. Additionally, school discipline policies were expected to
moderate that relationship between school climate and school discipline practices,
such that a more positive school climate would be associated with more
suspensions and alternative program placements when school discipline policies
were more reactive, and fewer suspensions and alternative program placements
when school discipline policies were more proactive.
10
Research Questions
1. Is there a relationship between school climate and school discipline
practices?
Hypothesis 1A: A more positive school climate was expected to be
associated with fewer suspensions (in-school/out-of-school) and alternative
program placements.
Hypothesis 1B: It was expected that schools that serve greater proportions of
students from historically marginalized populations (e.g., Black, Hispanic,
low SES) would have a more negative school climate and more suspensions
and alternative program placements.
2. Is there a relationship between school discipline policies and school
discipline practices?
Hypothesis 2. Less reactive discipline policies were expected to be
associated with fewer suspensions and alternative program placements.
3. Is there a relationship between school climate and school discipline
policies?
Hypothesis 3: A more positive school climate was expected to be associated
with less reactive discipline policies.
4. Do school discipline policies moderate the relationship between school
climate and school discipline practices?
11
Hypothesis 4A: More proactive school discipline policies were expected to
change the nature of the relationship between a more positive school climate
and school suspension and alternative program placements, resulting in
fewer suspensions and alternative program placements.
Hypothesis 4B: More reactive school discipline policies were expected to
change the nature of the relationship between a more positive school climate
and school suspensions and alternative program placements, resulting in
more suspension and alternative program placements.
12
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter offers a review of the literature on school discipline and its
attendant features. The purpose of this review is to provide an historical and
theoretical framework to understand and contextualize school discipline practices,
and to explore the ways in which proximal (i.e., school climate, school discipline
policies) and distal (i.e., federal and state policies) level factors interact to influence
school discipline practices and affect student outcomes.
School Discipline Background
While the goals of school discipline have remained relatively stable across
time, that is to maintain order and safety, to create an environment conducive to
learning (Bear, 2010; Dupper, 2010), and to teach self-discipline (Bear, 2010;
Dupper, 2010; Osher, Bear, Sprague & Doyle, 2010), the strategies used to
accomplish these purposes have shifted with the zeitgeist. Trends in education,
including school discipline, are in large part a temporal reflection of society’s
cultural values and socio-political environment. It is useful then to contextualize
contemporary issues in school discipline by exploring the historical trajectory of
public education and school discipline.
Historical trends in education and school discipline. The 19th and 20th
centuries were a time of significant growth in the United States. Manifest Destiny
and the Industrial Revolution led to geographic and demographic expansion. Mass
immigration swelled cities and magnified economic inequality (Rury, 2013). It was
during this period of rapid expansion that publicly funded schools were established,
13
and compulsory attendance laws enacted, marking the beginning of the modern
education system in the United States (Rury, 2013).
From the Post-Revolutionary era through early Industrialization the
principle goal of formal education was to produce moral citizens. Dominant
pedagogy relied on the Bible to teach students moral virtues in an effort to create an
informed and well-behaved citizenry (Kaestle, 1984; Kafka, 2011). Order was
maintained by force and fear; control was external and punishment severe, with the
teachers having absolute authority (Butchart, 1994; Dupper, 2011). Teachers
functioned in loco parentis (in place of parent), a vestige of English common law
adopted in U.S. courts. As masters of the classroom, teachers were permitted to use
corporal punishment as a means of discipline as long as the punishment was
“moderate and reasonable, and not excessive" (State v. Pendergrass (1837) as cited
in Bridinger, 1957).
As cities grew and the demand for public education increased, the model of
education delivery necessarily shifted to accommodate larger student bodies.
Education reformers such as Joseph Lancaster advocated for an elaborate system of
surveillance, in which children monitored each other and reported to the teacher.
This monitorial model was designed to educate large numbers students and instill in
them morality and self-discipline. While Lancaster disapproved of corporal
punishment, order was strictly maintained through surveillance, reward,
competition and humiliation. Students were ranked and seated according to their
position and disciplined by classmates via public shaming (at the behest of the
teacher). Lancaster’s model transformed the nature of the relationship between
14
teacher and student; instead of direct and patriarchal, the authority of the teacher
was indirect, institutionalized and omnipresent. Lancaster’s model fell out of favor
with later Progressive-era reformers, though many of his concepts are still evident
in contemporary school discipline practices (Butchart, 1995).
Progressive Era education reformers such as Horace Mann, Henry Barnard,
and Samuel Hall advocated for a more child-centered approach to education and
discipline. While the goal of education remained unchanged, to produce a moral
citizenry, the means by which such morality was produced were evolving. Hall, in
Lectures on Schoolkeeping (1831) identified the “great purpose of education is to
cultivate all the powers of the mind, and to lead the young to choose that course of
conduct, which will save them from vice, and conduct them in the paths of virtue”
(Hall, 1831 as cited in Hogan, 1990, p. 17). These reformers suggested that teachers
engage students in learning and promote order through teaching self-discipline
through reason (Glenn, 1981; Kafka, 2011)
As the population of the country continued to grow, and compulsory
education laws became more entrenched, formal exclusion (i.e., expulsion) became
more difficult. Progressive pedagogy evolved to include a therapeutic approach to
school discipline, in which ‘unteachable’ students were placed in self-contained
classrooms or therapeutic schools. This approach was largely rhetorical, as teachers
and school principals often used ‘therapeutic’ classrooms to waylay difficult
students until they were old enough to leave school (Tropea, 1987). While
Progressive pedagogy dominated the professional discourse, in practice many
15
schools continued to rely on authoritarian discipline practices, including corporal
punishment, as a means of dominance and control (Kafka, 2011).
The 1950’s were marked by cultural and pedagogical shifts in school
discipline. No longer focused on the philosophy of discipline and the long-term
development of a well-behaved and moral citizenry, academics concentrated on
creating systems and models of discipline, with the short-term goals of school order
and safety. It is within this context that modern education policy evolved, and
exclusionary discipline rates began to rise (Butchart, 1995).
Federal Policy Context and Associated Discipline Practices
Federal legislation and the rise of exclusionary discipline. While the
1950’s saw the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision formally
acknowledge inequity in education, it was not until the passage of the Civil Rights
Act (1964) that schools began to desegregate in earnest. The enactment of the Civil
Rights Act (1964) coincided with the passage Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) (1965), which significantly expanded the role of the federal
government in education. While the ESEA did not ban the use of corporal
punishment in schools, it was becoming less acceptable as a form of punishment.
As the use of corporal punishment decreased, exclusionary discipline appeared to
increase. Greater government oversight and a spate of lawsuits (e.g., Goss v. Lopez,
1975) forced schools to codify their exclusionary discipline policies and track
disciplinary incidents. These data eventually served as a baseline for future research
(i.e., CDF, 1974; CDF, 1975) (Arum & Priess, 2009; Hansen, 2005).
16
The Children’s Defense Fund (CDF) was among the first to systematically
examine the use of exclusionary discipline practices in schools. In two landmark
reports, the CDF (1974, 1975) found that children from historically marginalized
populations were suspended at higher rates than their peers. Furthermore, children
who were suspended were often excluded from school for nonviolent offenses such
as insubordination and minor infractions of the school rules. Consistent with later
research, the CDF found no evidence that exclusionary discipline improved school
safety. Suspensions, however, were associated with a significant loss of school time
for the students excluded and higher rates of juvenile delinquency.
Zero-Tolerance and the criminalization of school discipline. Zero
tolerance policies began to appear in the late 1980’s and 1990’s. Designed to
address issues of school safety and discipline, zero-tolerance policies instituted
harsh and exclusionary punishments for a broad range of behavioral infractions.
The passage of the (federal) Gun-Free Schools Act of 1994 marked the beginning
of a period of rapid expansion for exclusionary discipline policies. While the Gun
Free Schools Act mandated a zero-tolerance approach to firearms in school, many
school districts expanded these guidelines to include a variety of other infractions
(e.g., drugs, other weapons, prohibited behavior) (Gregory & Connell, 2009). A
study by the American Psychological Association’s Zero Tolerance Task Force
(2008) found such policies were associated with an increase in the number of
suspensions and expulsions, and yet were not associated with a reduction in
problem behaviors in schools.
17
The detrimental effects of zero-tolerance policies were compounded by the
increasing use of police officers in schools. In 2004, the U. S. Department of Justice
awarded $60 million in grants to school districts and police departments to increase
the number of police officers in schools. There was little evidence to suggest that
police presence in schools achieves its intended purpose, to improve school safety
(e.g., Brady, Balmer & Phenix, 2007). However, research did demonstrate that
police presence in schools leads to more student arrests and referrals to the juvenile
justice system (APA Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008; Hirschfield, 2008).
Predictably, children of color were disproportionately affected; Civil Rights Data
Collection (CRDC) found that in 2009-2010, 70% of students involved in school-
related arrests were Black or Hispanic (U. S. Department of Education, 2012).
Despite nearly four decades of research that finds exclusionary discipline
practices are differentially enforced and associated with a variety of adverse
outcomes (e.g., school dropout, truancy and of course failure) (Balfanz, Byrnes &
Fox, 2013), suspension rates have continued to climb, particularly among poor and
minority students. A recent study examining racial and ethnic trends in school
suspension rates, found that between 1972-3 and 2009-10 the rate of suspension
among Black students more than doubled, increasing from 11.8% to 24.3%, with
similar relative increases among Hispanic students (6.1% to 12%), however, rates
of suspension among Whites students (6% to 7.1%) remained relatively stable
(Losen & Martinez, 2013).
No Child Left Behind. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (2001), the
most recent reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
18
expanded the role of the federal government in education by mandating that states
create measurable performance standards, conduct annual assessments of all
children enrolled in public schools, measure schools “adequate yearly progress”
(AYP) and impose sanctions on schools that did not make AYP (Dee & Jacob,
2011). While the legislation was specifically designed to encourage schools to
attend to children at-risk of academic failure (i.e., low-income students, students of
color, English Language Learners and students with special needs), it may have had
a paradoxical effect. Schools had strong incentives to produce high-test scores, as
funding was tied to AYP, thereby encouraging the removal of low-performing
students from schools via suspension or alternative program placement (Klehr,
2009; Mallett, 2015).
Individuals with Disabilities Acts (IDEA) of 2004. While legislative
trends throughout the 1990’s and early 2000’s exacerbated exclusionary discipline
practices, there were legislative counterbalances, like IDEA. IDEA is
comprehensive legislation designed to protect school-age children and ensure
access to a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE). Although many features of
the legislation are specific to academics (e.g., Individual Education Plans (IEP’s)),
there are procedural safeguards in place designed to protect students with special
needs from being removed from school for long periods of time. More specifically,
students who receive special education services cannot be suspended for more than
ten days without a manifest determination hearing. Furthermore, schools are
obligated to inform parents of their right to a hearing. Despite these safeguards,
19
students who receive special education services have been found to be suspended at
higher rates than their typically developing peers (APA Task Force, 2008).
Rhode Island Policy Context and Associated Discipline Practices
Rhode Island school discipline policy. School discipline polices, mandated
by NCLB (2001) and Rhode Island law (R.I. GL § 16-21-21), require each school
committee to establish and maintain discipline codes of conduct that comply with a
variety of state and federal laws and guidelines. Consequently, all school/district
level discipline policies in Rhode Island must include detailed disciplinary
approaches to specific behavioral violations (i.e., firearms and other weapons,
students with chronic disciplinary issues, attendance and truancy, codes, substance
use, bullying and harassment), as well as the grounds for the acceptable use of
exclusionary discipline (R.I. GL § 16-19.1 R.I. GL § 16-21.0; R.I. GL § 16-21.2,
2013).
Suspensions in Rhode Island. In 2013, the Rhode Island chapter of the
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) released Blacklisted, a report that
analyzed eight years of suspension data (2004-2012) for all school districts in
Rhode Island. Findings indicated that Black and Hispanic students were suspended
at much higher rates than White students, often for nonviolent discipline infractions
such as disorderly conduct or attendance violations. Although Black and Hispanic
students were suspended at higher rates than White students at all grade levels, the
differences among elementary school students were particularly stark. Black
elementary school students were six times likely to be suspended than their White
counterparts. While, Hispanic elementary school students were three times more
20
likely to be suspended than White students. The ACLU report led to important
discussions among Rhode Island policymakers and the electorate. In response, the
Rhode Island General Assembly passed legislation (H-7287/S-2542O) making it
illegal for schools to suspend (out-of-school) students for attendance related
infractions alone. The 2012-2013 academic year saw a considerable reduction in the
number of overall suspensions. However, a follow-up report by the ACLU (2014)
examining data from 2012-2013 school year found that Black and Hispanic
students continued to be suspended at much higher rates than their White
counterparts. A trend that continued the following year (2013-2014) with Black,
Native American and Hispanic students suspended at the highest rates in a decade
(ACLU, 2015).
Exclusionary discipline. Discipline practices that remove students from the
school/classroom, continue to be used with alacrity among public schools in Rhode
Island. Exclusionary discipline actions that are captured by Rhode Island
Department of Education (RIDE) and are publically available include: out-of-
school suspensions, in-school suspensions and interim alternative education settings
(IAES) (formerly alternative program placement)2. In 2013-2014 out-of-school
suspensions accounted for about half of disciplinary actions (51//%), more than half
of out-of-school suspensions were for nonviolent discipline infractions (i.e.,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2
1n 2013-2014 the term “alternative program placement” was eliminated,
educational plans/program for long-term suspensions are now referred to as
“Interim Alternative Education Setting” and are reserved for students with
documented disabilities (RIDE, n. d.).
21
disrespect (31%) and disorderly conduct (21%) (RI Kids Count, 2015; RIDE 2015).
Furthermore, while the RI General Assembly passed a law prohibiting the use of
out-of-school suspension for attendance infractions alone, schools have continued
to use in-school suspension as a consequence for attendance violations. In 2013-
2014, nearly 25% (n=3,657) of all in-school suspensions were issued for attendance
related infractions (RI Kids Count, 2015; RIDE 2015).
Disproportionality. Consistent with national norms, historically
marginalized groups (i.e., students of color, low-income and students with
disabilities) in Rhode Island are more likely to be suspended from school than their
more advantaged peers. More specifically, in 2013-2014 minority students
comprised 39% of the total student population and accounted for 57% of total
disciplinary actions. Similarly, students receiving special education services
accounted for 15% of the student population and 30% of the total disciplinary
actions (RI Kids Count, 2015).
Disproportionality and urbanicity. Since Industrialization urban public
schools have primarily served low-income students and students of color (Lippman,
Burns, & McArthur, 1996). In Rhode Island this relationship is particularly
pronounced. In 2010, the last year for which these data are available, 67% of all
minority children, ages 0-18, lived in the four core cities: Providence, Pawtucket,
Central Falls and Woonsocket. Furthermore, 65% of all children living in these
urban centers were considered poor (Short, 2011 as cited in RI Kids Count, 2013,
2015). Consistent with previous research, students enrolled in these districts
represented 29% of the total student population, though 51% of the total discipline
22
actions in the state (RIDE, 2014 as cited in RI Kids Count, 2015). De facto
segregation such as this compounds the effects of poverty by concentrating racial
and economic disadvantage within single schools or districts, further depressing
student outcomes (Goldsmith, 2011; Rothstein, 2013).
School Climate
School climate as a broad construct can be traced back to early educational
reformers like Perry (1908) and Dewey (1916), however it was not systematically
studied until the 1970’s (Thapa et al., 2013). School climate, in its current iteration,
reflects the marriage of organizational psychology and the effective schools
movement (Anderson, 1982). Perhaps due to its disparate origins, school climate
lacks formal definitional consensus. However, most theorists agree that embedded
within the construct are the goals, values, norms, interpersonal relationships,
teaching and learning methods, and the organizational and physical structure of the
school (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli & Pickeral, 2011; Hopson & Lee, 2011; Thapa,
Cohen, Guffey, & Higgins-D’Alessandro, 2013). A more positive school climate is
generally associated with supportive and nurturing relationships among students,
teachers and administrators, and safe physical and emotional environment (National
School Climate Council, 2007).
School climate and ecological and contextual factors. School climate and
its attendant features exist within a complex ecological system, informed by a
variety of interactive ecological contexts that include community-level, school-
level, and individual characteristics (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Community factors
such as poverty, geographical region and racial demographic factors can influence
23
perceptions of school climate (Kosciw, Greytak & Diaz, 2009). Additionally,
school-level variables (e.g., resources, school size, teacher to student ratio) and
characteristics of the individual (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation) substantially
affect the experience of school climate (Brault, Janosz, Archambault, 2014;
Hemphill, Plenty, Herrenkohl, Toumbourou, Catalono, 2014; Koth, Bradshaw and
Leaf, 2008).
Such ecological and contextual factors are associated with notable
differences in perceptions of school climate. More specifically, community-level
factors such as poverty and racial/ethnic demographics are associated with lower
ratings of school climate by both students (Gottfredson et al., 2005; Gregory et al.,
2011; Skiba et al., 2012) and teachers (Brault, Janosz, Archambault, 2014). These
associations are, in large part, explained by school-level factors that are inextricably
linked to community-level factors. Most notably, schools that serve greater
proportions of students from historically marginalized groups are more likely to
have fewer economic resources, teachers with fewer years of experience, greater
faculty turnover, and higher student to teacher ratios (Lankford, Loeb, & Wycoff,
2002), all of which are associated with lower ratings of school climate among
students and teachers (Thapa et al., 2012).
In addition to community and school-level factors, individual characteristics
of students, teacher, and principals are associated with differences in perceptions of
school climate. For example, a study by Fan and colleagues (2011) found that
students who were Hispanic or Asian were more likely to view the school as less
safe and orderly than their White counterparts. Furthermore, male students tended
24
to view school rules as less clear and fair and teachers as less supportive (Fan,
Williams, & Corkin, 2011). Other studies have found that among teachers, more
teacher preparation and training is associated with higher quality (more connected)
student-teacher relationships (Pas, Bradshaw, & Hershfeldt, 2012; Schonfeld, 2001;
Tarter & Horenczyk, 2003). In addition, there is some evidence to suggest that
teacher race/ethnicity may be a factor that effects teacher perceptions of school
climate (Bevans, Bradshaw, Miech, Leaf, 2007; Pas, Bradshaw, & Hershfeldt,
2012). For instance, Bevan and colleagues (2007) found that non-Caucasian
teachers had lower levels of staff affiliation than their Caucasian peers. Finally,
principal characteristics, such as leadership style, have been shown to be a predictor
of teacher perceptions of school climate (e.g., Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993; Marks &
Printy, 2003). A seminal study by Marks and Printy (2003) found that schools with
principals who were perceived by teachers as offering more instructional support,
encouraging professional growth, and were generally motivating, were associated
with higher ratings of school climate by teachers.
School climate and student outcomes. Research suggests that a more
positive school climate is linked to a variety of improved student outcomes,
including higher levels of academic achievement (e.g., Haynes, Emmons, Ben-
Avie; Hoy & Hannum, 1997; O’Malley, Voight, Renshaw & Eklund, 2015), lower
levels of absenteeism, lower rates of suspension (e.g., Gregory, Cornell. & Fan,
2011; Haynes, Emmons, Ben-Avie, 1997), and fewer problem behaviors among
students (e.g., Cornell & Konold, 2012; LaRusso, Romer & Selman, 2008; Wang,
Selman, Dishion, & Stormshak, 2010). Furthermore, several studies have found that
25
a positive school climate serves as a protective factor for students most at-risk (e.g.,
Christle et al., 2005; Hopson & Lee, 2011). For example, Hopson and Lee (2011)
found that a more positive school climate, as measured by student perceptions, was
associated with higher grades and better behaviors among students with risk factors
associated with poor academic and behavioral outcomes. These findings are
bolstered by study conducted by O’Malley and colleagues (2015) that found among
high school students, a more positive views of school climate were associated with
better academic performance, with the strongest associations found among
homeless students and students from one-parent families.
School Climate and School Discipline Policy and Practices
School climate and discipline practices. While research is still emerging,
several studies have found that a more positive school climate is associated with the
decreased use of exclusionary discipline practices by teachers and school staff
(Gregory, Cornell & Fan, 2011; Mattison & Aber, 2007). In a study conducted by
Mattison and Aber (2007), a more positive school climate was associated with
fewer detentions and suspensions. Similarly, Gregory and colleagues (2011) found
that a more positive school climate was related to fewer suspensions, and smaller
discipline gaps between Black and White students.
School climate interventions. While school climate is influenced by a
variety of community and individual level factors that are relatively fixed (e.g.,
poverty, race/ethnicity), there are a handful of school-wide interventions that have
been associated with improved school climate and related student outcomes. For
example, a recent meta-analysis conducted by Durlak and colleagues (2011)
26
examined 213 school-based universal social and emotional learning programs that
were, in part, designed to increase prosocial behaviors and foster positive
relationships among students, an important aspect of school climate. The authors
found that in schools that implemented these interventions, students demonstrated
improved social and emotional skills, fewer behavior problems and higher levels of
academic performance, when compared to schools that had not implemented such
interventions.
School climate interventions and school discipline practices. There have
been a variety of school climate interventions that have targeted school discipline
practices (e.g., Battistich, Schaps, Wilson, 2004; Bradshaw et al., 2008, 2009,
Gonzalez, 2014 as cited in Losen et al., 2015). For example, a recent study by
Gonzalez (2014) examined the effects of the systematic school climate intervention
that included the integration of restorative justice practices in school discipline
practices and policies in the Denver Public Schools. Over six years, Denver schools
saw suspension rates drop, the discipline gap narrow and test scores rise (Gonzalez,
2014 as cited in Losen, 2015).
While other school climate and school discipline practice interventions have
demonstrated success (e.g., Battistich, Schaps, Wilson, 2004; Gonzalez, 2014 as
cited in Losen, 2015), School-Wide Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports
(SWPBIS) is the most often studied and widely implemented school climate
intervention. SWPBIS is a multi-tiered prevention and intervention model that
incorporates tiered systems of support using universal prevention strategies (Tier
1), with smaller group (Tier 2) and individualized (Tier 3) behavioral interventions
27
in response to the needs of students and schools. Designed to enhance school
climate and improve student behavior and outcomes, SWPBIS interventions
establish clear systems and procedures that reinforce positive behavior, reduce
problem behavior, and improve relationships among students, teachers and staff
(Horner, Sugai, & Anderson, 2010). Typically, SWPBIS includes simple and well-
defined behavioral expectations and consequences, modeling of appropriate
behaviors by teachers and school staff, rewards for expected behaviors, and
community involvement (Osher, Bear, Sprague & Doyle, 2010; Sugai & Horner,
2006). This intervention model has been associated with improved school climate,
reduction in use exclusionary discipline practices, and improved student outcomes
(e.g., Bradshaw et al., 2008, Horner, Sugai, & Anderson, 2010; Curtis, Van Horne,
Robertson, & Karvonen, 2010; Tobin & Vincent, 2011)
School climate and school discipline policies and practices. Although
exclusionary (reactive) school discipline policies continue to be used too
frequently, there is mounting support for a more comprehensive, preventative and
proactive approach to school discipline policies and practice. Reactive
consequences, which are strictly punitive in nature and offer no opportunity for
teaching and learning, have long prevailed in American school discipline. However,
recognition of the adverse outcomes associated with such practices has led to a
broader push for the adoption often more proactive discipline policies (Fenning et
al., 2008). Furthermore, the adoption of more proactive discipline policies by
schools and school districts has been associated with less disproportionality in
28
school discipline and lower overall rates of exclusion (Barnhart, Frankliln, &
Alleman, 2008).
The U.S. Department of Education, recognizing the detrimental effects of
exclusionary discipline, has recently launched an initiative to change school
discipline practices by altering school climate and school discipline policies
through school climate transformation grants. Described as multi-tiered behavioral
support framework (e.g., PBIS) designed to improve school climate and student
outcomes, in part, by reforming discipline policies and practices in an effort to
“address the school-to-prison pipeline—the unfortunate and often unintentional
policies and practices that push our nation’s schoolchildren, especially those who
are most at-risk, out of classrooms and into the juvenile and criminal justice
systems” (U.S. Department of Education, Press Office, 2014, September 23).
Although there is no data to assess the success of school climate transformation
grants, the launch of the initiative suggests a growing awareness of the positive
effects of school climate interventions and the relationship of such interventions to
the reduction in exclusionary discipline policies and practices.
Contribution to the Literature
Despite recent efforts to alter school discipline practices and policies by
improving school climate, there is a dearth of research that examines the
associations among the constructs. While researchers have examined the
relationship between school climate and discipline practices, and disciplinary
policies and discipline practices, there has been little research that examines the
relationships among school climate, school discipline policies, and school
29
discipline practice. Thus, this study aimed to contribute to an emerging body of
literature that identifies school level factors associated with the reduction in use of
exclusionary discipline practices, particularly among historically marginalized
groups (i.e., student of color, students from low-income families and students with
disabilities).
Conceptual Framework
As illustrated in Figure 2.1, it was expected that school climate would
account for variation within school discipline practices. More specifically, it was
predicted that a more positive school climate would be associated with fewer
suspensions and alternative program placements. Additionally, it was expected that
school discipline policies would predict to school discipline practices, such that
more proactive school discipline policies would be associated with fewer
suspensions and alternative program placements. Furthermore, it was expected
school climate would predict to school discipline policies such that more positive
school climate would be associated with more proactive school discipline policy.
Finally, it was predicted that school discipline policies would moderate that
relationship between school climate and school discipline practices, such that a
more positive school climate would be associated with more suspensions and
alternative program placements when school discipline policies were more reactive,
and fewer suspensions and expulsions when school discipline policies were more
proactive.
30
Figure 2.1. Path Model for Hypothesized Interactions among School Climate,
School Discipline Policies and School Discipline Practices.
Note. SC=School Climate; SDPol = School Discipline Policies, SD Prac =School

Discipline Practices
31
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Sample
The data used for this study represent Rhode Island’s 296 public schools
that served 139,383 children in grades Kindergarten through 12, during the 2012-
2013 academic year. The schools were managed by 66 Local Education Agencies
(LEA’s) that included: 32 regular school districts (single municipalities), 4 regional
school districts (more than one municipality), 4 state-operated schools (statewide);
1 regional school; and 25 charter schools. As a whole, Rhode Island students were
relatively economically diverse, with 46% of students receiving free and reduced
lunch3, and moderately racially and ethnically diverse, with 63% students
identifying as White, 22% identifying as Hispanic, and 8% Black (RIDE, 2014).
Although these aggregated data suggest a relatively diverse student body,
low-income children and children of color were not represented across all school
districts equally. That is, according to levels of urbanicity (i.e., geographic
proximity to cities), the 4 urban school districts: Providence, Pawtucket, Central
Falls and Woonsocket, served 31% of the total student population in the state, but
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3
Free and Reduced lunch is used as proxy variable for family income.
Eligibility criteria for Free and Reduced Lunch is family income that is,
respectively, 130% and 185% of the federal poverty income threshold (NCES,
2015). In 2012-2013, the year for which data are examined for this study, the
federal poverty guideline for a family of four was $23,050 annually (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2013).
32
75% of all Hispanic students, 74% of all Black students, 55% of all low-income
students in the state (RIDE, 2013; RI Kids Count, 2013).
The final school sample included 261 schools, serving 132,758 students in
grades 3-12, represented by 46 LEAS, including 32 regular school districts (single
municipalities), 4 regional school districts (more than one municipality), 2 state-
operated schools (statewide); and 8 charter schools. Thirty-five schools were not
included due to lack of data (n = 28 elementary schools, n = 4 high schools, n = 3
mixed grade schools). Demographic characteristics of the final sample were not
significantly different from the initial sample with 46% of students receiving free
and reduced lunch, 65% students identifying as White, 21% identifying as
Hispanic, and 8% African American (RIDE, 2013).
Power. An a priori power analysis was conducted based on multiple
regression with 15 variables using an alpha level set at .05, and power set at .80,
with an expected moderate effect size (f2 = 0.15). A minimum of 199 schools
(participants) were suggested (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). As such a sample of
261 schools has adequate power.
Measures
Data for this this study come from two sources: 1) The Rhode Island
Department of Education’s (RIDE) InfoWorks! website, a data aggregator that
includes survey data on student and teacher perceptions of school climate,
demographic data, and school discipline data; 2) school websites and school district
websites to access and collect school discipline policies.
33
Demographic Variables
Demographic data were collected through Rhode Island Department of
Education’s (RIDE), InfoWorks! website. Characteristics of each school included
school size (number of students enrolled), socio-economic status (measured by
percent of students eligible for Free and Reduced Lunch), teacher to student ratio,
ethnic (number Hispanic/Latino) and racial composition (e.g., number of White,
Black, Asian) of the school by numbers enrolled, urbanicity (urban, urban ring,
suburban) and percentage of children receiving special education services. For the
purposes of analyses racial and ethnic groups were converted from numbers
enrolled to percentage of #’s enrolled.
Dependent Variable: School Discipline Practices
Three dependent variables include the number of out-of-school suspensions,
in-school suspensions, and alternative program placements.
Out of School Suspensions (OSS). OSS is defined by RIDE as “the
temporary dismissal of a student from school by duly authorized school personnel
in accordance with established regulation. Students serve their suspension outside
of school” (RIDE, n.d).
In-school suspensions (ISS). ISS refers to “the temporary dismissal of a
student from class by duly authorized school personnel in accordance with
established regulation. Students serve their time in these suspensions under
supervision during school hours” (RIDE, n.d.).
Alternative program placements (APP). APP refers to educational plans
and placements developed by school districts in conjunction with RIDE for students
34
who have been suspended long-term (i.e., 10 days to 1-year). Rhode Island law
stipulates, “..schools shall provide a continuum of interim alternative educational
placement options to continue a student's education while suspended (RI Board of
Regents, 2009, p. 25)4.
RIDE identifies 44 possible behavioral infractions that may result in one of
these three outcomes. A comprehensive list of behavioral infractions for which in-
school suspension, out-of-school suspension, and alternative program placement
were possible consequences is provided in Appendix A.
In addition, upon request, RIDE provided the author with racial/ethnic
discipline data where available. Specifically, discipline practice data (i.e., out-of-
school and in-school suspension and alternative program placement) were summed
by RIDE and then disaggregated by race/ethnicity. These data were only available
for schools where the number of students being disciplined in any racial/ethnic
group reached more than 10. Outcome data were available by race/ethnicity for 115
schools (27 elementary schools, 45 middle schools, and 43 high schools), which
were aggregated into two groups: 1) Non-Hispanic White 2) Racial/Ethnic
Minority.
Independent Variable: School Discipline Policy
For the purposes of this study a content analysis (i.e., systematic analysis of
text) of each school/district discipline policy was performed with each policy being
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4
! In 2013-2014 the term “Alternative Program Placement” was eliminated,
educational plans/program for long-term suspensions are now referred to as
“Interim Alternative Education Setting” (RIDE, n. d.)
35
reviewed for behavioral infractions (coded for presence or absence), associated
consequences (coded for presence or absence) and the overall discipline orientation.
This process resulted in the development of development of three school discipline
policy variables: reactive discipline policy, proactive discipline policy, and
discipline orientation.
Behavioral infractions. A total of 40 behavioral infractions were coded,
adapted from RIDE’s 44 identified misbehaviors that could result in-school
suspension (ISS), out-of-school suspension (OSS), and alternative program
placement (APP). Four behaviors were combined (e.g., obscene language toward
teacher and obscene language toward student were combined into one category:
obscene language). Using the criteria previously established and validated by
Fenning and colleagues (2008), behaviors were categorized as mild, moderate and
severe. The 40 behavioral infractions, categorized by degree of severity of
infraction used in this study are presented in Table 3.1. Analyses of behavioral
infraction by severity reached acceptable levels of internal reliability: Mild (α =.
84), Moderate (α =. 65), and Severe (α =. 82).
36
Table 3.1. Behavioral Infraction Categorization by Severity
Severity Rating Behavior
Mild Attendance-Cut/Skipped Class; Attendance-Cut/Skipped

(n =16)
Detention; Attendance-Left School Grounds; Attendance-
Cut/Skipped In School Suspension; Attendance-Tardy/Late;
Attendance-Truant; Cheating/Plagiarism; Disorderly
Conduct/Class Disruption; Dress Code Violation; Electronic
Devices; Forgery-General Staff Disrespect/Insubordination;
Loitering; Misuse of Computer; Student ID Violation;
Tobacco Offenses (Distribution, Possession, Sale, and Use)
Moderate Bullying; Fighting; Gambling; Hazing/Harassment; Social

(n = 8)
Exclusion; Student Remarks (verbal argument, profanity);
Trespassing/Restricted Area; Vandalism
Severe Alcohol Offenses (Distribution, Possession, Sale, and Use);

(n =16)
Arson-Assault/Battery; Threat/Intimidation; Bomb Threat;
Drug Offenses (Possession and/or Use); Drug; Offenses
(Intent to sell); Gang Behavior-Non-violent-
Kidnapping/Abduction; Misuse of Fire Alarm-
Fireworks/Explosives Offenses; Prejudice/Hate
Crimes/Racial Slurs; Sexual Harassment; Sexual
Assault/Battery; Theft/Larceny/Robbery; Weapons Offenses
(Distribution, Possession, Sale, and Use)
37
Discipline consequences. Using the criteria developed by Fenning and
colleagues (2008) for the Analysis of Discipline Codes Rating Form-Revised
(ADCR-R), 18 consequences were identified as potential behaviors for coding
(Fenning et al., 2008; Horowtiz, 2010). Furthermore, based on this same criteria,
the discipline consequences were categorized as either proactive, that is
consequences that contained a teaching component, or reactive, consequences that
were purely punitive, with no opportunity to teach/learn appropriate behavior
(Fenning, et al., 2008, Horowitz, 2010). Table 3.2 lists the 18 behavioral
consequences, categorized by proactive and reactive consequence. Measures of
internal consistency of the two scales achieved high levels of reliability, Proactive
(α =.99), Reactive (α =.99). A copy scoring form used to analyze school discipline
policies by consequence is provided in Appendix B.
Table 3.2. Categorization of Discipline Consequences Included in Policy
Category Discipline Consequence
Proactive Mediation; Restitution; Referral for Learning Supports;
(n = 8) Counseling; Community/School Service; In School
Interventions; Parent Conference; Home Contact
Reactive Social Suspension/Non-academic Privileges; Removal from
(n =10) Class; Detention; Police referral/Attendance Officer; In school
suspension; Sent Home; < 10 suspension; >10 days
suspension; Alternative Program Placement; Expulsion
38
Independent variables: reactive discipline policy and proactive
discipline policy (school discipline policy). Each school policy was coded for the
presence or absence of each of the 40 behavioral infractions, organized by severity
(mild, moderate, severe), and the resultant consequence(s), organized
proactive/reactive. For each behavioral infraction present, the associated
consequence(s) were coded (yes = 1). Many behavioral infractions had multiple
associated consequences, and in those cases, each consequence was coded
independently. For example, a student who was disruptive in class (mild behavioral
infraction) could face a variety of consequences, including being asked to leave the
room (reactive), detention (reactive), a meeting with the teacher (proactive),
meeting with the school counselor (proactive). This would result in 1 behavioral
infraction (disruptive), with 4 consequences. Consequences were summed across
behavioral infractions, by level of severity. Once all school policies were coded,
data were aggregated by the type of consequence (reactive/proactive) and severity
of discipline. Six categories were established and assessed for internal reliability:
Proactive Mild (α =. 92), Proactive Moderate (α=. 86), Proactive Severe (α =. 92),
Reactive Mild (α =. 82), Reactive Moderate (α =. 77), Reactive Severe (α =. 80).
Composite variables for proactive discipline policy and reactive discipline policy
were created by summing the mild, moderate and severe categories, demonstrating
acceptable internal reliability (proactive, α = .90, and reactive, α = .86). Each
school received a proactive policy score and reactive policy score. A table of
variables and coding type is included in Appendix B.
39
Independent variable: discipline orientation (school discipline policy).
Discipline orientation was coded along five dimensions identified in the literature
as key components of a discipline policy that incorporates School-Wide Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports (Sugai et al, 2000)5. These include: 1)
behavioral expectations, 3-5 simple statements about expected/desired behavior; 2)
teaching expectations, appropriate behavior is explicitly taught; 3) positive reward,
an acknowledgement and/or reward for desirable behavior; 4) involvement of key
stakeholders (e.g., parents and community members) in creating discipline policy;
5) an overall statement about a progressive approach to discipline. The presence of
the first four components were coded (Yes =1, No = 0) codes were used to indicate
the presence or absence of each of the first 4 components. The final component,
progressive approach to school discipline was scored on a scale of 0 to 2, (0 = not
present, 1 or 2 = present) higher scores were achieved for schools that explicitly
stated that they used a progressive approach to school discipline and provided a
behavior consequence map. Overall, scores for discipline orientation ranged from 0
to 6, with higher scores indicating a discipline policy more aligned with the tenets
of SWPBIS. The scale demonstrated acceptable internal reliability (α =.78).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5
! While there are no mandates in the Rhode Island that SWPBIS be
incorporated into school discipline policies and practices, nearly half of all schools
in Rhode Island have been trained in the prevention and intervention model by the
Paul V. Sherlock Center on Disabilities at Rhode Island College (2014), which
reports that it has trained over 100 schools in SWPBIS since 2005.!
40
Independent Variable: School Climate
School climate. School climate was assessed using annual SurveyWorks!
survey data collected by Rhode Island Department of Education (RIDE). The
survey was designed for students, parents, teachers and administrators to monitor
the school improvement process6. Specific survey items were selected for inclusion
based the National School Climate Center’s (NSCC) five recommended domains of
school climate assessment, including: teaching and learning, safety, relationships,
institutional environment and (teachers only) professional climate (Thapa et al.,
2012). An initial review of the SurveyWorks! 2012-2013 student surveys identified
43-items from the middle school (MS) and high school (HS) student surveys, 7-
items form the elementary school (ES) student surveys that corresponded with one
of the four NSCC school climate domains applicable to students. These include
teaching and learning (e.g., My teachers give me clear instructions), safety (e.g., I
feel safe in the hallways of my school), relationships (e.g., My teachers seem to care
about me), institutional environment (e.g., the desks at my school are the right size
for me). An initial review of the teacher/staff surveys yielded 56-items that
corresponded to one of the five school climate domains established by NSCC.
Similar to the student surveys, the teacher/staff surveys include: teaching and
learning (e.g., I give special recognition to exemplary work), safety (e.g., I feel safe
in the hallways of my school), relationships (e.g., students talk to me if they’re
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
6
! The State of Rhode Island mandates that students, parents, teachers and
administrators be surveyed each year in order to monitor the school improvement
process (R.I. Gen L § 16-7.1-2, 2013).
41
having a problem), institutional environment (e.g., the school is clean and well-
maintained), with the addition of the professional climate domain pertaining only to
teachers (e.g. morale is good among the staff).
Items were scored based on how strongly respondents agreed. Teacher (56-
items), High school (43-items), middle school (41-items), and 9 (of 25) elementary
school items, were scored on a 4-point scale ranging from Never True to Always
True, The remaining 16 elementary school items were scored on a two-point scale
(Yes/No). Internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) were calculated for
all items, with strong reliability scores found within each group: Teachers (α =.95),
high school (α = .96), middle school (α =.96), elementary school (α =.88).
Once reliability was determined for items within groups, a total of 9 school
climate variables were created and coded (4 student, 5 teacher), for each school.
Additionally, given that the elementary school items were fewer, and some items
were coded on a different scale (Yes/No), scales were created for each of the 3
levels of schools (ES, MS, HS). Internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s
alpha) were calculated for each of the 17 scales (Cronbach, 1951). Reliability
coefficients for scales are presented in Table 3. Several items were excluded to
enhance reliability; a complete list of items included in this study is presented in
Appendix C.
42
Table 3.3. Reliability Coefficients: School Climate by Group
Group α
Elementary School Student Climate ( 4-items) 0.78
Teaching and Learning (9-items) 0.82
Relationships (8-items) 0.78
Institutional Environment (6-items) 0.61
Safety (2-items) 0.44
Middle School Student Climate (4-items) 0.92
High School Student Climate (4-items) 0.92
Teachers Climate (5-items) 0.84
Professional Climate (10-items) 0.95
43
With reliability of variables established among each group, four composite
scales were created by summing variables within each group, resulting in an
elementary school student climate variable, a middle school student climate
variable, a high school student school climate variable and a teacher climate
variable. Finally, student scales (elementary, middle and high school) were summed
together to create an overall student school climate composite variable. Two
composite variables were used in analyses to assess school climate, the student
school climate variable and the teacher school climate variable.
Procedures
School discipline practices. School discipline practices, operationalized as
number of in-school suspensions (ISS), out-of-school suspensions (OSS), and
alternative program placements (APP) by discipline infraction per school, were
publically available data collected from the RIDE InfoWorks! website between
September and December 2014. RIDE organized these data by school by year. Data
representing the 2012-2013 academic year were downloaded by school as
individual csv files. Data were cleaned and collated in one large excel file and
uploaded to SPSS for analyses.
School discipline policy. Websites for each school were accessed to
examine an electronic copy of the school discipline policy. If the school did not
provide a copy of the discipline policy, the district policy was used. When 2012-
2013 policies were not available, researchers coded discipline the policy closest in
44
date after 2012-2013 academic year7. Forty-seven percent of the schools (n =121)
had school level policies, while 53% of the schools (n =140), had district level
policies.
Each policy was downloaded, policy in varied in length, from 6 pages to 70
pages, and in level of specificity. Once downloaded, content analyses were
conducted to examine behavioral infractions and discipline consequences; policies
were then coded along reactive and proactive dimensions and discipline orientation.
Coding was completed by the author and an undergraduate research
assistant, who received extensive training in the areas of school discipline policies,
the role and consequences of discipline in schools, as well as the definitions of all
of the variables. Policies were coded in an Excel spreadsheet, which was stored in a
shared DropBox folder, and accessible to both coders (the author and undergraduate
research assistant). When questions during coding arose, emails were exchanged
between the coders and discrepancies resolved. A total of 149 unique discipline
policies (121 school level and 28 district level), representing 261 schools were
reviewed. Eleven percent of the policies (n = 16) were crosschecked for reliability,
spread throughout the coding period (November 2014 through May 2015)
achieving a 91% agreement rate. The codebook complete with definitions and
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7
In 2012 the Rhode Island General Assembly passed H-7287/S-2542
making it illegal for schools to suspend (out-of-school) students for an attendance
related infraction alone. Thus discipline policies dated prior to 2012-2013 were
excluded for analyses.
45
examples, was provided to the undergraduate research assistant prior to the
beginning of her training.
School climate. Data on school climate came from annual survey data
collected by Rhode Island Department of Education (RIDE) via SurveyWorks!.
Developed by WestEd in conjunction with RIDE, SuveyWorks! is an interactive
website that acts as a virtual administrator of Rhode Island’s Education Survey
Suite. Rhode Island’s Education Survey Suite was designed to comply with the
State of Rhode Island mandate that students, parents, teachers and administrators be
surveyed each year in order to monitor the school improvement process (R.I. Gen L
§ 16-7.1-2, 2013). For purposes of this study, data from surveys administered
during the 2012-2013 school year were examined. All procedures were approved by
WestEd’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) prior to data collection (RIDE, 2014).
Three versions of the student survey were developed for targeted age groups
with developmentally appropriate language and themes: high school (127 items),
middle school (108 items) and elementary school (59 items). The teacher/staff
version of the survey was offered to all teachers/staff with instructional
responsibilities and included 143 items. While all surveys addressed the same or
similar topics (e.g., teacher practices, student engagement, teacher-student
relationships), mature content (e.g., sexual activity, sexual orientation) was
excluded from the elementary and middle school surveys, and all student health
behaviors items were excluded from the teacher survey. The teachers/staff survey
included items, not presented on the student survey that specifically addressed
professional practice.
46
The student surveys were conducted online, during the school day and were
available in English, Spanish and Portuguese. The surveys were designed to take
between 10-20 minutes to complete and was administered between January10, 2013
and March 15, 2013. Similar to the student survey, the teacher/staff survey
administered online between January 10, 2013 and March 15, 2013. Average
completion time was 24 minutes. Statewide response rates for the 2012-2013
survey were 77.8% for high school students, with 33,301 participating; 89.3% for
middle school students, with 27, 173 participating; and 92.3% for elementary
school students, with 19,170 participating. The response rate for all teachers/staff
(elementary, middle, high school) was 47.9%, with 7,138 participating (RIDE,
2014). All survey categories are presented are presented Appendix D.
Data were gathered from the 272 public schools that participated in the
2012-2013 SurveyWorks! Surveys. Surveys were publically available on RIDE’s
website from August 2013 through August/September 2014. All surveys for this
study were downloaded between May 2014 and August 2014. Survey data for
individual schools were downloadable exclusively in pdf format. Once surveys
were downloaded, files were converted from pdf to excel using Wondershare
software. After conversion surveys were cleaned and relevant data was stored in a
master excel document. Of the 272 schools in the original sample, 11 were
eliminated due to lack of adequate survey data. The final sample (N =261) included
153 elementary schools (grades 4-5), 51 middle schools (grades 6-8), 51 high
schools (grades 9-12), and 6 multi-grade schools (3 elementary/middle, 2
middle/high school, 1 elementary/middle/high school).
47
For the purposes of this study, teacher school climate variables and student school
climate variables will be included.
Analyses. Data were analyzed using SPSS 22.0. Measures of central
tendency (mean, median, mode), variance, skewness and kurtosis were assessed for
each independent and dependent variable. Skewness and kurtosis were found to be
at acceptable levels (≤ 2.0 and ≤ 4.0) respectively) across all school climate and
discipline policy variables (Harlow, 2005). School discipline practice variables
(i.e., in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, alternative program
placement) exhibited significant skewness and kurtosis. These variables were not
normalized, as altering the relative distances between data points would reduce the
heterogeneity between schools and limit interpretability (Micceri, 1989).
Descriptive statistics of demographic variables, school climate, discipline
policies and practices were examined. Correlations were assessed for associations
between each demographic variable and each independent and dependent variable,
in order to identify covariates.
School climate, school discipline policies and school discipline practices
were correlated with each other to examine the relationships between each of the
variables.
Hypothesis 1A. The association between school climate (predictor
variables) and school discipline practices (criterion variables) was tested using
hierarchical linear regression analyses. Each school discipline practice outcome
type (out-of- school suspension, in-school suspension and alternative program
48
placement) was regressed using a two-step model: demographic variables were
entered first, and school climate variables were entered second.
Hypothesis 1B. Associations between historically marginalized student
populations and school climate and school discipline outcomes were assessed using
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with urbanicity as the grouping variable with each
outcome variable.
Hypothesis 2. Hierarchical linear regression was used to test the second
hypothesis. The relationships between school discipline policies (predictor) and
school discipline practices (criterion). School discipline practices (out-of- school
suspension, in-school suspension and alternative program placement) were
regressed using two-step model: demographic variables were entered first, and the
school discipline policies variables entered second.
Hypotheses 3. The association between school climate variables (predictor)
and school discipline policies (criterion) were assessed using hierarchical linear
regression to test the third hypothesis. School discipline policies were regressed
using a two-step model: demographic variables were entered first, and school
climate measures entered second.
Hypotheses 4A & 4B. Hierarchical linear regression was used to examine
the relationship among school discipline practices (criterion), school climate
(predictor), school discipline policies (moderator), and six interaction variables 1)
ZProactive* ZTeacher Climate, 2) ZReactive*ZTeacher Climate, 3) ZProactive
*ZStudent Climate, 4) ZReactive* ZStudent Climate), 5) ZDiscipline Orientation
*ZTeacher Climate, 6) ZDiscipline Orientation *ZStudent Climate). School
49
discipline practices were regressed using a three-step model with demographic
variables entered first, school climate variables and school discipline policies
entered second and the interaction variables was entered third. All variables were
continuous. The significance level was set at p < .05
50
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
Key demographic characteristics are presented in Table 4.1. As a whole
schools were economically diverse, with 45% of the students eligible for free and
reduced lunch, and racially and ethnically diverse with 65% of students identified
as White, 20.6% as Hispanic, 7.7% as Black, 3.0% multiracial, 2.8% Asian, with
fewer than 1% of students identifying as American Indian/Alaskan Native and
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. The student to teacher ratio averaged 1 teacher to
10 students. Furthermore, aggregated data identified a near even split between
schools that used district level school discipline policies (n = 140) and schools that
used school-level discipline policies (n = 121).
When schools were examined by urbanicity (i.e., proximity to urban
location) differences in demographic characteristics emerged. Suburban school
student populations were primarily White (88.8%), with about one quarter
qualifying for free and reduced lunch, and lower teacher to student ratios (1 teacher
to 9.6 students). In contrast, the majority of students educated in urban schools were
students of color, with 52.0% identified as Hispanic, 18.7% as Black, and the
majority low-income (80.8% eligible for f/r lunch). Furthermore, the student to
teacher ratio was one teacher to every 11.6 students. In addition, suburban schools
were more likely to have their own discipline policy, while urban schools were
more likely to have district level discipline policies.
51
Table 4.1. School Characteristics by Geographic Location
!
Full ! Urban !
Suburban Urban
Sample Ring
N = 261 n = 109 n = 80 n = 72
Student Race/Ethnicity (%)
White ! 65.00 ! 88.80 ! 71.60 ! 20.70
Black 7.70 1.70 6.30 18.70
Hispanic 20.60 5.10 14.00 52.00
Multiracial 3.00 2.20 3.60 3.80
Asian 2.80 1.50 3.70 3.80
American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.60 0.50 0.60 0.80
Pacific Islander 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.20
School Discipline Policy Type (#)

! ! !
Individual School Policy 121 81 30 8
District Policy for School 140 28 30 64
Total # of Students Enrolled 132,858 54,498 36,112 42,148
Students with IEP's (%) 14.32 8.00 15.07 16.06
Free/Reduced Lunch (%) 45.10 23.40 43.40 80.80
Teacher to Student Ratio 01:10.2 01:09.6 01:09.7 01:11.6
Note. Percentage is calculated as # of students in group/total student enrolled; School District Policy
type refers whether the policy was written/assembled by the school district or an individual school.
School discipline practices. Descriptive data for school discipline
practices are presented in Table 4.2. Schools reported a similar number of incidents
of out-of-school suspensions (OSS) and in-school suspensions (ISS), with fewer
52
alternative program placements (APP). Despite similar mean scores for ISS (M =
60.33) and OSS (M = 60.38), the Standard Deviation (SD = 2 31.92) and Range (1-
2655) for ISS were double and triple, respectively, that of OSS (SD = 109.42;
Range 1 -727), indicating significantly more variability in the use of ISS between
schools. Schools used alternative program placements (APP) as a discipline
practice infrequently, with a total 78 instances reported for the 2012-2013 academic
year, and subsequently low measures of central tendency (M = 0.3, SD = 1.52).
Descriptive data of the five most frequently occurring offenses by
exclusionary discipline consequence identified differences in the frequency and use
of discipline consequences. As a whole OSS was used more frequently for more
disruptive behavioral infractions (i.e., assault fighting), while ISS was used more
frequently for attendance violations, though there was noticeable overlap (i.e.,
disorderly conduct, insubordination/disrespect). Alternative program placement was
rarely used. However, when it was employed, it tended to be for severe behavioral
violations (e.g., threat intimidation, weapons possession). Data are presented in
Table 4.2. A complete list of discipline consequences by frequency of behavioral
infraction is included in Appendix D. OSS, ISS and APP composite data (i.e., total
incidents) were used to test hypotheses.
! !
53
Table 4.2. Descriptive Statistics: School Discipline Practices by High Frequency
Offenses and Exclusion Type
Total
M SD Range
Incidents
Out-of-School Suspension 15941 60.38 109.42 0-727
Insubordination Disrespect 5133 19.67 53.88 0-618
Disorderly Conduct 3151 12.07 37.12 0-384
Fighting 2028 7.77 15.96 0-136
Assault Student 966 3.7 6.44 0-36
Threat Intimidation 915 3.51 6.77 0-63
In-School Suspension 15745 60.33 231.92 0-2655
Cut Skipped Class 3851 14.75 105.21 0-1563
Cut Skipped Detention 2275 8.72 52.88 0-727
Disorderly Conduct 2153 8.25 38 0-358
Left School Grounds 926 3.55 17.87 0-214
Alternative Program Placement 78 0.3 1.52 0-17
Weapon Possession 16 0.06 0.44 0-5
54
Discipline practice by race/ethnicity. A total of 115 schools provided data
that included aggregated school discipline practices (OSS, ISS, and APP combined)
by race and ethnicity (Figure 4.1). These data identified differences in the rate of
exclusionary discipline practices between the two groups: Non-Hispanic White and
racial/ethnic minority students. Data presented in Figure 4.1, includes the rate at
which student groups were disciplined based their proportion enrolled in the school
population (% enrolled/% disciplined). Racial and ethnic minority students were
excluded at higher rates than Non-Hispanic White students across all regions.
However, differences in rates of exclusion were particularly pronounced in
suburban schools, such that minority student were 1.7 times more likely to be
excluded (i.e., OSS, ISS, APP) than would be expected based on their rates of
enrollment. White students were less likely to be excluded (.93) than would be
expected based on their rates of enrollment. Descriptive statistics by urbanicity by
group are provided in Table 4.3.8
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
8
These data were included in descriptive analyses as they enhanced
understanding of findings. They were not, however, included in later analyses as
they were beyond the scope of primary hypotheses.
55
Figure 4.1, Overrepresentation of Racial/Ethnic Minority Students in Rates of
Exclusionary Discipline by Geographic Region.
1.80!
1.60!
1.40!
Discipline)Rate))
1.20!
1.00!
0.80! Minority!
0.60! NonBHispanic!White!
0.40!
0.20!
0.00!
Total! Suburban! Urban!Ring! Urban!
Sample! (n=48)! (n=35)! (n=32)!
(n=115)!
! !
56
Table 4.3. Descriptive Statistics: Discipline practices by racial/ethnic group
Total Total Discipline

M SD Range
Incidents enrollment Incidents
Full Sample (n =115)
Racial/Ethnic Minority 14903 129.59 265.9 1-1562 33 50.26
Non-Hispanic White 14708 127.9 210.86 1-1243 66.24 49.61
Suburban (n = 48)
Racial/Ethnic Minority ! 1428 ! 29.78 ! 45.52 ! 1-233 ! 10.56 ! 17.71
57
Urban Ring (n = 35)
Racial/Ethnic Minority ! 2761 ! 78.89 ! 150.3 ! 1-805 ! 26.44 ! 34.32
Urban (n = 32)
Racial/Ethnic Minority ! 10714 !334.81 !412.63 ! 1-1561 ! 73.83 ! 79.12
Note: Total enrolment =# of racial-ethnic group/total student enrolled; Discipline incidents = racial-
ethnic group disciplined//# of disciplined students
School discipline policy. School Discipline policy data are presented in
Table 4.4. Schools generally endorsed more reactive consequences (M = 72.92, SD
= 48.25) in their discipline policies than proactive (M = 53.64, SD = 54.13), though
measures of central tendency, particularly the Standard Deviation, suggested
variation across school policies. Descriptive statistics indicated that school
discipline policies generally listed more consequences for more severe behavioral
infractions as evidenced by the relatively higher means for both proactive (M =
23.55, SD = 25.59) and reactive (M = 35.75, SD = 23.61) consequences for severe
infractions. Discipline orientation, the composite of 5 SWPBIS related indicators,
was relatively low across schools (M = 2.18, SD = 1.92). A review of the mean
scores revealed that most schools endorsed some of the tenets of SWPBIS, though
few endorsed all. Composite scores (proactive discipline policy, reactive discipline
policy and discipline orientation) were used to test hypotheses.
! !
58
Table 4.4. Descriptive Statistics: School Discipline Policy
N M SD Range
Proactive Discipline Policy 261 53.64 54.13 0-184
Mild 261 19.96 20.92 0-81
Moderate 261 10.13 9.07 0-37
Severe 261 23.55 25.59 0-78
Reactive Discipline Policy 261 72.92 48.25 0-188
Mild 261 23.44 18.84 0-81
Moderate 261 13.73 9.34 0-36
Severe 261 35.75 23.61 0-96
Discipline Orientation 261 2.18 1.92 0-6
Behavioral Expectations 261 0.44 0.50 0-1
Teaching Expectations 261 0.27 0.45 0-1
Progressive 261 0.81 0.67 0-2
Positive Reward 261 0.34 0.47 0-1
Stakeholder Involvement 261 0.25 0.44 0-1
School climate. Overall, teacher (M =14.99, SD = 0.97) and student ratings
of school climate (M =12.13, SD = 0.83) were relatively high (Table 4.5). Mean
scores for school climate by student grade group were inversely related to grade/age
level, such that elementary school students had the highest ratings of school climate
(M =12.13, SD = 0.83) with relatively lower mean scores for older groups.
59
Composite scores (teacher school climate, student school climate) were used to test
hypotheses.
Table 4.5. Descriptive Statistics: School Climate
!
Range
N M SD Potential Actual
School Climate-Student 261 12.13 0.83 4-16 9.97-13.52
(composite)
Elementary school climate 153 12.68 0.11 4-16 10.95-13.52
Middle school climate 51 11.61 0.51 4-16 10.18-12.81
High school climate 51 11.02 0.53 4-16 9.97-12.99
School Climate-Teacher 226 14.99 0.97 4-20 11.82-17.07

(composite)
Note: Multi-grade schools were not included in this breakout data, but were included in the total
sample.
Associations between Independent, Dependent, and Demographic Variables
School climate and demographic variables. Pearson correlations were
conducted to identify associations between school climate and continuous
demographic variables. Both teacher and student ratings of school climate were
related to school size, race/ethnicity, disability and income. More specifically, when
schools size was smaller, income was higher and fewer students of color attended,
teacher and student ratings of school climate tended to higher. Notably, school
climate ratings by students and teachers were positively associated with the number
of White students attending, such that schools with greater proportions of White
students tended to have higher ratings of school climate (Table 4.6).
60
Table 4.6. Pearson Product Moment Correlations: School Climate and
Demographic Variables School Climate

Student Teacher
Students Enrolled (#) -.660** -.530**
Free/Reduced Lunch -.225** -.287**
Special Education (IEP) -.217** -.205**
Teacher to Student Ratio -0.094 -.291**
Asian 0.07 -0.007
American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.059 0.036
Black -0.08 -.149*
Multiracial 0.12 0.003
Hispanic -.165** -.243**
Pacific Islander -0.011 -0.013
White .306** .276**
Note. N=261; all variables are calculated as percentages unless otherwise noted (e.g.,
teacher to student ratio). Percentages were calculated by # of students in group/total
students enrolled; *p <.05, ** p <.01.
A series of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were conducted to identify
associations between school climate and the categorical demographic variables,
student grade groups and school policy type. The one-way ANOVA demonstrated
the effect of student group (ES, MS, HS) was significant for teacher (F (2, 225) =
28.95, p <. 01) and student (F (2, 261) = 286.89, p <. 01) school climate ratings.
Both teacher and student school climate ratings were inversely associated with
student grade groups, such that elementary schools were associated with the highest
rating of school climate by teacher and students. A One-Way ANOVA
61
demonstrated no relationship between the between school climate and school policy
type (i.e., individual school policy or district policy).
School discipline policies and demographic variables. Pearson
correlations were conducted to identify associations between school discipline
policies (i.e., reactive, proactive and discipline orientation) and continuous
demographic variables (Table 4.7). Proactive and reactive school discipline
policies were associated with continuous demographic variables. More specifically,
more proactive and more reactive school discipline policies were associated with
schools with larger student populations, higher rates of students enrolled in the free
and reduced lunch program, more students receiving special education services, and
more students of color. Proactive, reactive and the discipline orientation variables
were positively associated with student to teacher ratio, such that higher ratios of
teachers to students were associated with higher scores on all discipline policy
variables. Notably, all school discipline policy variables were inversely related to
percentage of White students enrolled, such that fewer White students in the student
population were associated with more proactive and more reactive school discipline
policies and higher scores on discipline orientation. Thus schools with higher
proportions of students from historically marginalized populations were more likely
to have more school discipline polices that included more consequences overall,
both proactive and reactive.
62
Table 4.7. Pearson Product Moment Correlations, School Discipline Policies and
School Discipline Policies
Demographic Variables Proactive Reactive Discipline

Orientation
Students Enrolled (#) .225** .183** 0.003
Free/Reduced Lunch .517** .410** 0.042
Special Education (IEP) .166** .132* 0.076
Teacher to Student Ratio .323** .257** .163**
Asian .187** 0.039 0.065
American Indian/Alaskan Native .151* 0.099 0.009
Black .314** .334** -0.064
Multiracial 0.049 .173** -0.081
Hispanic .525** .338** 0.089
Pacific Islander -0.082 -0.078 -0.023
White -.497** -.359** -.122*
Note. N=261; all variables are calculated as percentages unless otherwise noted (e.g., teacher to
student ratio). Percentages were calculated by # of students in group/total students enrolled.
*p <.05, ** p <.01.
associations between discipline policies (proactive, reactive, discipline orientation)
and the categorical demographic variables, student grade groups and school policy
type. The one-way ANOVA demonstrated the effect of student group (ES, MS,
HS) was significant for proactive discipline policies (F(2, 261) = 4.875, p <. 01),
such that proactive policies were associated with higher student grade groups, with
high schools having the most proactive policies. District school policy was
63
significantly associated with proactive (F(1, 260) = 26.14, p < .01) and reactive
(F(1, 260) = 42.33, p < .01) school discipline policies. More specifically, schools
with more proactive and more reactive school discipline policies were more likely
to use district created discipline policies than schools with less proactive and less
reactive school discipline policies.
School discipline practices and demographic variables. Pearson
correlations were conducted to identify associations between school discipline
practices (OSS, ISS, and APP) and continuous demographic variables (Table 4.8).
School discipline practices were positively associated with school size (students
enrolled), higher poverty rates, larger percentages of students receiving special
education services, and higher rates of Hispanic students enrolled. Furthermore,
more OSS and APP were associated with lower proportions of Whites enrolled in
school. These findings were consistent with hypotheses.
64
Table 4.8. Pearson Product Moment Correlations, School Discipline Practices and
Demographic Variables.
Demographic Variables OSS ISS APP

#Students Enrolled .613** .551** .189**
Free/Reduced Lunch .269** 0.049 .225**
Special Education (IEP) .209** .149* 0.106
Teacher to Student Ratio .188** .172** 0.065
Asian -0.004 -0.068 -0.001
American Indian/Alaskan Native -0.003 -0.086 0.001
Black 0.116 -0.070 0.091
Multiracial -0.069 -0.054 -0.061
Hispanic .238** 0.022 .146*
Pacific Islander -0.054 -0.028 -0.036
White -.286** -0.053 -.160**
Note. Percentages were calculated by # of students in group/total students enrolled; OSS = Out-of-
School Suspension; ISS=In-school Suspension; APP= Alternative Program Placement;
* p <.05, ** p <.01
associations between school discipline practices (OSS, ISS, APP) and the
categorical demographic variables, student grade groups and school policy type.
The one-way ANOVA demonstrated the effect of student group (ES, MS, HS) was
significant for OSS (F (2,261) = 45.07, p < .01), ISS (F (2, 258) = 16.06 p < .01)
and APP (F(2, 258) = 7.09, p < .01), such that all school discipline policies (OSS,
ISS, APP) were associated with higher student groups, with high schools having the
most incidents of OSS, ISS, APP. A One-Way ANOVA demonstrated no
65
relationship between the between school climate and school policy type (i.e.,
individual school policy or district policy).
School discipline Policy, school discipline practices and school climate.
Correlations between school climate, school discipline policies, and school
discipline practices are presented in Table 4.9. As expected school climate variables
were strongly correlated with each other (r(224) = .635 p <.01). Both student and
teacher school climate ratings were inversely associated with reactive school
discipline policies, such that more reactive school discipline policies were
associated with lower ratings of school climate by teachers and students. Contrary
to expectations school climate variables were also inversely correlated with
proactive school discipline policies, such that more proactive school discipline
polices were associated with lower ratings of school climate by teachers (r(224) =
-.227, p <.01) and students. (r(259) =-.311, p <.01). Furthermore, both teacher and
student school climate ratings were inversely correlated with discipline practices,
such that schools with lower school climate ratings tended to have higher incidents
of out-of-school suspensions, in-school suspensions, and alternative program
placements.
Proactive school discipline policies and reactive school discipline policies
correlated with each other (r(259) = .668, p<.01). This is contrary to expectations
and may suggest that schools with more proactive and reactive discipline had more
consequences overall. Proactive and reactive discipline policies were positively
correlated with out-of-school suspensions, such that schools with more proactive
policies (r(259) = .291, p <.01) and more reactive policies (r(259) =.175 p <.01)
66
were more likely to report more incidents of OSS, and schools with fewer proactive
and reactive consequences were less likely. Finally, proactive school discipline
policies were correlated with discipline orientation, such that when proactive
discipline policies were higher in schools, discipline orientation (PBIS composite
variable) was also higher (r(259) =.135, p <.05).
Out-of-school suspensions were positively associated with both in-school
suspensions and alternative-program placements, such that schools with higher
incidents of OSS, were also more likely to report higher incidents of ISS and APP.
Similarly, in-school suspension and alternative program placements were positively
correlated, such that schools with higher incidents of in-school suspension were
more likely to have higher incidents of alternative program placements. Pearson
product moment correlations for the independent and dependent variables are
presented in Table 4.9.
67
Table 4.9. Pearson Product Moment Correlations: School Climate, School Discipline
Policies and School Discipline Practices
Discipline
School Climate Discipline Policies Practices
Discipline
Student Teacher Proactive Reactive OSS ISS
Orientation
School Climate .635**
Teacher
Proactive -.311** -.227**
68
Reactive -.203** -.223** .668**
Discipline Orientation -0.002 0.074 .135* 0.076
OSS1 -.626** -.466** .291** .175** 0.03
ISS2 -.392** -.309** 0.055 0.064 -0.064 .414**
APP3 -.275** -.162* .307** 0.092 -0.016 .369** .141*
Note: N=261for discipline policy and a discipline practice and student school climate, n = 226 for teacher
climate variable. 1 Out-of-School Suspension, 2 In-school Suspension, 3 Alternative Program Placement
* p <.05, ** p <.001
Research Questions and Hypotheses
Research Question 1. Is there a relationship between school climate and
school discipline practices?
Hypothesis 1A: It was hypothesized that a more positive school climate
would be associated with fewer suspensions (in-school/out-of-school) and
alternative program placements.
In order to test hypothesis 1A, each school discipline practice (criterion):
OSS, ISS, APP, was regressed on school climate (predictor) after controlling for
demographic variables using a 2-step model. All demographic variables that met
significance in the covariate analyses were entered in Step 1. Teacher and student
school climate variables were added as a block in Step 2.
In Step 1 several demographic variables were significantly associated with
increased use of out-of school suspensions, in-school suspensions and alternative
program placements. Specifically, greater numbers of students enrolled, greater
percentages of Hispanic students, and higher student groups (e.g., HS, MS) were
significantly related to out-of-school suspensions (Table 4.10). Furthermore, greater
numbers of students enrolled were associated with the use of in-school suspensions,
as were larger percentages of White students in schools (Table 4.11). Demographic
variables associated with alternative program placements included greater
percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch and lower percentages of
multiracial students (4.12).
School climate variables (student and teacher) were entered in the model
next (Step 2) regressed on out-of-school suspensions, in-school suspensions, and
69
alternative program placements, respectively. After school climate variables were
entered, all models remained significant. Furthermore, most demographic variables
remained significant in Step-2 with exception of student group, which was no
longer associated with out-of-school suspensions. Only student school climate was
significantly related to OSS, such that a more negative students ratings of school
climate school climate was associated with higher rates of out-of-school
suspensions. Neither student nor teacher climate met predictive criterion for in-
school suspensions alternative program placement. Thus, hypothesis 1A was
partially supported by these results. Results are presented in Tables 4.10, 4.11, 4.12.
70
Table 4.10. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Out-of-School Suspensions on School Climate
Variables (Referent) Out-of-school Suspensions

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity 4.971 14.293 0.038 12.063 14.038 0.092
School or District Policy 10.987 14.919 0.050 5.798 14.584 0.026
# of students enrolled 0.182 0.027 0.514** 0.145 0.029 0.408**
Free/reduced Lunch 35.572 52.029 0.089 -16.849 52.634 -0.042
Teacher to Students (Rate) -6.368 3.649 -0.120 -5.771 3.633 -0.108
Students with IEP's 122.621 126.022 0.055 76.159 123.569 0.034
American Indian/Alaskan Native 577.984 657.113 0.049 521.234 640.899 0.044
Asian -108.550 166.383 -0.036 -118.348 161.915 -0.040
71
Black -16.157 71.182 -0.018 -25.078 69.303 -0.028
Hispanic 98.702 49.555 0.210* 100.776 48.221 0.214*
Multiracial -149.734 296.325 -0.034 -160.090 288.454 -0.036
White 8.039 35.024 0.023 1.938 34.167 0.006
Student Grade Groups (ES, MS, HS) 21.361 9.958 0.158* -14.697 13.813 -0.109
Predictor Variables
Student School Climate -40.902 12.381 -0.371**
Teacher School Climate -2.995 7.547 -0.027
F 14.414** 14.125**
(df) (10, 215) (12, 213)
Adjusted R2 0.437 0.467
**p <.01; * p<.05
!
Table 4.11. Hierarchical Linear Regression: In-School Suspensions Regressed on School Climate
Variables (Referent) In-school Suspensions

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity 59.394 36.400 .201 65.123 36.820 .220
School or District Policy 12.727 37.566 .026 8.852 37.801 .018
# of students enrolled .470 .068 .590** .444 .073 .556**
Free/reduced Lunch 4.544 131.372 .005 -33.360 136.898 -.037
Teacher to Students (Rate) -3.428 9.104 -.028 -2.004 9.342 -.017
Students with IEP's 419.559 314.856 .084 395.174 317.538 .079
American Indian/Alaskan Native -717.400 1645.088 -.027 -820.087 1651.440 -.031
Asian -137.900 415.339 -.020 -141.516 415.952 -.021
72
Black -285.408 177.335 -.142 -292.399 177.663 -.145
Hispanic 87.986 123.658 .083 88.968 123.827 .084
Multiracial 997.307 738.783 .099 998.698 739.936 .099
White 196.791 87.398 .253* 194.213 87.732 .250*
Student (ES, MS, HS) -3.623 24.858 -.012 -33.531 35.414 -.110
Predictor Variables
Student School Climate -38.428 31.800 -.155
Teacher School Climate 6.924 19.477 .028
F 8.849** 7.748**
(df) (13, 209) (15, 207)
Adjusted R2 0.315 0.313
**p <.01; * p<.05
!
4.12. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Alternative Program Placements Regressed on School Climate
Variables (Referent) Alternative Program Placements
Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity -.474 .275 -.244 -.456 .279 -.235
School or District Policy .317 .284 .097 .306 .286 .094
# of students enrolled .000 .001 .073 .000 .001 .060
Free/reduced Lunch 3.472 .993 .584** 3.375 1.036 .568**
Teacher to Students (Rate) -.034 .069 -.043 -.021 .071 -.026
Students with IEP's .291 2.379 .009 .302 2.403 .009
American Indian/Alaskan Native .878 12.430 .005 .057 12.496 .000
Asian -1.498 3.138 -.034 -1.484 3.147 -.034
73
Black .719 1.340 .054 .692 1.344 .052
Hispanic -.431 .934 -.062 -.432 .937 -.062
Multiracial -13.168 5.582 -.200* -13.091 5.599 -.199*
White .463 .660 .091 .474 .664 .093
Student Grade Groups (ES, MS, HS) .325 .188 .163 .203 .268 .101
Predictor Variables
Student school Climate -.194 .241 -.120
Teacher School Climate .107 .147 .066
F 2.702** 2.387**
(df) (13, 209) (15, 207)
Adjusted R2 0.091 0.086
**p <.01; * p<.05
Hypothesis 1B. It was expected that schools that served greater proportions
of students from historically marginalized populations (e.g., Black, Hispanic, low
SES) would have a more negative school climate and more suspensions and
alternative program placements.
An Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) was used to examine differences
between groups relative to urbanicity, the proxy variable that captures much of the
variation in the sample relative race/ethnicity and SES based on geographic
proximity to the four core cities in Rhode Island. The one-way ANOVA
demonstrated the effect of urbanicity was significant for teacher school climate (F
(2,225) = 9.330, p <. 01) and student school climate (F (2, 261)= 7.30, p <. 01), and
OSS (F (2, 261) =11.938, p <. 01) and APP (F (2, 258) = 5.008 p < .01). Post hoc
analyses using the Tukey HSD criterion for significance indicated that average
teacher school climate ratings were significantly lower among the urban schools
(M=14.57, SD =1.12) than the urban ring (M = 15.05, SD = .804) and suburban
schools (M =15.21, SD = .899). Differences were also found among student school
climate ratings, with students from urban schools having significantly lower rating
of school climate (M = 11.83, SD=. 801) than those from urban ring (M =12.26, SD
= .824) and suburban schools (M = 12.24, SD = .818). Furthermore, average out-
of-school suspensions were significantly higher among urban schools (M =110.2;
SD = .149.87) than urban ring (M = 53.19; SD = 110.38) or suburban schools (M =
33.49; SD =5 4.13). Similar results were found within alternative program
placements with urban schools having higher means (M=. 775, SD = 1.943) than
urban ring (M = .075, SD = .568) and suburban (M =.155, SD = 1.62) schools. No
74
significant differences were found between urban ring and suburban schools.
Overall, results confirm the hypothesis, as perceptions of school climate were lower
and rates of suspensions and alternative program placements were higher in urban
schools.
Research Question 2. Is there a relationship between school discipline
policies and school discipline practices?
Hypothesis 2. It was hypothesized that less reactive school discipline
policies were expected to be associated with fewer suspensions and alternative
program placements.
In order to test the second hypothesis, school discipline practices (OSS, ISS,
APP) were regressed on school discipline policies: proactive, reactive and
discipline orientation, after controlling for demographic variables using a 2-step
model.
In Step 1 several demographic variables were associated with the increased
use of out-of-school suspensions, in-school suspensions, and alternative program
placements. Specifically, greater numbers of students enrolled, and higher student
groups (e.g., HS, MS) were associated with the increased use of out-of-school
suspensions (Table 4.13). Similarly greater numbers of students enrolled was
associated with the increased use of in-school suspension, no other demographic
were significantly associated with in-school suspensions (Table 4.14).
Demographic variables associated with the use of alternative program placements
included, greater percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch, lower
percentages of multiracial students, and higher student grade groups (Table 4.15).
75
In Step 2, school discipline policy variables (proactive, reactive and
discipline orientation) were entered as a block into the model and regressed on out-
of-school suspensions, in-school suspensions, and alternative program placements,
respectively. After demographic variables were controlled, all models remained
significant. Furthermore, most demographic variables remained significant in Step-
2, with exception of student group, which was no longer associated with alternative
program placements. Proactive and reactive policies were significantly related to
alternative program placement. Contrary to hypotheses, less reactive school
discipline policies were associated with increased use of alternative program
placements; more proactive school discipline policies were also associated with the
increased use of alternative program placement. Discipline orientation was not
associated with alternative program placement. Furthermore, no discipline policy
variables were associated with out-of-school or in-school suspensions. The results
provide partial support for hypothesis 2. Results are presented in Tables 4.13, 4.14,
4.15.
76
Table 4.13. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Out-of-School Suspensions Regressed on School Discipline Policies

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity 6.240 12.848 .047 9.303 12.971 .070
Free/reduced Lunch 49.681 44.864 .124 44.151 45.256 .110
Teacher to Students (Rate) -5.615 3.351 -.105 -6.204 3.439 -.116
American Indian/Alaskan Native 328.030 608.340 .029 185.749 617.191 .016
77
Asian -23.075 152.454 -.008 -84.066 155.817 -.028
Black -8.928 63.026 -.010 13.686 64.375 .016
Hispanic 38.576 31.553 .094 25.252 32.811 .062
Multiracial -136.056 233.171 -.035 -58.286 237.175 -.015
White 1.311 18.065 .005 2.484 18.328 .010
Student (ES, MS, HS) 24.815 9.275 .180** 24.682 9.405 .179**
Predictor Variables
Proactive 10.416 8.191 .095
Reactive -13.590 7.435 -.124
Discipline Orientation 3.022 5.272 .028
F 17.486** 14.474**
(df) (13, 250) (16, 247)
Adjusted R2 0.449 0.450
**p <.01; * p<.05
Table 4.14. Hierarchical Linear Regression: In-School Suspensions Regressed on School Discipline Policies
Variables (Referent) In-School Suspensions

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity 48.245 31.287 .171 44.038 31.755 .156
Free/reduced Lunch -23.951 108.680 -.028 -16.719 109.959 -.020
Teacher to Students (Rate) -3.090 8.009 -.027 -.221 8.234 -.002
American Indian/Alaskan Native -608.448 1460.339 -.025 -286.069 1485.661 -.012
Asian -255.793 364.691 -.041 -209.287 373.160 -.033
78
Black -242.600 150.587 -.133 -270.807 154.389 -.149
Hispanic 41.221 75.459 .048 65.303 78.748 .075
Multiracial 740.442 556.933 .089 675.936 567.604 .082
White 75.693 43.101 .139 63.695 43.844 .117
Student (ES, MS, HS) -4.080 22.182 -.014 1.136 22.541 .004
Predictor Variables
Proactive -15.545 19.726 -.067
Reactive -2.913 17.911 -.013
Discipline Orientation -13.448 12.675 -.058
F 9.655** 7.987**
(df) (13, 247) (16, 244)
Adjusted R2 0.302 0.301
**p <.01; * p<.05
4.15. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Alternative Program Placements Regressed on School Discipline
Policies

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity -.392 .234 -.212 -.232 .230 -.126
Free/reduced Lunch 2.824 .814 .507** 2.315 .796 .416**
Teacher to Students (Rate) -.018 .060 -.024 -.041 .060 -.055
American Indian/Alaskan Native .641 10.940 .004 -6.476 10.750 -.041
Asian -.077 2.732 -.002 -2.239 2.700 -.054
79
Black .499 1.128 .042 1.099 1.117 .092
Hispanic -.292 .565 -.051 -.950 .570 -.167
Multiracial -8.378 4.172 -.155* -5.135 4.107 -.095
White .337 .323 .094 .475 .317 .133
Student (ES, MS, HS) .339 .166 .178* .266 .163 .140
Predictor Variables
Proactive .636 .143 .418**
Reactive -.395 .130 -.260**
Discipline Orientation -.039 .092 -.026
F 2.860** 3.752**
(df) (13, 247) (16, 244)
2
Adjusted R 0.085 0.145
**p <.01; * p <.05
Research Question 3. Is there a relationship between school climate and
school discipline policies?
Hypothesis 3. It was hypothesized that a more positive school climate would
be associated with less reactive school discipline policies.
In order to test the third hypothesis, school discipline policies (proactive,
reactive, and discipline orientation) were regressed on school climate (student and
teacher) after controlling for demographic variables using a 2-step model.
In Step 1 several demographic variables were significantly associated with
school discipline policy variables (proactive discipline policies, reactive discipline
policies, and discipline orientation). Specifically, more proactive school discipline
policies were associated with greater percentages of American Indian/Alaskan
Native, Hispanic students, and fewer percentages multiracial students. Furthermore,
more proactive discipline polices were more likely to have been written by the
school district (Table 4.16). Similar to proactive school discipline policies, more
reactive school discipline policies were more likely to have been written by the
school district. Furthermore, more reactive school discipline policies were
associated with fewer percentages of Asian students (Table 4.17). Teacher to
student ratio was the only demographic variable that was associated with discipline
orientation such that higher teacher to student ratios were associated with higher
scores on discipline orientation (i.e., policies that endorsed more tenets of SWPBIS)
(Table 4.18.)
Student and teacher school climate variables were entered as a block and
regressed on school discipline policies: proactive, reactive and discipline
80
orientation. After demographic variables were controlled, all models remained
significant, and all demographic variables that were significant in Step 1, remained
significant when school climate variables were entered in Step 2. No school climate
variable was significantly associated with school discipline policies. Notably, the
demographic variable, percentages of students with IEP’s, became significant when
school climate variables were regressed on alternative program placements. This
may suggest that after controlling for school climate, students with IEP’s are more
likely to be referred to APP. As no models were significant for associations
between school climate variables and school discipline policy variables, the null
hypothesis could not be rejected. Results for analyses are presented in Tables 4.16,
4.17, 4.18 respectively.
81
Table 4.16. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Proactive School Discipline Policies on School Climate
Variables (Referent) Proactive

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity -.217 .137 -.181 -.224 .138 -.187
School or District Policy .473 .143 .235** .479 .144 .237**
Free/reduced Lunch .702 .497 .192 .765 .519 .209
Teacher to Students (Rate) .055 .035 .113 .060 .036 .124
American Indian/Alaskan Native 15.174 6.279 .142* 14.902 6.314 .139*
Asian .312 1.590 .011 .329 1.595 .012
82
Black -.063 .680 -.008 -.060 .683 -.007
Hispanic 1.286 .474 .299** 1.282 .475 .298**
Multiracial -7.951 2.832 -.195** -7.881 2.842 -.193**
White -.305 .335 -.097 -.287 .337 -.091
Predictor Variables
Student School Climate -.013 .122 -.013
F 11.775 10.184**
(df) (13, 212) (15, 210)
Adjusted R2 0.384 0.380
**p <.01; * p<.05
!
!
Table 4.17. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Reactive Discipline Policies Regressed on School Climate ) !
Variables (Referent) Reactive Discipline Policies

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity .048 .148 .040 .028 .149 .024
School or District Policy .845 .154 .414** .859 .155 .421**
Free/reduced Lunch .247 .538 .066 .379 .560 .102
!
Teacher to Students (Rate) .006 .038 .013 -.001 .039 -.003

American Indian/Alaskan Native .676 6.794 .006 1.164 6.816 .011
Asian -3.898 1.720 -.141* -3.879 1.722 -.140*
83
Black 1.338 .736 .162 1.369 .737 .165
Hispanic -.118 .512 -.027 -.122 .513 -.028
Multiracial 1.569 3.064 .038 1.537 3.068 .037
White .003 .362 .001 .007 .363 .002
Student (ES, MS, HS) .156 .103 .125 .279 .147 .223
Predictor Variables
Student School Climate .167 .132 .163
Teacher School Climate -.048 .080 -.047
F 8.318 7.304
(df) (13, 212) (15, 210)
Adjusted R2 0.297 0.296
**p <.01; * p<.05
!
!
Table 4.18. Hierarchical Linear Regression: Discipline Orientation Regressed on School Climate
Variables (Referent) Discipline Orientation

Step 1 Step 2
b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity .010 .166 .009 -.002 .168 -.002
# of students enrolled .000 .000 -.151 .000 .000 -.126
Free/reduced Lunch -.148 .606 -.041 -.029 .630 -.008
Teacher to Students (Rate) .113 .042 .238** .124 .043 .260**
Students with IEP's 2.798 1.467 .140 2.994 1.479 .150*
American Indian/Alaskan Native 6.565 7.650 .063 6.018 7.673 .057
Asian 1.714 1.937 .064 1.748 1.938 .065
84
Black -1.303 .829 -.163 -1.299 .830 -.162
Hispanic -.647 .577 -.154 -.655 .577 -.156
Multiracial -5.821 3.450 -.146 -5.682 3.453 -.142
White -.265 .408 -.086 -.229 .409 -.074
Predictor Variables
Student School Climate -.031 .148 -.031
F 1.825 1.696
(df) (13, 212) (15, 210)
2
Adjusted R 0.045 0.044
**p <.01; * p<.05
Research Question 4. Do school discipline policies moderate the relationship
between school climate and school discipline practices? !
Hypothesis 4A. More proactive school discipline policies were expected to
change the nature of the relationship between a more positive school climate and
school suspension and alternative program placements, resulting in fewer
suspensions and alternative program placements.
Hypothesis 4B. More reactive school discipline policies were expected to
change the nature of the relationship between a more positive school climate and
school suspensions and alternative program placements, resulting in more
suspension and alternative program placements.
Six interaction variables were created to test whether school discipline
policies moderated that relationship between school climate and school discipline
practices. The interaction variables included 1) ZProactive* ZTeacher Climate, 2)
ZReactive*ZTeacher Climate, 3) ZProactive *ZStudent Climate, 4) ZReactive*
ZStudent Climate), 5) ZDiscipline Orientation *ZTeacher Climate, 6) ZDiscipline
Orientation *ZStudent Climate. It should be noted that models were tested as
proposed and hypothesized, however no significant relationship was found between
school discipline policies and school climate variables in previous regressions.
Thus, results relative to interaction effects should be interpreted with caution.
A 3-Step model was used test hypotheses 4A and 4B. After controlling for
demographic variables in Step 1, all models (OSS, ISS and APP) remained
significant with the addition of the school discipline policy variables (proactive,
reactive, and discipline orientation) and school climate variables (student and
85
teacher) in Step 29, and interaction variables in Step 3. When the interaction
variables were entered into the model for out-of-school suspensions, (Zproactive
*ZStudentClimate) was significantly associated with out-of school suspensions,
such when student ratings of school climate were higher and proactive discipline
policies were greater, there were fewer out–of-school suspensions. Figure 5.2
illustrates the interaction between school climate and proactive school discipline
policies and the associated effect on out-of-school suspensions when school climate
is higher (+1 SD) and lower (-1 SD). No other interaction variables were associated
with of out-of-school suspension (Table 4.19).
No interaction variables were significantly associated with the use of in-
school suspensions when entered into the model in Step-3 (Table 4.20).
When interactions variables were entered into model for alternative program
placements (Step 3), two interaction variables were found to be significantly
associated with alternative program placements. More specifically, the interaction
between student perceptions of school climate and proactive discipline policies
(ZStudentClimate*ZProactive), were associated with the less frequent use of
alternative program placements by schools, such that when student ratings of school
climate were higher and proactive school discipline policies were greater, there
were fewer alternative program placements. Figure 5.3 illustrates the interaction
between school climate and proactive discipline polices and the associated effect on
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
9! Significant associations among demographic variables and independent
and dependent variables, Steps 1 & 2, were previously described when hypotheses
1A and 2 were tested. !
86
alternative program placements when school climate is higher (+1 SD) and lower (-
1 SD). Notably, contrary to hypotheses, the interaction model suggests that when
school climate is lower and proactive discipline policies are fewer, alternative
program placements were used less frequently. The interaction variable
(ZStudentClimate*ZReactive) was also found to be associated with alternative
program placements, such that when school climate was higher and reactive school
discipline policies were fewer, alternative program placements were used less
frequently. Figure 5.4 illustrates the interaction between school climate and reactive
discipline polices and the associated effect on the use alternative program
placements when school climate is higher (+1 SD) and lower (-1 SD). Notably,
contrary to hypotheses, the interaction model suggests that when school climate is
lower and reactive school discipline policies are higher, alternative program
placements were used less frequently (Table 4.21). Results partially confirmed
hypotheses.
87
Figure 4.2. Interaction Effects of Student Perceptions of School Climate and
Proactive School Discipline Polices on Out-of-School Suspensions When School
Climate is Higher and Lower.
88
Table 4.19. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Moderated Regression Analyses Examining the Relationship Between OSS and School
Climate with Discipline Policies

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
b SE β b SE β b SE β
Urbanicity 4.971 14.293 0.038 13.633 14.244 .104 10.644 14.163 .081
School or District Policy 10.987 14.919 0.050 9.986 15.706 .045 5.781 15.445 .026
# of students enrolled 0.182 0.027 0.514** .150 .029 .423** .158 .028 .446**
Free/reduced Lunch 35.572 52.029 0.089 -17.509 53.057 -.044 -6.888 52.553 -.017
Teacher to Students (Rate) -6.368 3.649 -0.120 -6.730 3.757 -.126 -6.163 3.706 -.116
Students with IEP's 122.621 126.022 0.055 55.967 126.108 .025 53.803 124.722 .024
American Indian/Alaskan Native 577.984 657.113 0.049 417.329 656.553 .036 345.632 647.818 .029
Asian -108.550 166.383 -0.036 -165.568 166.379 -.055 -136.918 166.418 -.046
Black -16.157 71.182 -0.018 -5.425 70.947 -.006 18.249 71.033 .020
Hispanic 98.702 49.555 0.210* 95.414 49.993 .203 71.942 51.158 .153
Multiracial -149.734 296.325 -0.034 -72.579 302.247 -.016 90.650 303.278 .020
White 8.039 35.024 0.023 4.768 34.387 .014 7.495 34.135 .022
89
Student Grade Groups (ES, MS, HS) 21.361 9.958 0.158* -13.168 13.969 -.097 -19.084 13.866 -.141
Predictor Variables
Student School Climate -39.093 12.503 -.355** -43.164 12.313 -.392**
Teacher School Climate -4.355 7.647 -.039 -4.437 7.789 -.040
Proactive 5.756 9.059 .053 -3.675 9.197 -.034
Reactive -9.500 8.396 -.088 -3.608 8.401 -.033
Discipline Orientation 4.849 5.786 .043 7.291 5.776 .065
Student Climate*Proactive -28.724 9.473 -.255**
Student Climate*Reactive 2.015 9.116 .018
School Climate*Disp. Orientation 6.944 8.458 .066
Teacher Climate*Proactive 3.079 9.084 .029
Teacher Climate*Reactive .712 7.785 .006
Teacher Climate*Disp Orientation -2.444 7.406 -.020
F 14.414** 11.815** 9.935**
(df) (13, 212) (18, 207) (24, 201)
Adjusted R 2 0.437 0.464 0.488
**p <.01; * p<.05
Table 4.20. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Moderated Regression Analyses Examining the Relationship Between ISS and School Climate with
Discipline Policies
Variables (Referent) In-school Supsensions

Urbanicity 59.394 36.400 .201 58.105 37.309 .196 51.160 37.391 .173
School or District Policy 12.727 37.566 .026 25.200 40.338 .051 22.048 40.081 .044
# of students enrolled .470 .068 .590** .441 .074 .553** .419 .073 .525**
Free/reduced Lunch 4.544 131.372 .005 -11.258 137.534 -.012 -8.412 137.470 -.009
Teacher to Students (Rate) -3.428 9.104 -.028 1.948 9.606 .016 2.676 9.571 .022
Students with IEP's 419.559 314.856 .084 503.484 322.446 .100 623.868 321.936 .124
American Indian/Alaskan Native -717.400 1645.088 -.027 -319.894 1685.613 -.012 -720.426 1682.045 -.027
Asian -137.900 415.339 -.020 -96.848 424.930 -.014 -208.035 429.231 -.031
Black -285.408 177.335 -.142 -322.048 181.272 -.160 -388.264 183.363 -.193**
Hispanic 87.986 123.658 .083 108.911 127.979 .102 138.831 132.497 .130
Multiracial 997.307 738.783 .099 685.115 771.910 .068 780.273 783.194 .078
White 196.791 87.398 .253* 182.158 87.913 .234* 134.244 88.264 .173
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Student Grade Groups (ES, MS, HS) -3.623 24.858 -.012 -28.925 35.650 -.095 -25.267 35.761 -.083
Predictor Variables
Student School Climate -39.193 31.946 -.158 -32.789 31.772 -.132
Teacher School Climate 10.652 19.635 .043 6.593 20.160 .027
Proactive -25.098 23.262 -.101 -22.423 23.925 -.091
Reactive .813 21.539 .003 -3.692 21.811 -.015
Disciplien Orientation -20.319 14.842 -.081 -21.981 14.985 -.087
Student Climate*Proactive 33.189 24.458 .131
Student Climate*Reactive -42.216 23.583 -.163
School Climate*Disp. Orientation 18.819 21.821 .080
Teacher Climate*Proactive 4.186 23.608 .017
Teacher Climate*Reactive 27.610 20.112 .097
Teacher Climate*Disp Orientation 19.312 19.172 .071
F 8.849** 6.686** 5.618**
(df) (13, 209) (18, 204) (24, 198)
Adjusted R 2 0.315 0.316 0.333
**p <.01; * p<.05
Proactive School Discipline Polices Alternative Program Placements When School
Climate is Higher and Lower
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Reactive School Discipline Polices on Alternative Program Placements When
School Climate is Higher and Lower
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Table 4.21. Hierarchical Linear Regression. Moderated Regression Analyses Examining the Relationship Between APP and School Climate with
Discipline Policies

Urbanicity -.474 .275 -.244 -.265 .273 -.137 -.367 .255 -.189
School or District Policy .317 .284 .097 .404 .296 .124 .254 .274 .078
# of students enrolled .000 .001 .073 .000 .001 .072 .001 .001 .117
Free/reduced Lunch 3.472 .993 .584** 2.972 1.008 .500** 3.514 .938 .591**
Teacher to Students (Rate) -.034 .069 -.043 -.055 .070 -.070 -.061 .065 -.076
Students with IEP's .291 2.379 .009 -.648 2.363 -.020 -.986 2.197 -.030
American Indian/Alaskan Native .878 12.430 .005 -9.583 12.353 -.055 -10.911 11.481 -.063
Asian -1.498 3.138 -.034 -3.447 3.114 -.078 -1.993 2.930 -.045
Black .719 1.340 .054 1.363 1.328 .103 1.926 1.252 .146
Hispanic -.431 .934 -.062 -1.428 .938 -.205 -2.146 .904 -.307*
Multiracial -13.168 5.582 -.200* -7.212 5.657 -.109 -5.234 5.346 -.079
White .463 .660 .091 .667 .644 .131 .710 .602 .139
Student Grade Groups (ES, MS, HS) .325 .188 .163 .229 .261 .115 .160 .244 .080
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Predictor Variables
Student School Climate -.113 .234 -.070 -.160 .217 -.098
Teacher School Climate .055 .144 .034 .092 .138 .057
Proactive .696 .170 .429** .423 .163 .261**
Reactive -.486 .158 -.304** -.327 .149 -.204*
Disciplien Orientation -.046 .109 -.028 -.027 .102 -.016
Student Climate*Proactive -.874 .167 -.527**
Student Climate*Reactive .473 .161 .279**
School Climate*Disp. Orientation -.041 .149 -.027
Teacher Climate*Proactive .036 .161 .023
Teacher Climate*Reactive .164 .137 .088
Teacher Climate*Disp Orientation .014 .131 .008
F 2.702** 3.097** 4.552**
(df) (13, 209) (13, 209) (13, 209)
Adjusted R 2 0.091 0.315 0.315
**p <.01; * p<.05
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
! The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between school
climate and school discipline policies and practices in a statewide sample of public
elementary and secondary schools. More specifically the study sought to
investigate the role of school climate in contributing to variations in school
discipline practices, and to determine whether school discipline policies moderated
the relationship between school climate and school discipline practices.
In general we found that student and teacher perceptions of school climate
were related to the types and number of discipline practices in their schools, as well
as to the discipline policies outlined in their school manuals. Furthermore,
discipline policies were related to the number and use of suspensions and
alternative program placements. However, many of these bivariate associations
were reduced to insignificance once demographic characteristics of students and
schools were taken into consideration. Each of the primary findings is discussed in
the following paragraphs.
The association between perceptions of school climate by both students and
teachers and the use of exclusionary discipline practices was expected and supports
prior research (Losen et al., 2015; Gregory et al., 2011; Mattison, 2007). It is not
surprising that schools that have a higher numbers of suspensions and/or alternative
placements might be perceived more negatively by both students and
teachers. Importantly though, other characteristics of schools and students appear
to be contributing to these associations. For example, in our schools, school size,
and racial/ethnic and socio-economic make-up of the student body were
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significantly related to perceptions of school climate by teachers and students, and
to school discipline practices. More specifically, we found that schools that served
larger proportions of students from historically marginalized populations were more
likely to have lower ratings of school climate and greater numbers of out-of-school
suspensions and alternative program placements. While these findings are
disappointing, they are not surprising as they are consistent with prior research
(Brault, Janosz, Archambault, 201; Gottfredson et al., 2005; Skiba et al., 2012).
Perhaps more disheartening were our findings that within schools Non-
Caucasian students were more likely to be suspended than their Caucasian peers.
The largest discrepancies were found within more affluent (suburban) schools,
where Non-Caucasian students were nearly twice as likely to be suspended than
their Caucasian peers. Unfortunately, our findings are not unique, as they support
the literature (Gregory, Skiba & Norguera, 2010; Fenning & Rose, 2007; Skiba et al
2011).
While the strong associations between demographic characteristics (of
students and schools), and school discipline practices and school climate are
undeniable, we found that after controlling for demographic variables, student
perceptions of school climate remained significantly (inversely) associated with
rates of out-of-school suspensions. One interpretation of this finding may be that a
more positive school climate can attenuate risk factors associated with exclusion
(e.g., minority status), which has been reported elsewhere (Gregory et al., 2011;
Mattision & Aber, 2007; Shirley & Cornel, 2011). However, caution is warranted
with this interpretation since our data are cross-sectional and we are unable to
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assess the direction of effects. It may well be that schools with more positive
climates actually result in fewer exclusionary discipline practices, but it is also
plausible that schools that use fewer suspensions might have students who perceive
a more positive climate. Future efforts to tease out these effects will require
longitudinal data and could include interventions that allow for assessing the effects
of changes on climate or discipline practice.
Our analyses of school discipline policies yielded equivocal results and
raised several questions about the role of discipline policies in general.
Interestingly, and contrary to hypotheses, schools that had more proactive school
discipline policies also tended have more reactive school discipline policies. As a
result, both more proactive and more reactive school discipline policies were
associated with lower school climate and greater use of OSS. We interpret these
findings to suggest that it may not be the type of discipline policy (that is, proactive
or reactive) but rather other factors contributing to the schools’ discipline policies.
In fact, our data suggest that schools with greater numbers of both proactive and
reactive discipline policies served greater proportions of historically marginalized
populations and tended to be schools that adopted district level policies rather than
to have school-level policies. In theory, policies should drive practice but our data
suggest otherwise. It may well be that certain schools/districts have more reasons
to adopt disciplinary policies and that these may not be directly consistent or
contingent upon practices. A recent article published in the Chicago Tribune, lends
credence to this supposition. The story highlights tensions between Chicago
teachers and the Chicago school district over recent changes to the school discipline
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policies. The Chicago school district amended school discipline policies to reflect a
more proactive approach to school discipline in order to reduce suspensions and
expulsions However, teachers expressed frustration about these changes, as they
reported that they had neither the training nor resources to implement more
proactive consequences (Perez, Jr., 2015, February 25). Our findings in conjunction
with stories such as this, point to need for further research. One question worthy of
exploration is who writes policies and whether those policies are written with the
intent to guide actual practice. Anecdotal data suggest that there may be other
‘codes of conduct’ that set expectations within schools that are not necessarily part
of the written policies we examined. Again, future research will need to examine
these different aspects of policies to determine how they are understood and
implemented within schools.
As part of our exploration of school policies, we attempted to capture
evidence of a schools’ endorsement of PBIS. PBIS reflects a continuum of
supports designed to address academic and behavioral problems through school-
wide and more targeted evidence-based interventions (Sugai, 2000). It has been
endorsed at the federal level as part of educational best practices (U.S. Department
of Education, 2014), and it is included in the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) as a recommended intervention for students with disabilities
(IDEA, 2004). In fact, states receive funding to implement PBIS in schools, and in
Rhode Island, more than 100 schools (through grants to school districts) have
received funding and participated and in trainings. Our discipline orientation
variable was not strongly associated with other variables in our study, and had
97
relatively low mean scores; this may indicate that school policies had not adopted
many of the PBIS constructs. Alternatively, it may be that our assessment of the
policies was unable to pick up on these nuances or that the school policies may not
be where evidence of the philosophy actually resides. In Rhode Island, the Paul V.
Sherlock Center on Disabilities, in conjunction with RIDE and the U.S. Department
of Education, has offered grants, training, and technical assistance to school
districts to encourage implementation of PBIS interventions. According to the
Sherlock Center website, it has trained 11 Rhode Island school districts since 2005.
The center employs a train the trainer model, training district level administrators to
disseminate information and train teachers at the school level. While the Sherlock
Center reports that it trained more than 100 schools in PBIS, the training is indirect
and through school district personnel (Paul V. Sherlock Center, 2014). While we
were unable to account for differences in school discipline policies as a function of
training since data were not available on particular schools, future research could
consider examining school policies and practices as a function of their specific
participation in PBIS.
Consistent with the literature, positive school climate was associated with
fewer out-of-school suspensions (e.g., Skiba et al. 2012, Sugai et al, 2012), which
may lead to recommendations that focus on improving school climate. However,
our results and the results of many other studies suggest that while positive school
climate is associated with more positive student outcomes, the effects are relatively
small, when compared to individual and school-level characteristics (e.g.,
Gottfredson, et al., 2005; Fan, Williams & Corkin, 2011; Welsch, 2000),). Thus, it
98
begs the question, are there ways to potentiate the effect of school climate
interventions to lead to better outcomes? This question is particularly prescient as
money is poured in to launch large-scale school climate interventions (i.e., U.S.
Department of Education) to reform school discipline policies and practices.
Study Limitations
This study examines the relationship among school climate, school
discipline practices and school discipline policies in Rhode Island. It includes 36
school districts, 261 schools, serving more than 100,000 children from Rhode
Island’s 39 cities and towns. Despite the breadth and depth of the sample, its
generalizability is limited due to regional differences in education policies,
practices and demographic characteristics. For example, in 2012-2013 Rhode
Island’s student to teacher ratio was higher than neighboring states Connecticut and
Massachusetts and its per pupil spending was lower (NCES, 2013), both of which
can influence perceptions of school climate.
In addition, while we took a comprehensive approach to coding school
discipline policies, it is possible that some features of the discipline policies may
have been missed. The purpose of this content analysis was to synthesize a
significant amount of data, and that may have made it more difficult to capture all
the facets of the policy. For example, some policies included information about
parent-teacher conferences and membership in the parent-teacher association. The
inclusion of this information may reflect an emphasis on a home-school
partnership, which is associated with both school climate and school discipline
practices.
99
Furthermore, about half the schools in our study used district level policies
and half used school level policies. While we used the best data available, it is not
entirely clear what drives this process. We found differences between schools that
adopted district policies as compared to those that created their own school-level
policies. Comparing school level policies with district level policies may introduce
biases that we were not able to control for and should be considered in future
research.
School climate was assessed using data collected by the Rhode Island
Department of Education. Participation in the survey is optional and may not be
fully representational of students and teachers it the schools. While we know
overall that participation among students was relatively high (86.5%) teacher
participation was much lower (47.9%), and variability across schools may also
reflect differences in climate. Data at the school level limits our ability to identify
which students and teachers participated in the surveys and how that participation
may have affected our results.
All of the data were culled from existing data sets, and did not include any
direct opportunities to validate perceptions of school climate or school policies.
Future research might consider incorporating direct observations or interviews,
particularly with school leaders who may be responsible for policy development
and implementation, to increase the validity of the data. It would be important to
validate the extent to which these data represent the experiences in schools.
Finally, there are a variety of school-level and individual factors associated
with perceptions of school climate that were not accessed. Culture competencies of
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teachers and school administrators, years of teaching experience, teacher training
preparation and feelings of self-efficacy are all associated with variations in
perceptions of school climate by teachers and students. These factors may have
affected measures of school climate and school discipline practices in ways that we
were not able to account for.
Future Directions
Schools play a critical role in the health and development of our nation’s
children. The compulsory nature of education in the United States gives schools a
unique opportunity to appreciably improve the lives of children, particularly
children at risk. While public education cannot eliminate structural inequality, it
can attenuate associated risk. This study sought to examine specific aspects of the
school environment (school climate, school discipline policies and school discipline
practices) and to explore the ways in which these variables interacted with
individual, school and community level characteristics, with the aim to identify
features of the school environment associated with better outcomes (i.e., fewer
suspensions and alternative program placements).
While our findings are consistent with much of the literature, a more
positive school climate was associated with fewer out-of-school suspensions. They
also suggest many factors associated with inequality (e.g., race, income, school
resources) significantly affect perceptions of school climate, school discipline
policies, and school discipline practices. Future research should examine ways to
further reduce the effects of demographic characteristics on outcomes. One
promising area of research suggests that comprehensive services offered within the
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school, in conjunction with school climate interventions (e.g., PBIS), can lead to
better behavioral and academic outcomes for children most at risk (e.g., Eber et al.,
2011; Cook et al, 2015).
Furthermore, this study highlights significant differences in rates of
exclusion between White students and students from ethnic/racial minority groups.
While changes in the Rhode Island law have resulted in a reduced number of
overall suspensions, the disproportionality in rates of exclusion remain (RI ACLU,
2015). Future research should be conducted to examine the ways in which teacher
training, cultural competencies, and other school level characteristics may
positively affect disproportionality in school discipline.
Finally, This study offers insight into the ways in which school climate,
school discipline policies and school discipline practices are both connected and
separate from each other. School psychologists, trained in systems level approaches
to interventions, can provide important training and guidance to teachers and
administrators. The literature suggests that training is a critical component of any
successful intervention (e.g., Bradshaw et al., 2012). School psychologist can
improve the effectiveness of school-wide interventions (e.g., PBIS) by offering
continuing support and training to teachers and staff. Furthermore, our data suggest
that school discipline policies and practices are not aligned. It will be important for
school psychologists to understand who is writing the discipline policies, the degree
to which they are implemented and enforced in schools, and to identify the ways in
which they can be improved, and aligned with discipline practices. This will assist
in further identifying and codifying behavioral expectations and consequences (an
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important feature of SWPBIS) and may help to identify ways in which school
psychologists can further support teachers and principals in the implementation of
more proactive approaches to school discipline.
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APPENDIX A
Behavioral infractions associated with In-School Suspension, Out-of School Suspension and
Alternative Program Placement
Behavioral Infraction
Alcohol
Arson
Assault of Student
Assault of Teacher
Bomb Threat
Breaking & Entering
Cheating/Plagiarism
Communication/Electronic Devices
Controlled Substances-Possession or Under Influence
Controlled Substances-Possession with Intent to Sell
Controlled Substances-Sale of
Cut/Skipped Class
Cut/Skipped Detention
Cut/Skipped In-School Suspension
Disorderly Conduct
Extortion
Fighting
Fire Regulations Violation
Forgery
Gambling
Gang Activity
Harassment-Sexual
Harassment-Stalking
Harassment-Verbal/Physical
Hate Crimes
104
Hazing
Insubordination/Disrespect
Kidnapping/Abduction
Larceny
Left School Grounds
Obscene/Abusive Language toward Student
Obscene/Abusive Language toward Teacher
Other
Robbery
Sexual Assault/Battery
Sexual Misconduct
Tardy
Threat/Intimidation
Tobacco-Possession or Use
Trespassing
Truant
Unauthorized Use of Computers or Other Technology
Vandalism
Weapon Possession
105
School&Code:&
ay
0) f&d
o= r& &o
,&N ic ce er t
=1 ts em t ffi nd en
s or O ai m
Ye ce ad ou e& m
School&Name:& y&( u pp vi & G ac eG nc l &re ace
&S e r ns n m a o l
lic No ti nd n n &P
& Po ng l&S tio & s/ ho sio m
ol ni oo en ce n/ as tte sio &sc en ra
ar ch rv en io &c l /A en m n& og
ho & &Le /S te f er ct ns m r al sp f ro s io usp & Pr
& Sc e n or g & y n ta pe r o r u e & n & s e
n iv n l&f it &I on n us &f n fe &s e s iv
t&i ss tio tio lin un ol &C co al io re ol om sp ay at on
en re ia itu rra se m ho nt e& l&S ov nt e& ho &h su &d rn lsi
es og ed st fe un m &sc re m cia m te lic &sc nt 0& 10 te pu
Pr Pr M Re Re Co Co In Pa Ho So Re De Po In se <1 &&> Al Ex
BEHAVIOR PROACTIVE&(Yes=1,&No=0) REACTIVE&(Yes=1,&No=0)
MILD&BEHAVIORS
Attendance(Cut/Skipped0Class
Attendance(Cut/Skipped0Detention0
Attendance(Left0School0Grounds0
Attendance(Cut/Skipped0In0School0Suspension0
Attendance(Tardy/Late
Attendance(Truant0
Cheating/Plagiarism
Disorderly0Conduct/Class0Disruption
Dress0Code0Violation
Electronic0Devices
Forgery
General0Staff0Disrespect/Insubordination
Loitering
Misuse0of0Computer0
Student0ID0Violation
Tobacco0Offenses0(Distribution,0Possession,0Sale,0and0Use)
Total
MODERATE&BEHAVIORS
Bullying
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Fighting
Gambling
Hazing/Harassment
Social0Exclusion
Student0Remarks0(verbal0argument,0profanity)
Trespassing/Restricted0Area
0 Vandalism
APPENDIX B
Total
SEVERE&BEHAVIORS
Alcohol0Offenses0(Distribution,0Possession,0Sale,0and0Use)
Arson
Assault/Battery
Threat/Intimidation0
0 Bomb0Threat
0 Drug0Offenses0(Possession0and/or0Use)
Drug0Offenses0(Intent0to0sell)
Gang0Behavior(Non(violent
Kidnapping/Abduction
0 Misuse0of0Fire0Alarm
Fireworks/Explosives0Offenses
Prejudice/Hate0Crimes/Racial0Slurs
Sexual0Harassment
Sexual0Assault/Battery
0 Theft/Larceny/Robbery
Weapons0Offenses0(Distribution,0Possession,0Sale,0and0Use)
Total
DISCIPLINE&ORIENTATION&
Behavioral0Expectations
Teaching0Expectations
Positive0Rewards
Key0Stakeholders
Progressive0
Total
APPENDIX C
Teaching and Learning

Student Survey (High School): 14 items, based on responses to 4-point scale
(Never to Always and Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree)
1. My teachers give me clear instructions about how to do my work.
2. My teachers give me tough problems to solve.
3. My teachers give me enough time to do a good job on my classwork.
4. My teachers help me catch up after I come back from being absent.
5. My teachers will explain something different ways until I get it.
6. My teachers let things get out of control in class.
7. My teachers ask me to use facts to support my opinions in writing assignments.
8. My teachers ask me to make presentations in class.
9. My teachers ask me to participate in small groups.
10. My teachers ask met to give other students feedback on their workF
11. My teachers keep me interested in class.
12. My teachers inspire me to do my best work.
13. I know what my teachers expect of me.
14. I understand how my schoolwork gets graded.
Student Survey (Middle School): 13-items, based on responses to 4-point scale

(Never to Always and Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree)
1. My teachers give me clear instructions about how to do my work.
2. My teachers give me tough problems to solve.
3. My teachers give me enough time to do a good job on my classwork.
4. My teachers help me catch up after I come back from being absent.
5. My teachers will explain something different ways until I get it.
6. My teachers let things get out of control in class.
7. My teachers ask me to make presentations in class.
8. My teachers ask me to participate in small groups.
9. My teachers ask met to give other students feedback on their work .
10. My teachers keep me interested in class.
11. My teachers inspire me to do my best work.
12. I know what my teachers expect of me.
13. I understand how my schoolwork gets graded.
Student Survey (Elementary School): 9-items, based on responses to 4-point scale

(Never to Always)
1. My teachers give good directions for my work.
2. My teachers let things get crazy in class.
3. My teachers have us work in small groups in class.
4. My teachers give me work that makes me think hard.
5. My give me enough time to do a good job on my classwork.
6. My teachers help me after I miss any school.
7. My will teachers will explain something different ways until I get it.
8. My teachers make learning fun.
! 107
9. My teachers make me want to learn more.
Teacher/Staff Survey: 27 items based on a. 4-point scale (Never to Always)

1. I help students develop coping skills.
2. I ask students to make presentations in class.
3. I ask students to participate in small group discussions.
4. I ask students to use facts to support their opinions in writing.
5. I ask students to work in small groups on class activities.
6. I assign students worksheets.
7. I have students use the media center and/or library materials.
8. I provide students with opportunities to revise assignments.
9. I incorporate “real world” learning activities into my instruction.
10. I ask students to provide feedback and comments on each other’s work.
11. I provide “hands-on” learning activities.
12. I give special recognition to exemplary work.
13. I inform parents/guardians when their child does something well.
14. I ask students to use computers as a part of lessons.
15. I help students participate actively in community and civic affairs.
16. I teach social skills development.
17. I explain concepts in multiple ways until students show that they understand.
18. I embed memorization skills into my teaching.
19. I allow students to make up work after they are absent.
20. I give students multiple opportunities to improve their grades.
21. I provide specialized instruction for students whenever they progress more
quickly than their peers.
22. I provide students with additional instruction whenever they fall behind.
23. I use school or district generated assessment to inform my instruction.
24. I actively promote positive health practices.
25. Students are interested in what I teach.
26. Students are motivated to learn.
27. Students have goals for themselves and their futures.
Safety
Student Survey (High School): 8-items, based on a 4-point scale (Strongly
Disagree to Strongly Agree)
1. All students are punished equally if they break the same rule.
2. Discipline at my school is fair.
3. I understand what will happen if I break a school rule.
4. Students help make the rules at my school.
5. I feel safe in the hallways of my school.
6. I feel safe when I walk outside of school.
7. When I hear the fire alarm I take it seriously.
8. When I hear the school is in lockdown, I take it seriously.
! 108
Student Survey (Middle School): 8-items, based on a 4-point scale (Strongly
1. All students are punished equally if they break the same rule.
2. Discipline at my school is fair.
3. I understand what will happen if I break a school rule.
4. Students help make the rules at my school.
7. When I hear the fire alarm I take it seriously.
8. When I hear the school is in lockdown, I take it seriously.
Student Survey (Elementary School): 3-items, based on a 2-point scale (Agree or

Disagree)
3. My school’s rules are fair.
Teacher/Staff Survey: 4-items based on a 4-point scale (Strongly disagree to

strongly agree)
1. I find discipline policies and practices at this school are effective.
2. Staff applies rules consistently for all students.
3. I feel safe inside my school.
4. I feel safe when I walk outside my school.
Interpersonal Relationships: Social Supports

Student Survey (High School): 8-items, based on a 4-point scale (Strongly
1. My teachers seem to care about me personally.
2. Teachers in my school treat students with respect.
3. Students in my school treat teachers with respect.
4. Students in my school treat each other with respect.
5. I can talk to an adult at my school if I’m having a problem at home.
6. I can talk to an adult at my school if I’m having a problem with my classes or
school work.
7. I can talk to an adult at my school if I’m having problems with another student.
8. I have a friend I can talk to about my problems.
Student Survey (Middle School): 9-items, based on a 4-point scale (Strongly

1. My teachers seem to care about me personally.
2. Teachers in my school treat students with respect.
4. Students in my school treat each other with respect.
! 109
6. I can talk to an adult at my school if I’m having a problem with my classes or
school work.
7. I can talk to an adult at my school if I’m having problems with another student.
8. There is an adult in the community, other than my parent or guardian, who I
can talk to when I have a problem.
9. I have a friend I can talk to about my problems.
Student Survey (Elementary School): 9-items, based on a 2-point scale (Agree or

Disagree)
1. My teachers care about me personally.
2. I think my teachers like teaching
4. My teachers are nice to me.
5. Kids in my school are nice to teachers.
7. I can talk to an adult at my school if I’m having a problem with my school
work.
8. I can talk to an adult at my school if I’m having a problem with another
student.
9. I can talk to a good friend about my problems.
Teacher/Staff Survey: 6-items, based on a 4-point scale (Strongly Disagree to

Strongly Agree)
1. Students treat teachers and staff with respect.
2. Students treat each other with respect.
3. Students respect viewpoints different from their own.
4. Students talk to me if they are having a problem at home.
5. Students talk to me if they are having a problem with another student.
6. Students talk to me if they are having a problem with their classes or school
work.
Institutional Environment: School Facilities and Resources

Student Survey (High School): 13-items, based on a 4-point scale (Never to
Always and Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree)
1. I do not like to use the school bathrooms because they are smoky.
2. I’m afraid to use the school bathrooms.
3. The school bathrooms are locked during school hours.
4. There is soap to wash my hands in the school bathrooms.
5. My classrooms are about the right temperature.
6. The lights in my classroom are bright enough so I can do work.
7. Most of my textbooks are more than 10 years old.
8. Students in my classes need to share books.
9. The school has enough computers for students to use.
10. The desks in my school are the right size for me.
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11. My gym has enough equipment for all of the students.
12. The inside of my school building looks nice.
13. The outside of my school building looks nice.
Student Survey (Middle School): 13-items, based on a 4-point scale (Never to

Always and Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree)
1. I don’t like to use the school bathrooms because they are smoky.
2. I’m afraid to use the school bathrooms.
3. The school bathrooms are locked during school hours.
4. There is soap to wash my hands in the school bathrooms.
5. My classrooms are about the right temperature.
6. Most of my textbooks are more than 10 years old.
10. My gym has enough equipment for all of the students.
11. The inside of my school building looks nice.
Student Survey (Elementary School): 2-items (questions 1 & 2), based on a 4-point
scale (Never to Always), 4-items (questions 3-7), based on a 2-point scale (Agree
or Disagree)
1. The classrooms are about the right temperature.
2. There is soap in the bathroom to wash my hands.
3. There are enough books for everyone in my classes.
5. My school looks nice inside.
Teacher/Staff Survey: 9-items, based on a 4-point scale (Strongly Disagree to

Strongly Agree)
1. My school has enough space for effective instruction give the current
enrollment.
2. The school is clean and well-maintained
3. My classroom is about the right temperature
4. The lights in my classroom are bright enough so students can do their work.
6. I have access to up-to-date instructional materials through the school or
district.
8. I have sufficient access to instructional technology to support student learning.
9. I have sufficient access to student data to inform my instruction.
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Professional Climate: Teachers and Staff Only
Teacher/Staff Survey: 10-items, based on a 4-point scale (Strongly disagree to
strongly agree)
1. My performance evaluation process is fair.
2. I receive timely feedback about my job performance.
3. I have a good working relationship with my building administration.
4. I have a good w working relationship with other teachers and staff at my
school.
5. The building administration is responsive to staff needs.
6. The building administration stands up for staff.
7. The principal treats all teachers fairly.
8. Morale is good among staff in this school.
9. Rules and policies affecting staff are clear.
10. Staff take pride in the school.
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APPENDIX D
st
en
ud
ts
en
St
s
nt
ud
ol
de
Survey Topics by Category
ho
St
tu
Sc
ol
S
o
ol
ry
ch
ho
ta
rs
Sc
en
le
he
d
em
ac
id
ig
Te
El
H
Demographics
Grade ✓ ✓ ✓
Gender ✓ ✓ ✓
Ethnicity ✓ ✓ ✓
Race ✓ ✓ ✓
Years of Teaching Experience ✓
Years of Teaching at this School ✓
Full-Time/Part-Time Status ✓
Education Attained ✓
Primary Role ✓
Grades Taught ✓
Subjects Taught ✓
Teaching and Student Achievement
Teacher Practice ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Use of Technology ✓ ✓
Components of Grading ✓
Homework ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Student Engagement ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teacher Collaboration ✓
Coordination with Other Staff ✓
Departmental Meetings ✓
Educator Relationships ✓
Teams and Advisories ✓
Post High School Plans ✓ ✓
College/Career Readiness ✓ ✓ ✓
Safe and Supportive Schools
Breakfast ✓ ✓ ✓
Physical Activity ✓ ✓ ✓
Asthma ✓ ✓ ✓
Text Messaging ✓ ✓
Library Access ✓ ✓ ✓
Time Home Alone ✓ ✓
Technolgy Use for Entertainment ✓ ✓ ✓
Skipping School ✓ ✓
School Safety ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Theft ✓ ✓ ✓
Discipline and Equity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Bullying ✓ ✓ ✓
Teacher-Student Relationships ✓
Teacher-Student Respect ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Student-Teacher Respect ✓ ✓
Student Relationships ✓
Personal Relationships ✓ ✓
Student Violence-Physical Harm ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Alcohol ✓ ✓ ✓
Smoking ✓ ✓ ✓
Weapons ✓
Drug Usage ✓ ✓ ✓
Professional Climate and Evaluation ✓
Professional Climate ✓
Workload ✓
Vision and Input ✓
Teacher Decision-making ✓
Drug at School ✓
Depression ✓ ✓
Sexual Activity ✓
Sexting ✓
Sexual Orientation ✓
Families and Communities
Parent Involvement Strategies ✓
Parent Involvement ✓
Parent-Teacher Communication ✓
Parent-Teacher Conferences ✓
Parent Engagement ✓ ✓ ✓
Community Support ✓ ✓
Parent Engagement in Post High school Plans ✓ ✓ ✓
Out of School Time ✓ ✓ ✓
Funding and Resources
Education Technology ✓ ✓
Transportation ✓ ✓
School Facilities ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
School Resources ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Staff Devleopment Frequency ✓
Desired Staff Development ✓
External Support ✓
! 113
APPENDIX E
Out-of-School Suspensions by Frequency of Behavioral Infraction
Total !
M SD Range
Incidents
Out-of-School Suspensions 15941 60.38 109.42 0-727
Fighting 2028 7.77 15.96 0-136
Obscene Abusive Language to Teacher 813 3.11 7 0-44
Controlled Substance-Under Influence 420 1.61 4.07 0-28
Obscene Abusive Language to Student 364 1.39 3.77 0-31
Larceny 221 0.85 1.71 0-13
Assault of Teacher 195 0.75 1.94 0-17
Vandalism 190 0.73 1.95 0-14
Harassment Sexual 184 0.7 1.66 0-11
Communication Electronic Device 162 0.62 3.94 0-60
Tobacco Possession/ Use 129 0.49 1.66 0-14
Unauthorized Use Computers Tech 88 0.34 1.31 0-17
Hate Crimes 80 0.31 1.18 0-12
Alcohol 70 0.27 0.82 0-7
Fire Regulation 61 0.23 0.79 0-9
Sexual Misconduct 51 0.2 0.66 0-7
Trespassing 48 0.18 0.89 0-8
Controlled Substances Sale of 46 0.18 0.78 0-10
Harassment Stalking 41 0.16 0.7 0-6
Forgery 16 0.06 0.38 0-5
Arson 10 0.04 0.26 0-3
Bomb Threat 10 0.04 0.19 0-1
Cheating Plagiarism 10 0.04 0.29 0-3
Robbery 10 0.04 0.26 0-3
Sexual Assault Battery 10 0.04 0.21 0-2
Hazing 4 0.02 0.12 0-1
Gang Activity 3 0.01 0.14 0-2
Kidnapping Abduction 2 0.01 0.09 0-1
Controlled Substances-Intent to sell 1 0 0.06 0-1
Breaking Entering 0 0 0 0-0
Cut Skipped Class 0 0 0 0-0
Cut Skipped Detention 0 0 0 0-0
Cut Skipped In School Suspension 0 0 0 0-0
! 114
Extortion 0 0 0 0-0
Gambling 0 0 0 0-0
Harassment Verbal/Physical 0 0 0 0-0
Other 0 0 0 0-0
Tardy 0 0 0 0-0
Truant 0 0 0 0-0
! ! ! !
!
In-School Suspensions by Frequency of Behavioral !
Infraction ! !
Total ! !
M SD Range
Incidents
In-School Suspensions 15745 60.33 231.92 0-2655
Cut Skipped Class 3851 14.75 105.21 0-1563
Disorderly Conduct 2153 8.25 38 0-358
Fighting 412 1.58 6.32 0-64
Obscene Abusive Language to Teacher 382 1.46 6.09 0-53
Tardy 338 1.3 8.23 0-90
Communication- Electronic Device 328 1.26 9.82 0-134
Truant 221 0.85 5.06 0-58
Obscene Abusive Language Student 219 0.84 2.66 0-19
Tobacco Possession Use 140 0.54 4.14 0-60
Cheating/Plagiarism 80 0.31 2.27 0-30
Larceny 79 0.3 1.22 0-12
Unauthorized Use Computers Tech 70 0.27 1.6 0-20
Controlled Substances-Under Influence 56 0.21 1.25 0-14
Vandalism 51 0.2 0.78 0-7
Hazing 39 0.15 1.5 0-21
Hate Crimes 38 0.15 0.81 0-10
Forgery 37 0.14 0.84 0-10
Harassment Stalking 25 0.1 0.67 0-8
Sexual Misconduct 18 0.07 0.41 0-4
Assault Teacher 17 0.07 0.3 0-3
Cut Skipped ISS 17 0.07 0.46 0-5
Trespassing 17 0.07 0.44 0-5
Controlled Substances Sale of 9 0.03 0.35 0-4
! 115
Alcohol 7 0.03 0.24 0-3
Arson 6 0.02 0.23 0-3
Extortion 6 0.02 0.23 0-3
Kidnapping Abduction 6 0.02 0.23 0-3
Gang Activity 4 0.02 0.17 0-2
Bomb Threat 3 0.01 0.11 0-1
Robbery 2 0.01 0.09 0-1
Sexual Assault Battery 2 0.01 0.12 0-2
Breaking Entering 1 0 0.06 0-1
Gambling 1 0 0.06 0-1
Other 1 0 0.06 0-1
Alternative Program Placement by Frequency! of Behavioral

! !
Infraction !
Total !
M SD Range
Incidents
Controlled Substances-Under Influence 4 0.02 0.12 0-1
Larceny 4 0.02 0.15 0-2
Assault Teacher 3 0.01 0.11 0-1
Fighting 3 0.01 0.11 0-1
Obscene Abusive Language Student 2 0.01 0.12 0-2
Controlled Substances Sale of 1 0 0.06 0-1
Obscene Abusive Language Teacher 1 0 0.06 0-1
Alcohol 0 0 0 0-0
Arson 0 0 0 0-0
Bomb Threat 0 0 0 0-0
Breaking Entering 0 0 0 0-0
Cheating/Plagiarism 0 0 0 0-0
Communication- Electronic Device 0 0 0 0-0
Cut Skipped Class 0 0 0 0-0
Cut Skipped In School Suspension 0 0 0 0-0
Extortion 0 0 0 0-0
Forgery 0 0 0 0-0
! 116
Gambling 0 0 0 0-0
Gang Activity 0 0 0 0-0
Harassment Stalking 0 0 0 0-0
Hate Crimes 0 0 0 0-0
Hazing 0 0 0 0-0
Kidnapping Abduction 0 0 0 0-0
Left School Grounds 0 0 0 0-0
Other 0 0 0 0-0
Robbery 0 0 0 0-0
Sexual Assault Battery 0 0 0 0-0
Sexual Misconduct 0 0 0 0-0
Tardy 0 0 0 0-0
Tobacco Possession Use 0 0 0 0-0
Trespassing 0 0 0 0-0
Truant 0 0 0 0-0
Unauthorized Use Computers Tech 0 0 0 0-0
Vandalism 0 0 0 0-0
! 117
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BΑ
«Τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και
στη διδακτική διαδικασία»
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΩΝ

(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
Περιεχόμενα...................................................................................................................................... 1
Εισαγωγή........................................................................................................................................... 2
Τεχνικές και στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας............................................................................................. 4
Επικοινωνία στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και στη διδακτική διαδικασία: Επικοινωνιακές τεχνικές.......9
Βιβλιογραφία...................................................................................................................................15
1
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
Εισαγωγή
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο
σχολικό περιβάλλον και στη διδακτική διαδικασία». Στην συνεδρία αυτή, γίνεται αναφορά
στο γεγονός ότι οι τεχνικές της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό περιβάλλον,
δύνανται να επιφέρουν αποτελεσματικότητα στη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας και
ποιοτικές βελτιώσεις στη μαθησιακή και εκπαιδευτική, εν γένει, διαδικασία. Στο πλαίσιο της
συνεδρίας αυτής, επίσης, γίνεται έμμεση αναφορά στη βελτίωση του σχολικού κλίματος,
μέσω της εισαγωγής και τήρησης-εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας στην αίθουσα
διδασκαλίας, καθώς και στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου ευρύτερα, με την
επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής, για την οποία γίνεται αναφορά στην επόμενη συνεδρία.
Επιπλέον, γίνεται συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και
παραμέτρων επικοινωνίας που ισχύουν σε ολόκληρο σχεδόν το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής
διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται από επικοινωνιακές νόρμες και τεχνικές ποικίλων μορφών,
που αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην
ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων. Σε αυτό το πλαίσιο, επιχειρείται να προσεγγιστούν
θεωρητικά οι τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας μεταξύ εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή, κατά
κύριο λόγο, εντός του σχολικού-εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος, προκειμένου οι
επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες, μετά τη λήξη της συνεδρίας να γνωρίζουν τις
τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων καθώς και τις
τεχνικές και στρατηγικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και ευρύτερα
στην εκπαιδευτική και στη διδακτική διαδικασία. Τα ζητήματα που αφορούν σε «Τεχνικές
βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και στη διδακτική διαδικασία»
αποτελούν μέρος της ενιαίας διδακτικής ενότητας, η ο οποία τιτλοφορείται: «Επικοινωνία
στη σχολική τάξη». Πρόκειται για την 5η διδακτική ενότητα του Προγράμματος «Σχολική
2
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
Ψυχολογία».
Σκοπός:
Να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες τις δυνατότητες και

τις τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας μεταξύ εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή, κατά κύριο λόγο,
εντός του σχολικού-εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος.

 γνωρίζουν τις δυνατότητες βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών

σχέσεων
 γνωρίζουν τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον, στην
εκπαιδευτική και στη διδακτική διαδικασία
Διδακτική επικοινωνία, σχολική διοίκηση, τεχνικές επικοινωνίας, στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας,

σχολικό περιβάλλον, διαχείριση σχολικής τάξης, διδακτική διαδικασία.
3
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
4
(ΤΕΠΑΕΣ)
5.3.1 Τεχνικές και στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας
Παρά το γεγονός ότι η επικοινωνία καταλαμβάνει το μεγαλύτερο μέρος της

καθημερινότητας του σύγχρονου ανθρώπου, ο οποίος επικοινωνεί ακατάπαυστα είτε δια
ζώσης είτε μέσω ορισμένων δικτύων επικοινωνίας, εντούτοις, πολλές φορές, η επικοινωνία
αποτυγχάνει και δεν επιφέρει τα επιθυμητά αποτελέσματα στη συνεννόηση των ανθρώπων.
Αποτέλεσμα αυτής της κατάστασης είναι να δημιουργούνται παρεξηγήσεις, παρερμηνείες
και συγκρούσεις, οι οποίες δυσχεραίνουν τη ζωή των ανθρώπων στην καθημερινότητά τους,
είτε αυτή αφορά στο οικογενειακό περιβάλλον είτε στο χώρο εργασίας είτε στο χώρο
διασκέδασης, ψυχαγωγίας και συναναστροφής τους είτε στο εκπαιδευτικό και διδακτικό
περιβάλλον. Η ανάπτυξη τεχνικών και στρατηγικών επικοινωνίας, συμβάλλει θετικά στην
αντιμετώπιση αυτού του προβλήματος. Μεταξύ των στρατηγικών και των τεχνικών αυτών
στη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία αναφέρονται και οι παρακάτω, οι οποίες θεωρούνται ως οι πλέον
αποτελεσματικές, όχι μόνο για ανοικτά επικοινωνιακά περιβάλλοντα αλλά ακόμη και για το
κλειστό και ιδιαίτερο περιβάλλον της σχολικής τάξης (Arnold, 2004. Shapiro, 2003):
1. Τήρηση σιωπής. Το να παραμένει κανείς σιωπηλός αποτελεί μερικές φορές μία από
τις πιο αποτελεσματικές στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας. Αντί να βιαστεί να δώσει αμέσως
απάντηση στο συνομιλητή του, μετά την ολοκλήρωση κάποιου ερωτήματος, θα μπορούσε
να αποσπάσει περισσότερες πληροφορίες από αυτόν σε περίπτωση που παρέμενε
σιωπηλός, δίνοντας ιδιαίτερη προσοχή στη γλώσσα του σώματος του συνομιλητή. Η τήρηση
σιωπής οδηγεί, συνήθως, το συνομιλητή να δώσει περισσότερες πληροφορίες, θεωρώντας
ότι όσες πληροφορίες έχει ήδη δώσει δεν επαρκούν για να προσελκύσουν και να εμπλέξουν
το συνομιλητή του στην επικοινωνιακή διαδικασία. Έτσι, από φόβο μήπως η επικοινωνία
αποτύχει, σπεύδει να δώσει ολοένα και περισσότερες πληροφορίες. Σχετικά με την
ποιότητα και την αποτελεσματικότητα της επικοινωνίας, επισημαίνεται ότι η άντληση όσο το
δυνατόν περισσότερων πληροφοριών συμβάλλει εποικοδομητικά στην επικοινωνία και τη
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λήψη ορθότερων αποφάσεων.

2. Υποβολή ανοιχτών ερωτήσεων. Οι κλειστές ερωτήσεις απαντώνται συνήθως με ένα
«ναι» ή με ένα «όχι». Η απάντηση αυτή δεν παρέχει προφανώς ικανό αριθμό πληροφοριών
ο οποίος, όπως είδαμε παραπάνω, συμβάλλει θετικά στην εξέλιξη της επικοινωνίας και της
επικοινωνιακής αποτελεσματικότητας. Συνεπώς, οι ανοιχτές ερωτήσεις είναι εκείνες οι
οποίες οδηγούν στην απόκτηση περισσότερων πληροφοριών και για αυτό, θα πρέπει, όταν
επικοινωνούμε, συζητάμε, συνεργαζόμαστε κ.λπ., να διατυπώνουμε περισσότερο ανοιχτές
ερωτήσεις παρά κλειστές.
3. Ακρόαση. Δεν αρκεί μόνο να ακούει κανείς αυτά που του λέει ο συνομιλητής του,
αλλά θα πρέπει να κατανοεί πλήρως όσα του λέει, να κάνει, δηλαδή, πραγματικότητα την
έννοια της λέξης «ακρόαση», η οποία είναι κάτι εντελώς διαφορετικό από την ακοή, δηλαδή
από το απλό άκουσμα κάποιων λέξεων ή φράσεων. Η έννοια της ακρόασης περιλαμβάνει,
εκτός από την ακουστική διαδικασία, τη διαδικασία επεξεργασίας και κατανόησης των
ακουστικών σημάτων, τα οποία μετατρέπονται σε νοητικά σχήματα και νοηματικές
εκφράσεις, μέσω πολύπλοκων εγκεφαλικών διεργασιών.
4. Ανατροφοδότηση. Πολλές φορές, ένας συνομιλητής έχει την αίσθηση ότι καθώς
μιλάει, γίνονται κατανοητά όλα όσα λέει από το συνομιλητή του, για αυτό και εξακολουθεί
να μιλάει ώσπου να ολοκληρώσει τη σκέψη του. Στην πραγματικότητα, όμως, ακόμα και από
τον καλύτερο συνομιλητή, διαφεύγουν ορισμένες έννοιες και πληροφορίες, με αποτέλεσμα
να δημιουργούνται κενά στην πλήρη κατανόηση του λόγου, της συνομιλίας. Στην περίπτωση
αυτή θα πρέπει, αν θέλουμε να μην δημιουργούνται αυτά τα κενά, να διακόπτουμε σε
τακτά χρονικά διαστήματα τη ροή του λόγου μας, προκειμένου να διαπιστώσουμε αν ο
συνομιλητής μας έχει καταλάβει πλήρως όσα του έχουμε ήδη πει. Με τον τρόπο αυτό
επιτυγχάνεται ανατροφοδότηση της συζήτησης και ως εκ τούτου, επιτυγχάνεται πιο
αποτελεσματική επικοινωνία.
5. Παρατήρηση. Σε πάρα πολλούς ανθρώπους δημιουργείται, συνήθως, η αίσθηση ότι
επικοινωνούν αποτελεσματικά. Αυτό, όμως, στην πραγματικότητα, δεν συμβαίνει πάντα.
Για αυτό, όταν συνειδητοποιήσουν και αφού αποδεχτούν την επικοινωνιακή τους αδυναμία
οι άνθρωποι αυτοί, καλό θα ήταν να βοηθήσουν τον εαυτό τους παρατηρώντας ή
ανακαλώντας στη μνήμη τους παραδείγματα για τον τρόπο που επικοινωνούν άλλοι
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άνθρωποι οι οποίοι εμφανίζουν, κατά κανόνα, υψηλό επίπεδο επικοινωνιακής

ικανότητας, δηλαδή ανθρώπους επικοινωνιακά επιτυχείς, οι οποίοι διαθέτουν τον τρόπο να
εκφράζονται, προκαλώντας το ενδιαφέρον των συνομιλητών ή του ακροατηρίου τους.
Συνεπώς, η επαλήθευση του κανόνα ότι τα πρότυπα προς μίμηση συμβάλλουν στην
ανάπτυξη της επικοινωνιακής ικανότητας ισχύει και έχει θετικά αποτελέσματα.
6. Ανάγνωση βιβλίων και έντυπου υλικού. Οι περισσότεροι νέοι άνθρωποι είναι
εξοικειωμένοι με το διάβασμα σύντομων κειμένων, σαν αυτά που κυκλοφορούν ως
μηνύματα στα κοινωνικά δίκτυα και στο διαδίκτυο. Με τον τρόπο αυτό, δεν καλλιεργούνται
λεκτικά όσο θα έπρεπε και έτσι, υστερούν στην ανάπτυξη των επικοινωνιακών τους
ικανοτήτων. Η αντιμετώπιση αυτού του προβλήματος μπορεί να επέλθει με ανάγνωση
βιβλίων και άλλο έντυπο υλικό, όπως περιοδικά, εφημερίδες κ.ά. έντυπα, τα οποία
συμβάλλουν σταδιακά στον εμπλουτισμό και στη διεύρυνση του λεξιλογικού τους ορίζοντα.
7. Διαχείριση άγχους. Έχει παρατηρηθεί ότι σε περίπτωση που ένας άνθρωπος
καταλαμβάνεται από άγχος, χάνει ολοκληρωτικά ή μέρος της ικανότητάς του να επικοινωνεί
αποτελεσματικά. Σε τέτοια περίπτωση είναι προτιμότερο να διακόπτει κανείς τη συνομιλία
του, για όσο χρόνο χρειαστεί, προκειμένου να επανέλθει σε φυσιολογικό επίπεδο η πίεση
του αίματος, η οποία συμβάλλει στη μείωση του άγχους του, προκειμένου να συνεχίσει
φυσιολογικά τη συνομιλία του. Με αυτό τον τρόπο υπάρχει μεγαλύτερη πιθανότητα
επίτευξης αποτελεσματικής επικοινωνίας.
8. Ενσυναίσθηση. Η ανακάλυψη των μυστικών της γλώσσας του σώματος συμβάλλει
θετικά στην κατανόηση του συνομιλητή κατά τη διάρκεια κάθε επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας.
Όσο ικανός κι αν είναι ένας άνθρωπος να κρύβει τις προθέσεις, τις σκέψεις και τα
συναισθήματά του, αυτός που γνωρίζει να ερμηνεύει σωστά τα σήματα της γλώσσας του
σώματος μπορεί να καταλαβαίνει και να αποκρυπτογραφεί τα μυστικά του άλλου. Η
δυνατότητα αυτή ονομάζεται ενσυναίσθηση και σημαίνει την ικανότητα ενός ανθρώπου να
κατανοεί με πληρότητα τα συναισθήματα ενός άλλου ανθρώπου, ακόμη και όταν αυτά δεν
εκφράζονται λεκτικά, παραμένοντας κρυφά. Ο άνθρωπος που έχει αποκτήσει την ικανότητα
της ενσυναίσθησης έχει τη δυνατότητα να γίνει αποτελεσματικός συνομιλητής,
διευκολύνοντας τη συνομιλία και βγάζοντας από μια δύσκολη επικοινωνιακή κατάσταση του
συνομιλητή του, μπαίνοντας, κυριολεκτικά, στην επικοινωνιακή θέση του συνομιλητή.
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9. Ενθουσιασμός. Οι περισσότεροι άνθρωποι θα προτιμούσαν να συνομιλούν με

ανθρώπους οι οποίοι δείχνουν ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον, χαρά ή ακόμη και ενθουσιασμό για το
γεγονός της συμμετοχής τους σε συγκεκριμένη συνομιλία. Ελάχιστοι θα ήθελαν να
συνομιλούν με ανθρώπους οι οποίοι είναι σκυθρωποί, σκεπτικοί και προβληματισμένοι,
επειδή η συγκεκριμένη στάση εκλαμβάνεται ως αρνητική στάση στην ανάπτυξη
επικοινωνίας με το πρόσωπο που προσπαθεί να τους απευθύνει το λόγο. Στο ίδιο πλαίσιο,
οι θετικές απαντήσεις που δίνονται από τους συνομιλητές, εκλαμβάνονται θετικότερα
συγκριτικά με τις αρνητικές. Συνεπώς, ο ενθουσιασμός προς το συνομιλητή σε συνδυασμό
με τις θετικές απαντήσεις προς αυτόν, προσθέτοντας επιπλέον και ορισμένα κολακευτικά
σχόλια, συμβάλλουν στην προσέλκυση του επικοινωνιακού ενδιαφέροντος και
προοιωνίζουν μία αποτελεσματική έκβαση της επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας.
10. Επιλογή λεξιλογίου. Η επιλογή συγκεκριμένων λέξεων κατά τη συνομιλία καθώς και
η αποφυγή ορισμένων άλλων, αποτελεί εχέγγυο μιας αποτελεσματικής επικοινωνίας.
Επίσης, η χρήση του «εμείς» αντί του «εγώ» ή του «εσύ» συμβάλλει θετικά προς την ίδια
κατεύθυνση. Για το λόγο αυτό, θα πρέπει κάθε συνομιλητής να προσέχει ιδιαίτερα το
λεξιλόγιό του και τον τρόπο με τον οποίο εκφράζεται τόσο για τον εαυτό του όσο και για τον
συνομιλητή του, ακόμη και για τρίτα πρόσωπα, τα οποία δεν μετέχουν στη συζήτηση.
11. Χιούμορ. Το χιούμορ αποτελεί το «αλατοπίπερο» σε κάθε φιλική ή χαλαρή
συζήτηση. Δεν είναι δυνατόν, όμως, να εμφανίζεται σε κάθε συζήτηση και ειδικά στις
σοβαρές συζητήσεις. Παρά ταύτα, όταν το κλίμα της επικοινωνίας το επιτρέπει, το χιούμορ
συμβάλλει θετικά στην προαγωγή μιας συζήτησης και οδηγεί στην κατανόηση του
συνομιλητή, σε συνθήκες ευχάριστης διάθεσης. Το χιούμορ σπάει τον πάγο και μειώνει τις
αποστάσεις μεταξύ των συνομιλητών και για το λόγο αυτό πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείται
εφόσον οι συνομιλητές επιθυμούν να συμβεί κάτι τέτοιο. Σε αντίθετη περίπτωση, ηχεί
κακόγουστα και επιφέρει ακριβώς τα αντίθετα αποτελέσματα. Η χρήση του χιούμορ στην
επικοινωνία χρειάζεται ιδιαίτερη προσοχή.
12. Χαμόγελο. Όπως το χιούμορ έτσι και το χαμόγελο συμβάλλει θετικά στο «λιώσιμο
του επικοινωνιακού πάγου». Ένας δύστροπος άνθρωπος, ένας άνθρωπος νευρικός και
κακόκεφος μπορεί, πολλές φορές, να «μετατραπεί» σε δεκτικό συνομιλητή, εάν νιώσει τη
ζεστασιά του χαμόγελου που του δείχνει καλοπροαίρετα ο συνομιλητής του. Το χαμόγελο
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δεν πρέπει να είναι ειρωνικό αλλά εγκάρδιο και ειλικρινές. Μόνο αυτό το χαμόγελο μπορεί
να συμβάλλει εποικοδομητικά στην ανάπτυξη αποτελεσματικής επικοινωνίας.
13. Εντιμότητα. Η αποτελεσματική επικοινωνία βασίζεται σε μεγάλο βαθμό στην
αξιοπιστία του ενός συνομιλητή και στην εμπιστοσύνη που του δείχνει ο άλλος. Καμιά
επικοινωνία δεν μπορεί να έχει θετικό αποτέλεσμα όταν βασίζεται σε ψέματα και
ανειλικρινείς πληροφορίες (fake news), που λέγονται ασύστολα και κατά κόρον. Αντίθετα,
όταν γίνεται αντιληπτό το στοιχείο του ψεύδους στην επικοινωνία, καταρρέει η
εμπιστοσύνη μεταξύ των συνομιλητών και η επικοινωνία αποτυγχάνει καθώς διακόπτεται
αμέσως, σε κλίμα οργής πολλές φορές. Συνήθως, κανείς δεν θέλει να μιλάει με ανθρώπους
που γνωρίζει ότι του λένε ψέματα…
14. Προσαρμογή. Όποιος θέλει να μιλήσει σε ένα ακροατήριο και να κερδίσει την
εκτίμηση αυτού του ακροατηρίου, θα πρέπει να μιλήσει με τρόπο τέτοιο που ο κάθε
ακροατής να έχει την αίσθηση ότι ο ομιλητής απευθύνεται προσωπικά σε αυτόν. Το ύφος
της ομιλίας και ο τόνος της φωνής, θα πρέπει να είναι προσαρμοσμένα στις δυνατότητες, τα
ενδιαφέροντα και τις προσδοκίες του ακροατηρίου. Με τον τρόπο αυτό, θα μπορούσε να
διασφαλίσει ένα αξιοπρεπές επικοινωνιακό αποτέλεσμα.
15. Μάθηση και εξάσκηση δια βίου. Η εκμάθηση των δεξιοτήτων επικοινωνίας δεν έχει
τέλος, καθώς η επικοινωνία αποτελεί μία διαδικασία η οποία συνεχώς εξελίσσεται, όπως
εξελίσσεται και η παρουσία του ανθρώπου στη γη, που επιτυγχάνεται, εν γένει, με την
ανάπτυξη της τεχνολογίας και την αλλαγή των συμπεριφορών και των συνηθειών του.
Συνεπώς, η μάθηση των τεχνικών και των στρατηγικών επικοινωνίας και η εξάσκηση σε
αυτές, θεωρείται ως μία δια βίου δραστηριότητα την οποία οι άνθρωποι οφείλουν να
παρακολουθούν διαρκώς και να εμπλουτίζουν. Για την ανάπτυξη των επικοινωνιακών
ικανοτήτων και την εκμάθηση τεχνικών και στρατηγικών επικοινωνίας, απαιτείται ικανός
χρόνος. Τα «μυστικά» της επικοινωνίας δεν μαθαίνονται ούτε γρήγορα ούτε εύκολα. Ακόμα
και όταν φτάσει κανείς στα ψηλότερα επίπεδα επικοινωνιακής ικανότητας, συνειδητοποιεί
ότι υπάρχει πάντα δυνατότητα βελτίωσης και εξέλιξης της ικανότητας αυτής, ότι υπάρχει
ακόμα μεγάλος δρόμος για να διανύσει. Όμως, η επικοινωνία μαθαίνεται και η
επικοινωνιακή ικανότητα βελτιώνεται διαρκώς, όπως βελτιώνονται σταδιακά με την
εκπαίδευση και όλες οι άλλες δεξιότητες και ικανότητες του ανθρώπου.
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Ορισμός 1
Τεχνικές επικοινωνίας (communication techniques): Ο όρος παραπέμπει στη δυνατότητα
σχεδίασης και ανάπτυξης μεθόδων και διαδικασιών για την επίδραση της επικοινωνιακής
συμπεριφοράς του ανθρώπου, με τρόπο αποτελεσματικό και λειτουργικό (Porterfield, 2014).
Η επικοινωνία αποτελεί συμπεριφορά η οποία έχει έμφυτες καταβολές αλλά παράλληλα
επιδέχεται βελτίωσης. Συνεπώς, αποτελεί ταυτόχρονα τέχνη και τεχνική. Και από τις δυο
πλευρές επιδέχεται βελτίωσης, όπως συμβαίνει και με κάθε άλλη ανθρώπινη συμπεριφορά
(Arnold, 2004).
5.3.2 Επικοινωνία στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και στη διδακτική

διαδικασία: Επικοινωνιακές τεχνικές
Όπως αναφέρθηκε στην προηγούμενη ενότητα, η επικοινωνία αποτελεί το βασικότερο

παράγοντα δημιουργίας, ανάπτυξης και διαμόρφωσης του σχολικού κλίματος, το οποίο
καθορίζει τόσο την εύρυθμη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας όσο και τις σχέσεις που
αναπτύσσονται ανάμεσα στα μέλη της σχολικής κοινότητας και κυρίως της τάξης. Η
επικοινωνία συμβάλλει, όπως αναφέρθηκε επίσης, στη διδακτική και μαθησιακή
αποτελεσματικότητα σε κάθε σχολική μονάδα. Εάν η επικοινωνία είναι ποιοτική, τότε και η
διδασκαλία διεξάγεται ομαλά και διαπιστώνονται ικανοποιητικά μαθησιακά αποτελέσματα,
με οποιονδήποτε τρόπο αξιολόγησης κι αν ελεγχθούν αυτά.
Η επικοινωνία, βεβαίως, επηρεάζεται από ορισμένους παράγοντες, οι οποίοι δρουν
μέσα στη σχολική μονάδα. Ως μια διαδικασία που αναπτύσσεται σε σχέση με τις
ανθρώπινες συμπεριφορές, η επικοινωνία αποτελεί αντικείμενο επιστημονικής μελέτης από
πάρα πολλές σκοπιές. Όπως έχουν δείξει μέχρι σήμερα αρκετές έρευνες διεθνώς, η
επικοινωνία αποτελεί ένα πολύπλοκο φαινόμενο της καθημερινής ζωής και ταυτόχρονα μια
διαδικασία για την οποία ο άνθρωπος έχει τη δυνατότητα να εκπαιδευτεί, προκειμένου να
είναι σε θέση να βελτιωθεί σημαντικά (Gilchrist-Petty, 2017).
Κατά συνέπεια, η επικοινωνία μολονότι αποτελεί χάρισμα για ορισμένους ανθρώπους,
υπό την έννοια ότι οι άνθρωποι αυτοί μπορούν να βελτιωθούν επικοινωνιακά, με σχετική
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ευχέρεια και χωρίς ιδιαίτερες προσπάθειες, αποτελεί έμφυτη ικανότητα του ανθρώπου η
οποία αναπτύσσεται σταδιακά με την πάροδο του χρόνου, ανάλογα με τα επικοινωνιακά
βιώματα και τη θέληση του κάθε ανθρώπου να την αναπτύξει καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια της ζωής.
Γίνεται αντιληπτό, λοιπόν, ότι η επικοινωνία θα μπορούσε να χαρακτηριστεί όχι μόνο ως μια
έμφυτη συμπεριφορά αλλά και ως μια κοινωνική δεξιότητα, η οποία βελτιώνεται εν
δυνάμει, βασιζόμενη σε συγκεκριμένες τεχνικές βελτίωσης. Στο σχολικό περιβάλλον κάτι
τέτοιο είναι απολύτως εφικτό, εφόσον πραγματοποιούνται συστηματικά μαθήματα
επικοινωνίας.
Είναι γεγονός ότι σε πάρα πολλές χώρες του δυτικού κόσμου και κυρίως στις Ηνωμένες
Πολιτείες Αμερικής, η επικοινωνία αποτελεί βασικό γνωστικό αντικείμενο, το οποίο
διδάσκεται συστηματικά από το νηπιαγωγείο έως και το πανεπιστήμιο σε ορισμένες σχολές
(Houser & Hosek, 2017). Η διδασκαλία του συγκεκριμένου γνωστικού αντικειμένου,
περιλαμβάνει παροχή γνωστικών πληροφοριών αναφορικά με τη φύση, τη σημασία και τις
τεχνικές βελτίωσης επικοινωνίας, σε ποικίλα επικοινωνιακά πλαίσια και περιβάλλοντα.
Παραδείγματος χάριν, τα παιδιά του νηπιαγωγείου μαθαίνουν πώς μπορούν και πώς πρέπει
να επικοινωνούν στο νηπιαγωγείο, στο σπίτι με τους γονείς, στις παρέες με τους φίλους
τους, σε ποικίλες άλλες περιστάσεις κ.ά. Έτσι, τα παιδιά μαθαίνουν ήδη από τη νηπιακή
ηλικία ότι δεν μπορούν να επικοινωνούν με οποιοδήποτε τρόπο, διότι η κάθε επικοινωνιακή
περίσταση διέπεται από συγκεκριμένους κανόνες, τους οποίους δεν πρέπει να
παρακάμπτουν, προκειμένου να μην δημιουργούνται προβλήματα, λόγω κακής ή
προβληματικής επικοινωνίας.
Επειδή η επικοινωνία αποτελεί θεμελιώδες κριτήριο επιτυχίας των παιδιών κατά την
ενήλικη ζωή τους, τα σχολεία φροντίζουν ώστε να προετοιμάσουν τα παιδιά με κατάλληλο
τρόπο, προκειμένου αυτά να αναπτύξουν, σταδιακά και στον ύψιστο δυνατό βαθμό, τις
επικοινωνιακές τους δεξιότητες. Ας μην ξεχνάμε ότι η επικοινωνία αποτελεί θεμελιώδη
κοινωνική δεξιότητα κάθε ανθρώπου, ο οποίος θέλει να επιτύχει συγκεκριμένους
κοινωνικούς και επαγγελματικούς στόχους. Μια κακής ποιότητας επικοινωνία δεν
συμβάλλει στην επίτευξη των στόχων αυτών. Αντίθετα μάλιστα, δημιουργεί τεράστια
εμπόδια στην επίτευξή τους.
Για το λόγο αυτό, τα παιδιά πρέπει να εκπαιδευτούν ώστε να αποφεύγουν καταστάσεις
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επικοινωνίας οι οποίες θα τους δημιουργούν προβλήματα. Γενικότερα, πιστεύουν ότι η

επικοινωνία, ως θεμελιώδης ανθρώπινη συμπεριφορά και ως μια διαδικασία η οποία
επηρεάζει καταλυτικά τις αλληλεπιδράσεις μεταξύ των ανθρώπων, πρέπει να συμβάλλει
πάντα στην επίλυση προβλημάτων και σε καμία περίπτωση στην ανάπτυξη προβληματικών
καταστάσεων.
Στο σχολικό περιβάλλον, η επικοινωνία μπορεί να βελτιωθεί με την ανάπτυξη
συγκεκριμένων τεχνικών (Shapiro, 2003), όπως είναι π.χ. μεταξύ άλλων:
1. Ο σχεδιασμός της ομιλητικής πράξης. Στο πλαίσιο σχεδιασμού της ομιλητικής
πράξης, κάθε ομιλητής οφείλει να σκέφτεται πριν μιλήσει, ποια είναι η πραγματική
πρόθεση και η σκοπιμότητα αυτού που θέλει να πει. Εάν συνειδητοποιήσει εγκαίρως
ότι αυτό που θέλει να πει δεν έχει ιδιαίτερο νόημα ή ενδέχεται να προκαλέσει
κάποιο πρόβλημα, τότε είναι προτιμότερο να σιωπήσει. Διαφορετικά, μπορεί να πει
αυτό που θέλει θέτοντας συγκεκριμένο στόχο με την έκφραση που τελικά θα
διατυπώσει.
2. Η σαφήνεια διατύπωσης του λόγου. Αναφορικά με τη σαφήνεια διατύπωσης του
λόγου, επισημαίνεται ότι κάθε ομιλητής οφείλει να χρησιμοποιεί λεξιλόγιο σαφές

και κατάλληλο με την επικοινωνιακή περίσταση στην οποία καλείται να
επικοινωνήσει και ανάλογο με το λεξιλόγιο του συνομιλητή του. Παραδείγματος
χάριν, δεν μπορεί κανείς να μιλήσει σε ένα παιδί νηπιακής ηλικίας χρησιμοποιώντας
έννοιες αφηρημένες και δυσνόητες για παιδιά της ηλικίας αυτής. Αντίθετα, οφείλει
να χρησιμοποιεί λεξιλόγιο κατανοητό στα παιδιά αυτά.
3. Η ενεργητική ακρόαση. Η ενεργητική ακρόαση έχει συγκεκριμένους κανόνες. Όταν
παρακολουθούμε το συνομιλητή μας, δεν πρέπει να τον διακόπτουμε πριν

ολοκληρώσει τη σκέψη του. Αντίθετα, οφείλουμε να παρακολουθούμε με προσοχή
αυτά τα οποία λέει, να του δείχνουμε αν τα έχουμε καταλάβει και να του ζητάμε
διευκρινίσεις εάν χρειάζεται, προκειμένου να κατανοήσουμε ορθά και πλήρως όσα
έχει πει. Πριν τοποθετηθούμε επί της ουσίας, σε αυτά που έχουμε ακούσει,
εκφράζοντας τη δική μας άποψη, πρέπει να είμαστε απολύτως σίγουροι ότι
κατανοήσαμε πλήρως όσα ακούσαμε από το συνομιλητή μας. Με τον τρόπο αυτό,
προάγεται ουσιαστικά ο διάλογος και διευρύνεται το επικοινωνιακό μας πλαίσιο.
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Αυτό είναι απαραίτητο για τη συνέχιση της επικοινωνίας μας με συγκεκριμένα

πρόσωπα.
4. Η ανάπτυξη πνεύματος καλής θέλησης, συνεργασίας και ενσυναίσθησης. Σε
ανάλογο με το προαναφερόμενο πλαίσιο, εντάσσεται και η ανάπτυξη πνεύματος

καλής θέλησης, συνεργασίας και ενσυναίσθησης. Οι έννοιες αυτές βασίζονται στη
βαθιά κατανόηση του συνομιλητή, δηλαδή στην ενσυναίσθηση που πρέπει ο κάθε
συνομιλητής να δείχνει για τον άλλο κατά τη διάρκεια επικοινωνίας, μπαίνοντας στη
θέση του άλλου, δηλαδή προσπαθώντας να κατανοήσει, με τον καλύτερο δυνατό
τρόπο, αυτά που ο συνομιλητής του θέλει πραγματικά να πει, αυτά που κυριολεκτικά
εννοεί, πέρα από τις λέξεις και τις εκφράσεις που χρησιμοποιεί στο λόγο του. Κάθε
συνομιλητής οφείλει όχι μόνο να ακούει αλλά και να ερμηνεύει παράλληλα, χωρίς
στερεότυπα και προκαταλήψεις, αυτά που εννοεί κατά βάθος.
Γενικότερα, μέσα στην τάξη, κατά τη διάρκεια του μαθήματος, ο εκπαιδευτικός οφείλει
να διδάσκει χρησιμοποιώντας τόσο το λόγο όσο και τη φωνή του, με τον καταλληλότερο
δυνατό τρόπο. Ο λόγος του πρέπει να είναι απλός, κατανοητός και σαφής, προσαρμοσμένος
στην ηλικία των παιδιών που τον παρακολουθούν. Η φωνή του πρέπει να είναι ήρεμη και
καθαρή, προκειμένου να διευκολύνεται η σαφήνεια όσων ο εκπαιδευτικός έχει
προετοιμάσει να διδάξει. Οι έννοιες που χρησιμοποιούνται στη διδασκαλία, πρέπει να είναι
απολύτως κατανοητές. Εάν δεν είναι από τη φύση τους τόσο κατανοητές, ο εκπαιδευτικός
οφείλει να τις κάνει κατανοητές, χρησιμοποιώντας συγκεκριμένα παραδείγματα από την
καθημερινότητα των παιδιών που διδάσκει, καθώς και μια σειρά από εφαρμογές της
καθημερινότητας, τις οποίες τα παιδιά γνωρίζουν βιωματικά.
Επιπλέον, σε καμία περίπτωση, ο εκπαιδευτικός δεν πρέπει να εκνευρίζεται και να
χάνει τον έλεγχο της συμπεριφοράς του, γιατί κάτι τέτοιο θα έστελνε το μήνυμα ιδιαίτερα
στα παιδιά εκείνα που δεν μπορούν ή δεν θέλουν να πειθαρχήσουν στους κανόνες της τάξης
ούτως ή άλλως, ότι ο εκπαιδευτικός είναι ευάλωτος σε κάθε είδους ενόχληση και ως εκ
τούτου, μπορούν να τον απαξιώσουν παρεκτρέποντάς τον από τη διδασκαλία του
μαθήματος στη νουθεσία των μαθητών. Έτσι, το μάθημα θα χάνεται και οι ζωηροί μαθητές
θα γίνονται οι ήρωες της τάξης, επειδή κατάφεραν να αποσυντονίσουν τον εκπαιδευτικό και
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να χαθεί με τον τρόπο αυτό το μάθημα...

Όταν ο εκπαιδευτικός διδάσκει με αυτοπεποίθηση, με νηφαλιότητα και με σαφείς
διδακτικούς στόχους, έχοντας προετοιμαστεί κατάλληλα για το μάθημά του, τότε
οι πιθανότητες να αποτύχει η διδασκαλία του μαθήματος περιορίζονται στο ελάχιστο,
όπως έχουν δείξει σχετικές έρευνες διεθνώς (Gilchrist-Petty, 2017; Simonds & Cooper, 2010).
Ορισμός 2
Σχολική διοίκηση/διεύθυνση σχολικής τάξης (school/classroom management): Και οι δυο
όροι παραπέμπουν στη δυνατότητα διαχείρισης του ανθρώπινου παράγοντα, των
ενεργειών, των συμπεριφορών και των αναγκών του, με τον πλέον αποτελεσματικό και
συμφέροντα τρόπο από άποψη εξοικονόμησης πόρων, επίπονων και χρονοβόρων
δραστηριοτήτων, με στόχο την εύρυθμη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας ή της σχολικής
τάξης προκειμένου να επιτελείται απρόσκοπτα και αποδοτικά το εκπαιδευτικό έργο (Tomal,
2013. Emmer & Evertson, 2012).

της συνεδρίας. Σ
Επίσης, αν επιθυμείτε, μπορείτε να ανατρέξετε στους παρακάτω δυο συνδέσμους οι ύ
ν
http://www.mediation-time.eu/images/TIME_O5_Trainer_Course_Module_4.pdf
ο
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/24432/9/09_chapter2.pdf
ψ
η
/
Ανακεφαλαίωση Αντικειμένου Συνεδρίας
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό
περιβάλλον και στη διδακτική διαδικασία». Στην συνεδρία αυτή, έγινε αναφορά στο
γεγονός ότι οι τεχνικές της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό περιβάλλον,
δύνανται να επιφέρουν αποτελεσματικότητα στη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας και
14
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ποιοτικές βελτιώσεις στη μαθησιακή και εκπαιδευτική, εν γένει, διαδικασία. Στο πλαίσιο της
συνεδρίας αυτής, επίσης, έγινε έμμεση αναφορά στη βελτίωση του σχολικού κλίματος,
μέσω της εισαγωγής και τήρησης-εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας στην αίθουσα
διδασκαλίας, καθώς και στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου ευρύτερα, με την
επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής.
Επιπλέον, έγινε συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και
παραμέτρων επικοινωνίας που ισχύουν σε ολόκληρο σχεδόν το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής
διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται από επικοινωνιακές νόρμες και τεχνικές ποικίλων μορφών,
που αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην
ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων. Σε αυτό το πλαίσιο, επιχειρήθηκε να προσεγγιστούν
θεωρητικά οι τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας μεταξύ εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή, κατά
κύριο λόγο, εντός του σχολικού-εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος, προκειμένου οι
επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες, μετά τη λήξη της συνεδρίας να γνωρίζουν τις
τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων καθώς και τις
τεχνικές και στρατηγικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και ευρύτερα
στην εκπαιδευτική και στη διδακτική διαδικασία.
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Learning.
Gilchrist-Petty, E. (2017). Deviant Communication in Teacher-Student Interactions:
Emerging Research and Opportunities. USA: IGI Global.
USA: Routledge.
Pearson.
Sage Publishing Co.
Ελληνική
16
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διαστάσεις της επικοινωνιακής διαδικασίας. Αθήνα: Διάδραση
17
«Τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και
στη διδακτική διαδικασία»
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΩΝ

Οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες να προσεγγίσουν τις δυνατότητες και τις

τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας μεταξύ εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή, κατά κύριο λόγο,
εντός του σχολικού-εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος.
- γνωρίζουν τις δυνατότητες βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη

διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων
- γνωρίζουν τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και στη
διδακτική διαδικασία
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και στη διδακτική
διαδικασία». Υπό τον τίτλο αυτό, γίνεται αναφορά στο γεγονός ότι οι τεχνικές της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό
περιβάλλον, δύνανται να επιφέρουν αποτελεσματικότητα στη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας και ποιοτικές βελτιώσεις στη
μαθησιακή και εκπαιδευτική, εν γένει, διαδικασία. Στο πλαίσιο της συνεδρίας αυτής, επίσης, γίνεται έμμεση αναφορά στη βελτίωση
του σχολικού κλίματος, μέσω της εισαγωγής και τήρησης-εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας στην αίθουσα διδασκαλίας, καθώς και
στη διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου ευρύτερα, με την εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας, όπως αυτές αναπτύσσονται στο
πλαίσιο μιας σχολικής επικοινωνιακής συμβουλευτικής, για την οποία γίνεται αναφορά στην επόμενη συνεδρία.
Επιπλέον, γίνεται συνοπτική αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και παραμέτρων επικοινωνίας που ισχύουν σε
ολόκληρο σχεδόν το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται από επικοινωνιακές νόρμες και τεχνικές ποικίλων
μορφών, που αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων. Σε
αυτό το πλαίσιο, επιχειρείται να προσεγγιστούν θεωρητικά οι τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας μεταξύ εκπαιδευτικού-μαθητή,
κατά κύριο λόγο, εντός του σχολικού-εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος, προκειμένου οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες, μετά τη
λήξη της συνεδρίας να γνωρίζουν τις τεχνικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων καθώς και τις
τεχνικές και στρατηγικές βελτίωσης της επικοινωνίας στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και ευρύτερα στην εκπαιδευτική και στη διδακτική
διαδικασία.
Σχολική διοίκηση/διεύθυνση σχολικής τάξης Τεχνικές επικοινωνίας (communication techniques): Ο όρος

(school/classroom management): Και οι δυο όροι παραπέμπει στη δυνατότητα σχεδίασης και ανάπτυξης μεθόδων
παραπέμπουν στη δυνατότητα διαχείρισης του και διαδικασιών για την επίδραση της επικοινωνιακής
ανθρώπινου παράγοντα, των ενεργειών, των συμπεριφοράς του ανθρώπου, με τρόπο αποτελεσματικό και
συμπεριφορών και των αναγκών του, με τον πλέον λειτουργικό (Porterfield, 2014). Η επικοινωνία αποτελεί
αποτελεσματικό και συμφέροντα τρόπο από άποψη συμπεριφορά η οποία έχει έμφυτες καταβολές αλλά παράλληλα
εξοικονόμησης πόρων, επίπονων και χρονοβόρων επιδέχεται βελτίωσης. Συνεπώς, αποτελεί ταυτόχρονα τέχνη και
δραστηριοτήτων, με στόχο την εύρυθμη λειτουργία της τεχνική. Και από τις δυο πλευρές επιδέχεται βελτίωσης, όπως
σχολικής μονάδας ή της σχολικής τάξης προκειμένου να συμβαίνει και με κάθε άλλη ανθρώπινη συμπεριφορά (Arnold,
επιτελείται απρόσκοπτα και αποδοτικά το εκπαιδευτικό 2004).
έργο (Tomal, 2013. Emmer & Evertson, 2012).
Arnold, M. (2004). Effective Communication Techniques for Child Care. USA. Cengage Learning.
Emmer, E. T., & Evertson, C. M. (2012). Classroom Management for Middle and High School Teachers. USA: Pearson.
Gilchrist-Petty, E. (2017). Deviant Communication in Teacher-Student Interactions: Emerging Research and Opportunities.
USA: IGI Global.
Houser, M. L., & Hosek, A. (2017). Handbook of Instructional Communication. New York, NY, USA: Routledge.
Porterfield, K. (2014). Why School Communication Matters: Strategies from Professionals. USA: American Association of
School Administrators and Rowman & Littlefield.
Simonds, C. J., & Cooper, P. J. (2011). Communication for the Classroom Teacher. USA: Pearson.
Shapiro, L. E. (2003). 55 Favorite Communication Techniques that Get Kids Talking and Thinking. Childswork/Childsplay.
Tomal, D. R. (2013). Resource Management for School Administrators: Optimizing Fiscal, Facility, and Human Resources.
Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
White, D. M., & Braddy, A. H. (2017). Ready-to-Go Instructional Strategies That Build Collaboration, Communication, and
Critical Thinking. California, CA, USA: Corwin / Sage Publishing Co.
Self-study Course
for Trainers of
Intercultural
Mediators
Module 4
Communication
techniques
Uniwersytet
UniwersytetPapieski JanaPawla
Papieski Jana PawlaII wII w
Krakowie
Krakowie
© TIME project partnership, 2016
www.mediation-time.eu
Development of document:
Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawla II w Krakowie
Editing of document:
Olympic Training and Consulting Ltd, www.olympiakokek.gr
This project has been funded with support from the European
Commission. The TIME project reflects the views only of the
author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any
use which may be made of the information contained therein.
2
Table of Contents
1. Objectives of module ...........................................................................4

2. Introduction to communication................................................................5
2.1. Definitions ........................................................................................5
2.2. Basic terms of communication .................................................................6
3. Communication features .......................................................................9
3.1. Classification and roles of communication...................................................9
3.2. Features, roles and competences .............................................................9
3.3. Basic communication models ................................................................ 11
4. Communication techniques .................................................................. 15
4.1. Levels of communication ..................................................................... 15
4.2. Main rules of interpersonal communication ............................................... 16
5. Verbal and non-verbal communication ..................................................... 18
6. Improving communication effectiveness and argumentation ........................... 27
6.1. Effective communication ..................................................................... 27
6.2. Argumentation ................................................................................. 28
6.3. Persuasion techniques ........................................................................ 29
6.4. Tools of communication ...................................................................... 29
7. Problems in communication .................................................................. 33
7.1. Communication barriers ...................................................................... 33
7.2. Barriers to accurate perception ............................................................. 33
7.3. Barriers to effective verbal communication ............................................... 34
8. Principles of intercultural communication ................................................. 36
9. Selected reading ............................................................................... 38
3
1. Objectives of module
Communication is at the core of both training and intercultural mediation. This module
provides the trainer who hasn’t previously received training on communication issues with
an in-depth discussion of communication principles that apply in general, as well as
communication issues in multicultural environments and the mediation context.
At the end of this module you will be able to:

1. Analyze and interpret verbal, non-verbal, informative and persuasive messages
2. Understand how problems in communication arise
3. Apply appropriate techniques in order to improve communication with a variety
of different people including students
4. Create messages tailored to different levels of communication and choose
appropriate communication tools depending on the purpose
5. Understand the dilemmas associated with conducting discussions in a
multicultural context
6. Apply the principles of intercultural communication
4
2. Introduction to communication
2.1. Definitions
Communication is the transmission of mental content - that is thinking or feeling, between

two or more people who interact with each other. At the same time one of them serves as
the sender, and the other(s) as the receiver, while their roles may change during the
process.
Communication takes effect through facial expressions, gestures, the touch, images,
music, the body's movements, and above all, thanks to the natural languages. That's why in
every aspect of life and social functioning the role of communication is so important.
In the etymological sense of the word communication comes from the Latin
"communicare", which means ‘to put in common’, ‘to share’. Although it is widely known
and used in different languages, it is not always clear and well understood.
There are about 100 different definitions of communication; here we are going to mention
just a few in order to highlight the different functions of the communication process:
Communication as a basic term
In 1909, Cooley in the study "Social Organization" formulates a classic definition of

communication:
It is “the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop—all the symbols of
the mind, together with the means of conveying them through space and preserving them
in time. It includes the expression of the face, attitude and gesture, the tones of the
voice, words, writing, printing, railways, telegraphs, telephones, and whatever else may
be the latest achievement in the conquest of space and time.”
Communication as transmission
 Transfer of information in a very broad sense of the term (Ayer).

 Transfer of information, ideas and emotions; skills or transmission process (Bertson,
Steiner).
Communication as understanding
 Communication is a process by which we understand others, and try to be understood

(Anderson).
 The process by which two people come to the same thoughts or feelings (Adler).
Communication as mergers
 A process that combines the discrete parts of our living environment (Reuch).
 Create a whole society of individuals using language or signs (Sherry).
5
Communication as interaction
Communication is social interaction through symbols (Gerbner).
Communication as a replacement
Communication is the exchange of meanings between people. It is possible to the extent

that individuals have common perceptions, desires and attitudes (Balchey).
2.2. Basic terms of communication
The effectiveness of communication depends on whether the sender:
 Knows the audience

 Choses the right way of communication, including the media
 Has knowledge of the rules of argumentation and persuasion
 Transmits the message at the right time
 Choses the right form of communication, including the content of the message,
style, slogan, written text or spoken word
The following principles of communication apply when sending a message:
 Prepare and inspire the audience

A positive attitude towards the recipient is very important. ‘The boomerang principle’
works here - what we send to the world, comes back to us. You could say simplifying
that what we get from people is what we give them.
Graph 1: Key elements of communication.
6
 Remember about the first impression
During the first meeting we experience hundreds of stimuli archaic, which we do not
control (expansion of the pupil, muscle twitching under the eyes etc.). First
impressions cannot be done second time and they are hard to change. The first 15
seconds of the first 20 words and gestures will have an impact on whether or not we
will get along with that person.
 Be aware of perceptions and stereotypes, and avoid them

Stereotypes simplify our life but they do not help in communication. When
stereotyping we generalize and make unauthorized inferences. Often on the basis of
one characteristic we conclude about other characteristics e.g. good education is
associated with good manners. However, stereotype-free thinking is essential for good
communication.
 Listen well
Unfortunately, the ability to listen decreases with age. Children listen well because
they are curious. Why do not adults listen as well? Because they think of something
else; they are contemplating what to answer; because of the internal speakers; lack of
interest. How can we help ourselves in listening? We can paraphrase words of the
sender; summarize the meaning of what he says; confirm; ask questions; use
confirming gestures.
Graph 2: Active listening.
The effectiveness of communication is also affected by the recipient or the target group.
All the following characteristics of the recipient play an important role in decoding the
message:
 activity level
 intellect, perceptive capability
 personality
 demographic characteristics
7
 knowledge
 motivation
 attitude
 self-esteem
 stereotypes, likes and dislikes
The message itself should also be adapted to the given situation in which we are trying to
communicate. The sender should take into account:
 The recipient’s attitude towards the subject of the message

 The recipient’s attitude towards the channel of information
 The objectives of the target group
 Current needs, interests, expectations of the sender and the recipient
 The environment - family, professional, other - which affects the way of receiving
and interpreting information
1. Mass communication theory: An introduction, McQuail, Denis, Thousand Oaks, CA,

US
2. Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change

Richard Petty, John Cacioppo,
https://books.google.pl/books?id=nFFDBAAAQBAJ&lpg=PT12&ots=idGdAtJJp9&dq=com
munication&lr&hl=pl&pg=PT3#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. Communication theory
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Communication_Theory.pdf
4. Communication techniques
http://www.urd.org/IMG/pdf/MP_GB_CHAPITRE4.pdf
8
3. Communication features
3.1. Classification and roles of communication
Communication processes are classified according to the purpose:
1. Informative communication. Its primary purpose is to establish facts, creating mutual

agreement and understanding between participants, knowledge sharing, explanation and
briefing, assuming that the sender does not have the intention of influencing the attitude
of receivers. It fulfills strictly informational functions and is objective in nature.
The basic methods of information include:
 Narrative – conveying the facts from the beginning to the end.

 Description – it usually relates to people, objects or situations. The order of facts is
not the most important.
 Demonstration - verbal communication during the transfer accompanied by
simultaneously performing other activities illustrating the message.
 Defining - explaining concepts, their classification, differentiating, pointing to
synonyms, antonyms, a reference to examples or comparisons.
2. Persuasive communication. The main aim is to influence, using inducements and

translations. Information is subjective and not necessarily reliable. The object of
persuasion can be an individual, ideas, values or phenomena, i.e. anything that can be
estimated at an intellectual, moral or emotional level. The fundamental value is the
impact on the recipient, to get him to attitudes that are compatible with the intentions of
the sender, without applying pressure.
There are three types of persuasion:
 Convincing - a classic example is the transaction process, where both sides seek
agreement and understanding. It is the most ethical.
 Inducing - the intention is to attract the receiver to the sender's ideas, values and
attitudes that professes unit persuasion. It is used in advertising or in education.
Depending on the purpose and whom it serves, it may be either useful or harmful.
 Stimulating - or agitation. It aims to achieve short-term benefits. This type of
persuasion is accompanied with the most ethical controversies.
3.2. Features, roles and competences
The basic characteristics of the communication process agreed by researchers from

different schools and theoretical approaches are that:
 Communication is a specific social process as it relates to at least two individuals

and the social environment.
9
 Communication always occurs in a specific social context, which is determined by
the number and nature of the participants in the process. Context may be
institutional, group, public, mass or intercultural.
 Communication is a creative process, during which new concepts are built and the
knowledge about the surrounding reality is acquired continuously.
 Communication is always dynamic because it is about receiving, decoding and

interpreting information.
 Communication is a continuous process because it takes place from the moment of

birth until death, provided of course that the person will stay in a social
environment.
 Communication is the process of symbolic because in most cases symbols and signs
are used. In order to make communication possible, there must exist a common
semiotic ground (same characters and symbols) at least at an elementary level.
 Communication is an interactive process between its participants producing certain

relationships, which can be divided into two types: a) partner relationship –
symmetric communication, and b) relationship of domination and subordination –
unbalanced communication
Naturally, in order to participate in verbal communication some kind of competence and

efficiency is required. These competences are mutually conditioning, so that knowledge
cannot occur in the human mind without specific skills. And skills cannot appear without
previously acquired competences. In communication we can distinguish three main
competences.
a) Linguistic competence: It refers to the unconscious knowledge to build sentences

grammatically correct and meaningful. Knowledge of the language system includes all
three levels of language: phonological, morphological and syntactic. According to
Chomsky’s theory linguistic competence is the knowledge of the abstract rules that
determine both message creation and reception (understanding).
b) Communicative competence: It refers to knowledge about the use of language in a

social group. It is the ability to adapt language use:
 According to different systems and social roles, depending on cultural context, the
social position of the sender and the receiver, the type of contact (official –
unofficial), the stability of the contact etc.
 According to the given situation, such as the number of speakers, time and place
of the conversation, the conversation dynamic, the channel of transmission etc.
c) Cultural competence: It refers to society or a social group we communicate with:
 It is the knowledge about reality, i.e. about the phenomena surrounding us in

social groups. It is a subjective interpretation of the phenomena occurring in a
social group, made from the point of view of accepted values (Grabias 1997).
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 We cannot acquire communicative competence without considering the views and
perspectives of people from different cultures. Communication requires
understanding, and understanding requires the ‘incarnation’ of the foreigner and
increasing his and our cultural experience, always taking into account the
different culture in relation to our home culture (Kramsch 1993).
3.3. Basic communication models
Laswell’s model
Source: http://communicationtheory.org
Laswell’s model is widely regarded as one of the basic models of mass communication. It is
characterized by a simple and clear design based on a series of questions:
- Who communicates?
- What is the message?
- By what means of communication?
- To whom?
- With what result?
This model is about the process of communication and its function to society. According to
Lasswell there are three functions of communication:
- Surveillance of the environment
- Correlation of society components
- Cultural transmission between generations
Lasswell’s model suggests also that the message flows in a multicultural society with
multiple audiences. The flow of message is through various channels.
Shannon - Weaver’s model
The communication model of Shannon and Weaver is characterized by simplicity and

linearity. This model is specially designed to depict the effective communication between
sender and receiver. It also describes factors that affect the communication process called
11
“noise”. At first the model was developed to improve technical communication. Later it
was widely applied in the field of communication in general.
It is worth noticing that this model includes Noise. The messages are transferred from the
encoder to the decoder through various channels. During the transmission process
messages may be distorted or affected by noise, which results in the disturbance of the
communication flow or in that the receiver may not receive the correct message.
Noise is understood in communication theory as any type of interference that substantially

impedes the process of message decoding. We divide it into:
a) External noise - connected with the outside environment of the process (i.e.
volume, temperature, light);
b) Internal noise - feelings and mental aptitude of participants in the communication

process, i.e. headache, fatigue, forgetfulness, anger, stereotypes, prejudices;
c) The semiotics –intentional or unintentional mistakes by the sender in the meaning

of words or sentences block positive decoding by the receiver.
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Newcomb’s model
This model of communication was introduced by Theodore M. Newcomb in 1953. Newcomb

adopts a different approach to the communication process. The main purpose of his theory
is to introduce the role of communication in a social relationship (society) and to maintain
social equilibrium within the social system. He does not include the message as a separate
entity in his diagram, implying it only by use of directional arrows. He concentrates on the
social purpose of communication, showing all communication processes as a means of
sustaining relationships between people. Sometimes it’s called an “ABX” model of
communication.
Schramm’s model
Schramm proposes a circular model, suggesting that communication is circular in nature:
Encoder = Message sender
Decoder = Message receiver
Interpreter = Person trying to understand or interpret
This model presents communication in a practical way. It is not a traditional model. It can
be applied to ourselves or two people; each person acts as both sender and receiver and
hence uses interpretation. Encoding, interpreting and decoding take place simultaneously.
Advantages of Schramm’s model of communication are:
- It is a dynamic model – it shows how a situation can change
- It shows why redundancy is an essential part of communication
- There is no separate sender and receiver; sender and receiver is the same person
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- It assumes communication to be circular in nature
- Feedback is a central feature
1. Laswell, H. (1948). The structure and function of communication in society.

In L. Bryson (Ed.), The communication of ideas. New York: Harper.
2. Ruben, B. D. (1984). Communication and human behavior. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co.
3. Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works. In W. Schramm (Ed.), The
process and effects of mass communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois
Press.
4. Shannon, C. & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of
communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
5. Communication theory website, http://communicationtheory.org
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4. Communication techniques
4.1. Levels of communication
Communication takes place at several levels:
1. Intrapersonal communication – it refers to biological and psychological processes,

i.e. the perception and reaction of the central nervous system to stimuli coming
from the body.
2. Interpersonal communication - the lowest level of social communication. Usually it

takes place face to face.
3. Group communication - communication in small groups such as family, group of

employees or friends.
4. Intergroup communication - it refers to bigger groups in which not all members

have personal, direct contact, such as local communities, associations and unions.
5. Organizational / institutional communication - communication is formalized, while

power and control are clearly defined, as are the roles of the sender and the
recipient.
6. Mass communication – it is the widest communication process by means of media

widely understood. Transmission and exchange of information involve the largest
number of people. It also takes the most time.
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4.2. Main rules of interpersonal communication
Our effectiveness as speakers depends on both form and content of expression. It should,
therefore, follow certain rules of adequate preparation of expression, as well as of
conducting a conversation. The key principles of good communication are:
 Know yourself - your own goals, characteristics, preferences, temperament and

motives.
 Consider the recipient’s fluctuating attention levels. No one is able to pick up all our
messages regardless of what we say and how. You have to take into account the
inevitable fluctuations of listeners' attention.
 Pay attention to feelings - the mental state, the emotional condition of the listener.
 Pay attention to the intended meaning. Understanding the content of a message is

fuller when we try to grasp the meaning of the entire statement, not a particular
statement or isolated words. Content should be interpreted according to its context.
 Accept opposing points of view. Try to look at the issue from the position of your
interlocutor.
 Speak in a clear, factual way. Confusing message presentation, poor content

adaptation, as well as the excessive and exaggerated use of metaphor are common
errors in message transmission.
 Support your words with non-verbal communication. Pay special attention to the
consistency of verbal and non-verbal communication so as to avoid conflicting or
unclear messages.
Active and effective listening
Interpersonal communication involves processes of listening and speaking interchangeably.

During the conversation interlocutors assume the roles of both the listener and the
speaker. So besides clear formulation of messages it is necessary to listen effectively as
well. Here are some principles:
 Motivation to listen is the most important single feature that distinguishes a good
listener from a bad listener. It is a mistake to assume that others do not have to tell us
anything significant, because, for example, they are younger, less educated, do not
occupy an important position etc.
 Open-mindedness while listening means respecting the way of thinking of the other
part, even if we do not share their opinion.
 Patience is the ability to listen to the whole message, regardless of its length. Proper
behavior as a listener means refraining from interrupting the speaker.
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 Insightful listening means that we try to grasp the idea, the central meaning, not just
isolated words and sentences.
 Sensitivity is the ability to capture any signs of emotional reactions, both positive and
negative. Sensitive recipients do not only perceive these signs, but also they take into
account the emotional state of the other part in their responses.
 Put the speaker at ease. Create an atmosphere of approval and understanding that
facilitates the speaker to express all his thoughts related to the subject.
1. http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/interpersonal-communication.html
2. “Interpersonal Communication Processes”, chapter 6 from ‘A Primer on
Communication Studies’, http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-
communication-studies/s06-interpersonal-communication-pr.html
3. Interpersonal Communication, Peter Hartley, London and New York,
http://home.lu.lv/~s10178/interpersonalcommunication.pdf
4. http://www.the-performance-
factory.com/media/seh/StrategyExecutionHeroes_dwnld_06.pdf
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5. Verbal and non-verbal communication
Verbal communication
In verbal communication information is transmitted by speaking. In this type of

communication crucial factors are:
 Pronunciation and articulation – poor pronunciation and articulation can obscure a

message or make it unintelligible
 Fluency – the extent to which our statement is smooth and free of interludes, pauses
or hesitation has a big impact on the recipient of the message, as it facilitates
understanding and is related to assertiveness
 Content expression - choice of vocabulary and linguistic register, along with

grammatical correctness, play an important role in creating or eliminating distance,
gaining or losing respect and acceptance, and adapting to the interlocutor
 Time – lengthiness or brevity of speech can imply a lot about the speaker’s
competence, intentions, politeness, and context awareness
Non - verbal communication
Verbal communication is usually accompanied by several forms of non-verbal

communication, expressed by:
o gestures - movements of the arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet, head and body;
o facial expressions;
o touch and physical contact;
o physical appearance - the way of dressing, grooming and visual exposure;
o paralinguistic sounds - such as sighs, grunts, cries, wheezing, whistling, moaning,
laughter or any sounds that do not form words;
o prosodic elements - intonation, emphasis, tone of voice, loudness, rhythm of
speech, pitch of the voice;
o eye contact, in which the quality and length of the looks is an important element
of communication;
o posture - the level of tension or relaxation and openness or closure;
o physical distance between the interlocutors - the distance between them in the
course of the conversation provides important information about social relations,
level of intimacy etc.;
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Graph 3: Zones of physical distance.
The above-mentioned aspects of non-verbal communication are subject to different

divisions or classifications in literature. However, these expressions are the most basic
phenomena, which perform the functions of non-verbal communication. A noteworthy
classification of the functions of non-verbal communication was developed by Ekman and
Friesen (1969). These scientists have pointed to the 5 essential functions of this type of
communication, namely emblems, illustrators, indicators of emotions, regulators of
conversation, and adapters.
I. Emblems
It refers to behavior such as showing someone the tongue, "winking" or the shaping with
fingers the letter V. These behaviors have to us quite a clear meaning - showing the tongue
is a sign of disrespect, "winking" indicates sympathy, while the letter V signals the will to
win. All the gestures and other nonverbal acts that are easily translatable into words and
read by conventional cultural codes, may perform the function of emblems.
II. Illustrators
Non-verbal behavior often illustrates, augments or even contradicts our speech. We
emphasize for instance the size of things by using gestures. Certain gestures help us to
embellish a story and add to its dynamics. A significant number of illustrators refers to
something symbolic. Closed movements, hiding hand, clenching fists are usually
accompanied by negative emotions and uncertainty.
III. Indicators of emotions

Indicators of emotion refer to involuntary signals about our state of emotion. The strongest
emotions are expressed by means of mimic. Facial expressions are a link to the mental
state of another human being, recognized intuitively and comprehensively. The range of
facial expressions and gestures revealing emotional states is virtually unlimited.
IV. Regulators of conversation

Certain forms of behavior help in regulating the conversation by maintaining and modifying
the way of speaking and listening, for example:
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o End of speech - the speaker changes the intonation for questioning, reduces the
volume and makes eye contact with the recipient
o Continuation of expression - increased volume, avoiding pauses (on behalf of the
speaker), nods and agreement smiles (on behalf of the listener)
o The willingness of expression – moving hand up, rapid breathing, increasing
tension in body position, striving to establish eye contact
o Unwillingness of expression - the adoption of a relaxed body position,
maintaining silence, avoiding eye contact with the speaker
V. Adapters
Adapters are used to achieve the most comfortable position to talk. It consists of the right
body position, the desired viewing angle, etc. They also include unconscious body
movements, such as touching one’s face etc.
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Face expression
The face is the most expressive part of the body as it reflects the rapidly changing moods,
reactions to the speech and behavior of the sender and receiver. The face expresses
primarily feelings and emotions.
Some areas of the face are more expressive than others. Very meaningful are eyebrows:
Fully raised - disbelief
Raised to half - surprise
Normal - no comment
Lowered to half - embarrassed
Completely depressed - anger
A similar power of expression we can see in the mouth area. Changing the position of the
corners of the mouth expresses states of satisfaction (raised) to dissatisfaction or
depression (lowered).
Changes in facial expression should be the result of conscious control. By monitoring and
controlling the muscles of the face, we can hide inappropriate or unacceptable to the
environment reactions. With the conscious management of facial expressions, we can often
achieve effects such as intensification of emotions, neutralization of emotions, masking
emotions.
This does not necessarily mean that controlling expressions allows us to hide our true
emotions. This is because the expression of a particular emotional state usually involves
several areas of the face. Nevertheless, the observation of the receiver’s face often helps
with conducting communication, reading current emotions.
Gestures and body language
When we talk we constantly move not only our hands or head, but also our whole body.
These movements are coordinated with speech and they are part of the overall process of
communication. Movements of our head are specific kind of gesture and have two main
functions:
1. They act as enforcement, reward and encouragement for the sender to
continue the speech
2. The synchronization of interaction
Gestures, depending on their function, are divided as described above in emblems,

illustrators, indicators of emotions, regulators of conversation, and adapters.
Speaking of gestures, an important part is the body position (body language). The way of
sitting or standing reveals a lot about our well-being. One of the messages emitted by the
body posture is a state of psychological tension. This is evidenced by the static signs (feet
close together, hands pressed to the body, clenched hands) and kinetic signs (continuous
movement of the feet or hands, turning head).
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Using the posture we can also communicate our attitude towards the other person. Setting
the body directly for easy eye contact, body tilting forward or touching are the expressions
of a positive attitude to the relation. An expression of liking is to assume a position similar
to the other person’s.
Eye contact
We can identify many shades of meaning contained in the look. We meet the neutral,
warm, caring or dismissive gaze. It should be noted that usually we interpret not only the
eyes, but also the wealth of information contained in other non-verbal behavior and
situational context. The final impression is the result of receiving all the elements
interpreted together. Approximately half of the duration of the conversation is maintained
with eye contact between interlocutors.
The exchange of look opens a channel of

communication preceding the exchange of words.
There are also situations when avoiding eye contact
is used to prevent the further stages of talk (for
Eye contact
example, if students do not want to answer the has a strong cultural element. What
teacher's question). Careful observation of our is considered honest and respectful
interlocutor’s gaze can be very helpful in retrieving in certain cultures is rude and
feedback on how our message was interpreted or inappropriate in other cultures.
perceived.
Pupils, eyebrows and eyelids are also involved in the expression of emotions. It was noted
that pupils expand when viewing objects considered attractive but narrow while watching
uninteresting or disliked objects. Such a reaction cannot be consciously controlled. In
turns, the amount of blinking decreases in fatigue and lethargy.
On the other hand intentional eye expressions can reveal recognition, respect, sympathy,
contempt or resentment, helping us express our attitude towards our interlocutor. Length
and intensity of the gaze do also reveal a lot about our emotions. When a person avoids
eye contact we can feel indifference, dislike or even antipathy. The quality of eye contact
is one of the most important criteria in distinguishing between “warm” or “cold”
interlocutors.
Cultural differences in non-verbal communication
Effective intercultural communication requires that we are closely acquainted with the
communication style adopted in another culture, which in many important aspects may be
quite different from the style that prevails in our country. This means that we must begin
by rejecting an ethnocentric view proclaiming that the communication style of our own
culture is the best.
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In different cultures, we can see a variety of non-verbal behaviors. Being aware of them
raises communicative competence and helps us to reliably communicate with people from
another culture.
One of the most important cultural characteristics is contact (proximity). Proximity refers
to activities or actions that signal a desire to establish a closer contact with another
person, such as the manifestations of affection, eye contact, closeness and openness.
Cultures that display behavior associated with high levels of proximity are known as "high
contact cultures" because the members of such cultures stay closer to one another, and
more often make contact by touch. Researches show that cultures that are more open are
for example Saudi Arabia, France, Greece and Italy. Those cultures are usually located in
"warm" climates. "Low contact cultures", that include Scandinavia, Germany, Britain, the
United States, Japan, have a climate that can be described as "cool". This is an important
dimension because a socially sensitive guest must know how to behave in a particular
culture.
A second dimension that can be used to make comparisons between cultures is the degree
of individualism or collectivism. Western cultures are associated with individualism, while
Eastern cultures identify with collectivism. Countries with a culture that promotes
individualism include the United States, Canada, Belgium and Denmark; while the
countries with the least individualistic cultures are Colombia, Pakistan, Taiwan or Hong
Kong. There are many significant differences in non-verbal behavior of members of these
two types of cultures. For example, members of individualist cultures prefer a bigger
distance in the relationship with the other person, but they more often use nonverbal
behaviors during contact.
Another cultural dimension is context. Context refers to the extent to which messages are
explicitly communicated or inferred through contextual cues. In low context cultures most
of the information comes from explicit verbal communiques. Messages are specific,
detailed and direct. Examples of low context cultures are the Scandinavian and the
German. In high context cultures much is left unsaid or inferred by choice of words and the
cultural context. More emphasis is put on human relations. High context cultures include
countries such as China, Japan, and Korea.
The likelihood of success in intercultural communication can be increased by training

aimed at developing some competences. The key skills are: maintaining appropriate eye
contact, listening carefully (in the sense of information processing, not just passive
listening) and smiling.
Before making contact with people belonging to other cultures, it is good to

be prepared for it. Here are some aspects that should be noted:
 Refer to the rules of showing emotions in public. It is particularly important to

know how you can use facial expressions and hand gestures.
23
 Be sure to follow the rules guiding forms and sequence of behaviors during
greetings.
 Determine the degree of physical contact, commitment and availability that is

expected in public.
 Take into account the culture-specific expectations regarding the use of touch,
movement, eye-contact and time standards (e.g. arriving late).
 You should learn to recognize and avoid the use of emblems and behaviors that can
be perceived as an insult or offense.
 Specify the type of personal clothing and accessories that are compatible with the
cultural convention.
Assertiveness in communication
Assertiveness, next to empathy, is the basic skill forming part of emotional intelligence.
Under this concept the ability to express opinions, criticisms, needs and wishes is
described, as well as sensitivity to others, firmness, and the ability to deny to others in a
way that does not hurt them.
Assertive persons are able to control their emotions. They do not readily lend themselves
to manipulation and other pressures, and are able to communicate clearly their
expectations. Assertive persons show how they want to be treated, knowing how to define
clearly the boundaries that others cannot exceed. Moreover, this is done in a fair way,
directly and boldly, without paralyzing fear, accepting limitations, regardless of whether a
given situation is managed successfully or not.
An assertive attitude characterizes people who have a self-image adequate to reality. They
set realistic goals, making full use of their capabilities, while at the same time they do not
undertake too difficult tasks. They have their own views and do not hesitate to talk about
them. They can tell the truth or their own opinion, but in a tactful manner. Assertive
persons have a rare ability – they can talk about themselves and accept criticism in a
constructive way.
These features make assertive people to be liked in their environment and can create
sincere relationships with others. They are perceived as honest, loyal, trustworthy and
consistent in their behavior. People like to discuss with assertive people, feeling
comfortable.
Assertive behavior is usually acquired and it can be learnt. Mastering assertiveness

requires a lot of work and, above all, careful observation of ourselves in order to
understand our own needs.
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However many people instead of being assertive adopt attitudes that impede
communication such as: submission, aggression or manipulation. Such attitudes and
behaviors lead to conflicts, misunderstandings and quarrels.
Submission
Submission in interpersonal relations is manifested by excessive respect for the rights of
others and skipping, pushing or jamming of our own. Submissive people do not express
their opinion if it is contrary to what the other person says, or are willing to change it.
Those people rarely ask for something, because there think that others will refuse them.
They cannot accept praise, as they are ashamed and embarrassed. They are eager to
praise others, but excessively criticize themselves, exaggerating their faults, and ignoring
their benefits.
Aggression
Aggression in daily contact between people is the desire to dominate over others, to prove
that we are always right. Aggressive people as opposed to the submissive as they pose their
own rights, needs and desires above the rights, needs and desires of others. They do not
simply express their opinion, but they impose it on others. Their requests are more like
orders, not taking into account that anyone can deny. They criticize everything and
everyone, not accepting self-criticism.
Manipulation
Manipulation manifests a lack of integrity, authenticity and spontaneity in dealing with
people. Manipulators deliberately choose influencing techniques in order to reach a certain
effect for their own interest. The key factor is not the number of influence techniques
used, but the intention of the speaker. Influencing the audience for your own selfish
interests is considered manipulation, and has a negative connotation, as it is veiled
domination over others. During manipulation we do not express opinions, we say what is
the most cost-effective in a given situation.
Neither of these approaches helps in establishing and maintaining successful relationships.

The attitude that helps to achieve satisfaction in dealing with people is assertiveness.
Assertive people are able to express their requests freely, but take into account the fact
25
that someone can refuse them. They can receive both criticism and praise because they
know their pros and cons. Being assertive is not easy, requires training and intensive work,
but this effort is profitable both for professional and personal contacts.
1. http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/nonverbal-communication.html
2. https://www.andrews.edu/~tidwell/bsad560/NonVerbal.html
3. Nonverbal Behavior and Nonverbal Communication: What Do Conversational Hand
Gestures Tell Us? Robert M. Krauss, Yihsiu Chen, and Purnima Chawla, Columbia
University, http://www.columbia.edu/~rmk7/PDF/Adv.pdf
4. https://www.boundless.com/communications/textbooks/boundless-communications-
textbook/delivering-the-speech-12/effective-visual-delivery-65/proxemics-263-7998/
5. Communication skills
http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415537902/data/learning/11_Communicatio
n%20Skills.pdf
6. Successful Nonverbal Communication: Principles and Applications, Dale G.
Leathers, Michael Howard Eaves
https://books.google.pl/books/about/Successful_Nonverbal_Communication.html?id
=ZXhWAAAAYAAJ&redir_esc=y
26
6. Improving communication effectiveness and argumentation
6.1. Effective communication
There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable to both written as well as
oral communication. These are as follows:
Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than
trying to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has the following features:
 It makes understanding easier.
 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of the message.
 A clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.
Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e. conveying your message in the least
possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. It is both time-saving and
cost-saving.
 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and
needless words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words
to the audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear. Concreteness

strengthens confidence. A concrete message has the following features:
 It is supported by specific facts and figures.
 It makes use of words that are clear and build reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.
27
Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors
in communication. Correct communication has the following features:
 Use the right level of language
 Correct use of grammar, spelling and punctuation
 Accuracy in stating facts and figures
Coherence - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective

communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e. the audience’s viewpoints,
background, mind-set, education level, etc.
Completeness - The message must be complete. It should convey all facts required by the
audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mindset
and convey the message accordingly. A complete message has the following features:
 It develops and enhances the sender’s reputation
 It always gives additional information wherever required; it leaves no questions
in the mind of the recipient
 It helps in better decision-making
Courtesy - Courtesy in a message implies that the sender expresses not only his thoughts
but also respect for the recipient. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite,
judicious, reflective and enthusiastic.
6.2. Argumentation
There are three types of argumentation or reasoning:
Objective (factual) arguments

True, authentic specific examples that confirm the validity of the thesis proclaimed. The
listener treats them as evidence. There can be no doubt; it is difficult to disprove the
thesis. Examples:
 Numbers e.g. statistical data, research results, summarizing statements
 Statements of reputable scientists
 Quotes from scientific publications; historical documents
 Literal quotations, statements of authorities
Logical arguments
Drawing conclusions from true or probable grounds. Examples:
 Analogies: inference of similarities.
 Induction: gathering detailed information in order to make generalizations. The
sender collects facts in order to reach an accurate conclusion. From specific to
general.
 Deduction: reverse reasoning from induction. From general to specific.
 Dilemma: two conditions of mutually excluding nature that lead to the need to
choose one of them. A dilemma correctly constructed is irreversible.
28
Emotional arguments
They appeal to the feelings of the audience or the speaker. The sender is trying to build
his argument on sympathy, fear, resentment, pity, compassion, etc. It is the weakest way
of argumentation and should rather be used for coloring statements or giving them specific
individual characteristics (such as individual style, pathos or being moved). In official
statements this type of argument is rather unwelcome.
6.3. Persuasion techniques
Persuasion is a basic psychological and communicative means of modifying attitudes and

behavior. Effective persuasion has the following features:
 Specific objectives and goals - an indication of concrete results
 The use of logical arguments in the form of rational lines of reasoning, supported by
reference to evidence
 Recognition of existing attitudes and behavior patterns on behalf of the recipient
 Motivating use of language to induce action
 Building credibility based on telling the truth
 Convincing and attractive message formulation
There are six phases in the process of persuasive communication:

1. The message should be presented in a good place, in a good time and by the
channel easily available for the receivers.
2. Getting and maintaining the attention of the recipient
3. Decoding meanings
4. Reflection upon interpretation of the message, followed by acceptance or
rejection
5. Remembering the content by the receivers. Content should be easy to
remember.
6. Changing attitudes, the most important impact of persuasive communication
6.4. Tools of communication
Paraphrase
Paraphrase is a free modification of the sentence, which develops and modifies the
content of the original, while retaining its essential meaning. The communication
paraphrase is repeating in own words what has been told by the sender.
Paraphrase is a very useful tool because:

 It is a way to make sure that we understood the gist of another person.
 It facilitates remembering content of the conversation.
 It is a signal of interest in the conversation and builds contact.
 It creates an atmosphere of safety.
29
 If we find that we have understood the words of the sender incorrectly, paraphrase
would give a chance to correct it.
Paraphrase begins usually with sentences like the following:

"Do I understand that you..."
"If I understand well..."
"From what you said, I understood that..."
"Do you mean that..."
"If I understand you correctly, you think that ..."
"I understand that ..."
"In other words…".
Asking
Asking the right questions is at the heart of effective communications and information
exchange. By using the right questions in a particular situation we can improve a whole
range of communications skills, such as: gathering better information and learning more,
building stronger relationships, helping others to understand.
Open and closed questions
A closed question usually receives a single word or very short, factual answer. The answer
is usually "Yes" or "No”. Open questions elicit longer answers. They usually begin with
what, why, how. An open question asks the respondent for his or her knowledge, opinion
or feelings. "Tell me" and "describe" can also be used in the same way as open questions.
Open questions are good for:

 Developing an open conversation
 Finding out more detail
 Finding out the other person's opinion or issues
Closed questions are good for:

 Testing your or the other person's understanding
 Concluding a discussion or making a decision
 A misplaced closed question can disturb the conversation and lead to awkward
silences, so they are best avoided when a conversation is in progress.
Funnel questions
This technique involves starting with general questions, and then homing in on a point in
each answer, and asking more and more detail at each level. Funnel questions are good
for:
 Finding out more detail about a specific point
 Gaining the interest or increasing the confidence of the person you're speaking
with
30
Rhetorical questions
Rhetorical questions aren't really questions at all, in that they don't expect an answer.
They are just statements phrased in question form. Rhetorical questions are good for
engaging the listener.
Using questions in communication
Questions are a powerful way of:

 Learning
 Relationship building
 Managing and coaching
 Avoiding misunderstandings
 Easing a heated situation
 Persuading people
Summarize
A summary is a concise overview of the most important points from a communication,

whether it’s from a conversation, presentation or document. Summarizing is a very
important skill for an effective communicator. A good summary can verify that people are
understanding each other, can make communications more efficient, and can ensure that
the highlights of communication are captured and utilized.
When summarizing, consider the following guidelines:
 When listening or reading, look for the main ideas being conveyed.
 Look for any major point that comes from the communication. What is
the person trying to accomplish in the communication?
 Organize the main ideas, either just in your mind or written down.
 Write a summary that lists and organizes the main ideas, along with
the major point of the communicator. The summary should always be
shorter than the original communication.
 Does not introduce any new main points into the summary – if you
do, make it clear that you’re adding them.
 If possible, have other readers or listeners also read your summary

and tell you if it is understandable, accurate and complete.
31
1. Effective Communications
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/archives/effective-
communications.pdf
2. http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/improving-communication.html
3. Effective communication, communication skills
http://www.free-management-ebooks.com/dldebk-pdf/fme-effective-
communication.pdf
4. https://www.uscg.mil/auxiliary/training/tct/chap7.pdf
5. http://managementhelp.org
32
7. Problems in communication
7.1. Communication barriers
Most people would agree that communication between two individuals should be simple.
However, it is important to remember that there are differences between talking and
communicating. When you communicate, you are successful in getting your point across to
the person you’re talking to. When we talk, we tend to erect barriers that hinder our
ability to communicate. There are seven of these types of barriers to effective
communication, including:
 Physical barriers
 Perceptual barriers
 Emotional barriers
 Cultural barriers
 Language barriers
 Gender barriers
 Interpersonal barriers
If we want to communicate smoothly, we need to pay particular attention to some very

important factors in mutual contacts:
 Empathy, or to empathize with the other person;

 Kindness, that is, respect for others and their opinions, even if they differ from our
own;
 Authenticity, namely a ratio of the real to the various problems;
 Directness in expressing their feelings and ideas;
 Openness in expressing feelings;
 Acceptance of feelings. Expressing what we feel and the expectation that the other
person will take the same attitude, is essential.
Recommended video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hn1FRhNa-Ts
7.2. Barriers to accurate perception
 Stereotyping and generalizing. Be careful not to hold on to preconceptions about

people or things. We often have a tendency to see what we want to see, forming an
impression from a small amount of information or one experience, and assuming
that to be highly representative of the whole person or situation.
33
 Not investing time. Making assumptions and ignoring details or circumstances can
lead to misconceptions. When we fail to look in-depth for causes or circumstances,
we miss important details, and do not allow for the complexity of the situation.
 Having a distorted focus. Focusing on the negative aspects of a conversation or a

situation is a habit common to many people. Even though we may recognize the
positive things, we often give more weight to the negative, allowing one negative
comment to overshadow numerous positive ones.
 Assuming similar interpretations. Not everyone will draw the same conclusions
from a given situation or set of information. Everybody interprets things differently.
Make sure to check for other people’s interpretations, and be explicit about your
own.
 Experiencing incongruent cues. As speakers and as listeners we are constantly and

simultaneously sending cues and receiving them from other people. Try to be
consistent with your verbal cues and your body language. Do not say one thing and
express something else through your body language. Be aware of how your non-
verbal communication relates to your spoken words.
Strategies for accurate perception
 Analyze your own perceptions. Question your perceptions, and think about how
they are formed. Check in with others around you regularly, and be
aware of assumptions that you are making. Seek additional
information and observations.
 Work on improving your perception. Increase your awareness of
barriers to perception, and which ones you tend towards. Check in
with yourself regularly. Seek honest, constructive feedback from others regarding
their perceptions of you as a means of increasing your selfawareness.
 Focus on others. Develop your ability to focus on other people, and understand
them better by trying to gather knowledge about them, listening to them actively,
and imagining how you would feel in their situation.
7.3. Barriers to effective verbal communication
 Lack of clarity.
 Using stereotypes and generalizations.
 Jumping to conclusions.
 Dysfunctional responses. Ignoring or not responding to a comment or question
quickly undermines effective communication.
 Lack of confidence.
34
Strategies for effective verbal communication
 Focus on the issue, not the person. Try not to take everything
personally, and similarly, express your own needs and opinions in
terms of the job at hand. Solve problems rather than attempt to
control others.
 Be genuine rather than manipulative. Be yourself, honestly and
openly. Be honest with yourself, and focus on working well with the people around
you, and acting with integrity.
 Empathize rather than remain detached.
 Be flexible towards others. Allow for other points of view, and be open to other.
 Value yourself and your own experiences. Be firm about your own rights and needs.
Undervaluing yourself encourages others to undervalue you, too.
 Present yourself as an equal rather than a superior, even when you are in a position
of authority.
 Use affirming responses. Ask questions, express positive feelings, and provide
positive feedback when you can.
Sources:
1. Beebe et al. Interpersonal Communication: Relating to Others 2nd Canadian Edition.

(Scarborough, Ontario: Allyn and Bacon, 2000).
2. https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-
tips/communicating-students/telling/effective-communication-barriers-and-strategies
1. Communication: The Process, Barriers, And Improving Effectiveness

http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fred
%20C,%20Communication%20Schooling%20V1%20N1%202010.pdf
2. OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
http://aede.osu.edu/sites/aede/files/publication_files/Overcoming%20Barriers%20to%
20Communication.pdf
3. How to Overcome Communication Barriers in the Workplace
http://www.bizmove.com/books/how-to-overcome-communication-barriers-in-the-
workplace.htm
4. Study on Communication Barriers in the Classroom: A Teacher’s Perspective
http://www.ojcmt.net/articles/61/618.pdf
35
8. Principles of intercultural communication
As described before, communication can be a challenge. The challenge becomes even
bigger when interlocutors belong to different cultures, adopting different values,
communication styles and non-verbal signs. The art of intercultural communication (or
cross-cultural) is the subject of numerous books, studies, and even post-graduate courses.
To get started, however, some principles or key-assumptions of intercultural
communication are presented here, as described in an essay on cross-cultural
communication (http://www.termpaperwarehouse.com/essay-on/Cross-Cultural-
Communication/283583):
1) The less knowledge or understanding that you have about a culture, the broader
the differences are, and communication between parties will be more difficult.
2) Cultural differences and understandings are the cause of breakdowns in
communication.
3) Communicating across cultures helps people to become more aware of their own
communication processes, such as their tone, word choices, and hand gestures they
use when speaking.
4) Cultures vary with their different types of acceptable behaviors; in cross-cultural
communication you have to be aware of what is taboo and what is acceptable in
that culture.
5) Other cultures’ understanding or normalcy may be different than your own. Be
mindful how the worldview or values of different groups affect their patterns of
communication.
6) Your view of people affects the way that you communicate with them (the
boomerang effect described earlier in this document).
On a more practical level, when communicating with people with a different cultural
background than your own try to
(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2360987):
 Speak in a simple and clear way. Avoid using slang and idioms
 Listen even more carefully. If in doubt, ask for confirmation of understanding
 Be aware that accenting and intonation can cause meaning to vary significantly
 Respect the local communication formalities and styles
 Observe body language and try to understand how it differs across cultures
 Try to see your culture through the eyes of others. Why not read literature about
your culture as presented by authors from different cultures in order to understand
the projected views of your culture?
36
Check out the following tips:
http://www.wikihow.com/Communicate-Well-With-People-from-Other-
Cultures
Then try to apply them during a cross-cultural encounter, preferably with a

friend from another culture. Try to discuss afterwards aspects of non-verbal
communication that caused you difficulties or you need to be especially
mindful of.
Intercultural communication is at the very heart of intercultural mediation.

What are common challenges faced by local professionals, IMs and migrants?
What could help them? See http://www.pcc4u.org/learning-modules/focus-
topics/topic-4-culture-centred-care/2-culture-centred-communication/activity-
4-intercultural-communication-principles/
Intercultural communication: http://personales.upv.es/mcandel/Hybels9_Ch3.pdf
Communicating in different countries:

http://www.forbes.com/sites/kenmakovsky/2014/04/03/communicating-in-different-
countries/#1bac8d8e45ef
37
9. Selected reading
Dutch
Books
1. Van Ginneken, J. (2008). Handboek wereldburger: Een inleiding interculturele

communicatie. S.l: Boom onderwijs.
2. Muylle, C. (2008). Communicatieleer: communicatie: een eerste inkijk. De Boeck
Hoger.
3. Kijlstra, M. A., Van Wieringen, J. C. M., & Schulpen, T. W. J. (2001). Cultuur en
communicatie. Tijdschrift voor kindergeneeskunde, 69(5), 46-50.
4. Guijt, T. (2013). "Het is niet mijn cultuur, dat is best lastig": Een onderzoek naar de
communicatie tussen verpleegkundigen en patiënten in de psychiatrie.
5. Shadid, W.A (1998 en 2007): Grondslagen van interculturele communicatie:
studieveld en werkterrein, Houten [etc.]: Bohn Stafleu Van Loghum.
6. Preijde, L. P. M. (2010). Hoe communiceren Nederlandse Verpleegkundigen met
patiënten die slecht Nederlands spreken?
French
Books
1. Demattelart A. (2004). Histoire des théories de la communication. La Découverte,

pp. 128.
2. Iandolo, C. (2001). Guide pratique de la communication avec le patient:
Techniques, art et erreurs de la communication. Paris: MMI editions.
3. Watzlawick, P. (1979). Une logique de la communication. Paris, Éd. du Seuil,
1979.
4. Barrier G. (2013). Le langage du corps en relation d’aide : la communication non
verbale au-delà des mots. ESF, 2013, coll. Psychologies et psychothérapies, pp.
2015
German
Books
1. Handbuch Kommunikation: Grundlagen - Innovative Ansätze - Praktische

Umsetzungen (2008, Bruhn, Esch)
2. Kommunikationstraining: Zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen erfolgreich gestalten
(2013, Birkenbihl)
3. Kommunikationstechnik (2014, Meyer)
4. Einführung in Körpersprache und nonverbale Kommunikation (2013, Sollmann)
5. Kommunikation - eine Schlüsselqualifikation: Einführung zu wesentlichen Bereichen
der zwischenmenschlichen Kommunikation. Ein Lehrbuch (2008, Ternes)
6. Interkulturelle Kommunikation: Interaktion, Fremdwahrnehmung, Kulturtransfer
(2012, Lüsebrink)
38
Links
1. Psychatrienetz: Wie kann Kommunikation gelingen?

http://www.psychiatrie.de/bapk/rat/kommunikation/regeln-und-techniken/
2. Interkulturelle Kommunikation / Verbale und Non-verbale Kommunikation
https://www.hdm-stuttgart.de/arbeitsamt/inhalt/arbeitswelt/rose-neiger/text.htm
Greek
Books
1. Μη λεκτική επικοινωνία: Σύγχρονες θεωρητικές και ερευνητικές προσεγγίσεις στην

Ελλάδα. Ν. Πολεμικός & Α. Κοντάκος (επιμ.) Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα, 2002.
2. Κουκουνάρας - Λιάγκης, Μάριος (2009). Ο Θεός, ο δικός μου, ο δικός σου: Πολιτισμός,
εκπαίδευση, ετερότητα: Έρευνα για τη διαπολιτισμική επικοινωνία. 1η έκδ. Αθήνα:
Γρηγόρη.
3. Verderber, Rudolph F., & Verderber, Kathleen S. (2006). Δεξιότητες διαπροσωπικής
επικοινωνίας. Mετάφραση Αντιγόνη Αποστολοπούλου, επιμέλεια Ανδρέας Ν.
Ζεργιώτης. 1η έκδ., Αθήνα: Έλλην.
4. Κριτσωτάκις, Γιάννης. Διαπολιτισμική Επικοινωνία.
Italian
Links
1. S. Privitera. Tecniche di comunicazione. La comunicazione interpersonale.

http://www.unipa.it/archivio-intranet/.content/documenti/Dispensa_PRIVITERA.pdf
2. Michela Giangualano. Compendio di teoria della comunicazione.
http://www.ueonline.it/contributi_news/teoria_della_comunicazione.pdf
3. Rapporto mondiale dell’UNESCO. Investire nella diversità culturale e nel dialogo
interculturale. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001847/184755ita.pdf
4. La comunicazione e i suoi codici. Luzappy.
http://www.luzappy.eu/comunicazione/comunicazione%20e%20suoi%20segni.pdf
5. Luigi Anolli. La comunicazione non verbale.
http://www.archivio.formazione.unimib.it/DATA/Insegnamenti/2_423/materiale/5_c
omnonverbale_2p.pdf
6. Problemi di comunicazione interculturale.
http://www.usrlazio.it/_file/documenti/intercultura/1Materiali/[31]%20Pratiche%20i
nterculturali%20(a11)/comunicazione.pdf
Polish
Books
1. Malinowski Rubio María Paula, Imigranci a komunikacja międzykulturowa w sferze

usług publicznych w Polsce, Kraków 2011.
2. M. Szopski "Komunikowanie międzykulturowe" WSiP, Warszawa, 2005.
3. A. B. Pease "Mowa ciała" Wydawnictwo Rebis, Poznań, 2007.
4. Nowa retoryka dziennikarska, Walery Pisarek, Wydawnictwo: Universitas
39
5. Zuber M., Komunikowanie międzykulturowe, [w:] B. Dobek-Ostrowska (red), Studia z
teorii komunikowania masowego, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego,
Wrocław 1999.
Links
1. http://jacko.econ.uj.edu.pl/Publ/Kultura_komunikacja_Jacko_2012.pdf
2. http://www.wsb.net.pl/sites/default/files/web/uczelnia/wydawnictwo/komunikowa
nie_sie_w_spoleczenstwie_wiedzy_xxi_wieku.pdf
3. https://repozytorium.amu.edu.pl/bitstream/10593/2849/1/Komunikologia.%20Teoria
%20i%20praktyka%20komunikacji.pdf
Portuguese
Books
1. Fachada, M. Odete (2000). Psicologia das Relações Interpessoais. Vol. 1 e vol.2, Rumo,
Ed.
Links
1. Vieira, Ana & Vieira, Ricardo (2013). Pedagogia Social, comunicação e mediação
intercultural: http://www.apagina.pt/?aba=7&cat=561&doc=14501&mid=2
2. Davallon, Jean (2003). A mediação: a comunicação em processo? Universidade de
Avignon e da Região de Vaucluse, Laboratório Cultura & Comunicação:
http://revistas.ua.pt/index.php/prismacom/article/viewFile/645/pdf
40
Chapter 2
COMMUNICAITON
AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
33
1. Introduction
In an era of information super highway and information overload, the term

‘communication technique’ requires much explanation. There are different
expressions corollary to this, such as ‘communication strategies’,
‘communication method’, ‘communication style’, ‘communication management’
etc. Though it seems that they have similar meanings they may be different in
particular contexts. The term ‘techniques’ in this particular context means the
modus operandi of the Catholic Church in Kerala Society whereby they get in
touch with the public or make themselves available to people. Again, the mode
of operation in reaching out to the public has been different and distinct in the
Catholic Church. For example, the methods of operational activities in the
European Church are different from that of the Indian Church. Cultural, ethnic
and racial differences are important elements to be considered in this regard.
Moreover, it would have different expressions too in particular situations. For
example, in a crisis situation where public relation is an obligation, it must be a
‘strategy’ and ‘tactic’ than mere technique where as in an organization, the
suited phrase may be communication management.
Thus, the mode of operation or the communication techniques of the
Catholic Church in Kerala Society, in a wider perspective means, the different
communication channels such as ministries, services, apostolate and activities
through which the Church reach out to the public, its manifestations and
expressions through different styles of communication such as dress code,
public appearances etc.
34
This chapter serves as a theoretical stage setting to the subject of
inquiry. It is not at all a detailed analysis of all the theories or models of
communication as well. That would definitely be voluminous. The attempt is to
give the basic ideas and aspects of communication and its implication in the
Catholic Church in Kerala. Communication definition, process, types, the socio-
psychological aspects, theological dimensions and the relevance of all those to
the Catholic Church are summarized here. It is in the background of this
theoretical framework that the communication techniques of the Catholic Church
in Kerala are to be looked at.
2. Importance of Communication
It is needless to explain the relevance of communication. The urge to

communicate is as old as human existence. It is a basic need for living. It enables
human beings to enter into meaningful relationships with others and exchange
their experience with them. It is true as Marshal Mc Luhan commented as
“media as extension of mankind”1. Medium of exchanges are part and parcel of
our daily lives. The concept of global village is a virtual reality and it is so
intense that the world is alive in our bedroom with a mouse click away or within
the reach of a remote control. Furthermore, interest in communication has been
stimulated by advances in science and technology. Technological creativity
resulted in the invention of telegraph and telephone followed by many others
like wireless radio, television, computer, mobile phones, new media, social
networking sites, net books, smart phones and such other modern gadgets. Social
Networking Sites such as You tube, Twitter, Face-book, Orkut are widespread
today and are means of faster communication.
Today psychologists and sociologists are facing new cases and problems
related to new media, computer and smart phones, especially among the
teenagers and school children. Therefore, the Church can never ignore the
importance and relevance of value based communication and media activities in
its missions and pastoral activities. Furthermore, she cannot turn her face away
from the problems and issues related with media too. Thus, effective
35
communication through different media should be an important concern of
Churches’ communication techniques.
3. Definitions
Questions have been raised concerning the adequacy of any single

definition of the term communication as it is currently employed. It should be
noted that the eminent American Scholar Jurgen Ruesch has identified 40
varieties of different approaches to this subject including architectural,
anthropological, psychological, and political and many other disciplines.2 It can
be applied to both human communication as well as animal communication.
Generally speaking, it is the sharing of information, ideas, attitudes and concept
of an individual through certain means whether verbal or nonverbal. Information
in different fields of communication can be found under cybernetics, language
and literature, linguistics, psycholinguistics, group communication, mass
communication etc. Any how, some such definitions can give us a clearer picture
of the concept of communication and related activities.
Charles H. Cooley defines communication as,
“the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop
all the symbols of the mind, together with the means of conveying
them through space and preserving them in time”3
Today the term is used to describe diverse variety of behaviors, processes
and technologies.4
The definition of communication is given in the Webster’s Dictionary as
“sending, giving, or exchanging information and ideas.” And we “send, give,
and exchange information” every single day whether we are aware of it or not.
Any act by which a person gives or receives from another person i.e.,
information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge or
affective states shall be communication. Communication may be intentional or
unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take
linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes.
36
It is also defined as a discrete aspect of human enterprise by the literary
critic and author I.A Richards as:
“communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its
environment that another mind is influenced, and in that other
mind an experience occurs which is like the experience in the first
mind, and is caused in part by that experience”5
It also refers to the process of human beings responding to the face to face
symbolic behavior of the other person.6
In short, it is the exchange of information, thoughts, messages or meanings
between individuals or anything else through a common system of symbols or by
speech, signals, writing and behavior. In an ordinary parlance, it is the art and
technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas.
The word communication has the Latin etymology communuis and
communicare which means to give a share of, mutual understanding, make
known to other and a feeling of oneness etc. Thus, we can say that the basis of
communication is sharing and understanding which forms the core values of any
religion.7
4. Development of Communication
To discuss the development of communication, the researcher depends on

the western account of things. As to how and when the language began in India,
both in spoken and written form, there is no definite information other than that
of Western records. However, it is sure that it must have all began in India.
Man has a gift from nature or God. This is the ability to articulate sound
using a sound system. It consists of the very flexible tongue and the teeth ridge,
which contributes to the man’s ability to use language. Further, man’s hands are
also so formed in such a manner that it enables him to write and keep records of
things.
It is believed that hunting paved the way for using voices as the medium.
Pre-historic man who went out to hunt would have been attacked by some
animals and cried out loudly in panic. This must have been heard as a distress
37
signal and forthcoming help signal might have sent back. Thus, speech and
hearing became the medium of communication in the beginning. Later, body
languages or kinesics must have developed. It is said that it took nearly 500,000
years to move from purely oral communication to the earliest writings on the
clay tablets. Then after 5000 years, the Gutenberg days emerged in the 15th
century.8 From then it took only more than three centuries for men to draw out a
sunburst of communication innovations such as we see today.
5. Functions of Communication
It has got a central role in our daily lives. Communication satisfies most of
the human needs. Thus, its functions are diverse and important. Some of them
are: physical needs, ego needs, social needs and practical needs. The major
functions of communication as promoted by Harold D. Lasswell about 60 years
ago are noteworthy. They are surveillance of the environment, correlation of the
society, transmission of cultural heritage from generation to generation.9 There
are other functions such as educating, entertaining, informing, catalyzing etc.
6. Process and Components of Communication
Communication, as we have seen in the definition, is an exchange of ideas

and information. This presupposes a communicator, message, channel, receiver
and feedback. Certain communication models help us to sort out the different
components and process of communication in a scientific manner.
Mass Communication scholars elaborated several models. Among these,
the earliest one is believed to be that of Rhetoric Model proposed by the great
philosopher Aristotle. Later many other models have been developed by scholars
and researchers.
In 1947, one of the most used communication models was developed by
Claude Shannon, a mathematician and later, Warren Weaver perfected it.10
Shannon and Weaver listed the major elements of the process of communication
as: source, transmitter, signal, receiver, destination and noise.
38
Another important model was that of Lasswell’s model of communication
proposed by Harold D. Lasswell. This American political scientist asked basic
communication questions such as - who says, what, to whom, with what effect.11
There are more models which give emphasis to the factors of feedback,
noise, frame of reference etc. Of all these the elements, feedback is the one
important factor that distinguishes interpersonal communication from mass
communication. The element of noise is also important in the process whereby
modern communication scientists give much prominence to it since the success
of the communication depends upon this element.
7. Types of Communication
There are different types of communication based on the nature and

dimension. They are intra personal, interpersonal, group and mass
communication.
7. 1. Intra personal
This is the most basic type of all forms of communication. This is the
electrochemical action of the body taking place within oneself. This
communication system helps to make decisions based on information received
through the senses. It takes place every moment. The study of intrapersonal
communication begins with knowing oneself. Its process starts with a stimulus.
These could be internal or external, which means that it can be from inside or
outside. The sense organs pick up the stimuli and sends it to the central nervous
system. Because of the selective perception we pay attention to only a few.
Processing of the stimuli is the next step. It occurs at three levels such as
cognitive, emotional and physiological. After the process in the thinking, feeling
and physiological level, the next activity is transmission. This occurs through
nerve impulse.12
In this process of intrapersonal communication there are feedback and noise

factor. The noise can be internal or external. The same is with the feedback too.
There are lots of intra personal variables that affect the intra personal
39
communication or personality traits such as values, attitudes, beliefs, prejudices,
maturity etc. Rationalization, reaction formation, identification etc are some of
the factors that affect our intra personal communication.
A theory of ‘Private Language’ has been developed from the understanding

of intra personal communications. Given man in a civilization, language is the
basic means of communication. For intra personal communication also, language
is essential. When language is used for thinking it becomes what is known as
private language, which is a subjective affair. In most cases the private language
shall be that of one’s mother tongue.
7. 2. Interpersonal or Dyadic Communication
The term dyadic refers to an interaction between two persons. It is a direct

face-to-face communication between two persons. It is personal, direct and
intimate allowing for maximum interaction and exchange in words and gestures.
It is supposed to be the perfect communication that two persons can attain. It is
more persuasive and influential than any other type of communication. It
involves the interplay of words and gestures, the warmth of human closeness and
in fact all the five senses. This is because even the minute reactions are mutually
observable. All interpersonal exchanges are therefore a communion and sharing
at the most intimate and open levels. Only the one who have our trust and have
proved themselves are allowed to cross the barriers of an intimate relationship.
Most are kept at a distance.
Interpersonal communication is central to our everyday lives. They take

place in a number of forms in daily life such as telephonic conversation,
interview, instruction, face to face conversation etc.
Certain characters of interpersonal relationships are the following:
variability, duration, frequency, revelation, mashing, support, proximity, anxiety
reduction etc.13 There are different stages for the development of relationships.
Some of them are, coming together, experimenting, intensifying, integrating,
bonding, etc.
40
7.3. Media Communication
It lies in the interface between face to face and mass communication. The
Latin root of media means, middle. This type of communication is distinguished
by the use of technology taking place under special conditions, and involves
identifiable participants. The recipients are few in number and are known to the
communicator. Furthermore, the message is not public. Examples of such kind
of communication are point to point telecommunication, surveillance
communication such as radar, super market monitors; closed circuit television
and home movies. Blake and Haroldsen explains this in detail.14
7.4. Group Communication
A group communication is the process whereby more than two people

communicate each other. It can be either face to face interaction, with or
with out a medium. Further, with or without an assigned leader, in such a way
that each person influences and is influenced by every other person in the group.
The groups can again divided into many such as: small groups, big
groups, family groups, friendship groups and work groups.
7.4.1. Small Group
The small group may vary in size, but it is generally agreed that the best
size in terms of total interaction and greatest efficiency is somewhere between
five and seven members. The small group tends to be more informal and less
structured, and it can function effectively without a designated leader.
The small group can be again divided in to two: primary groups and
discussion groups.
7.4.1.1. The Primary Group
The primary group or psyche group, functions as a support system for its
members. Neighbours who get together daily, friends with whom you go to the
movies once or twice a month, and the coffee klatch at work are all groups that
41
usually enjoy conversation as opposed to discussion. The formal restrictions are
alien to the primary group, which is generally social and tends to be quite
informal.
7.4.1.2. The Discussion Group:
Here a small number of persons meet face to face through free oral
interaction among themselves and exchange information or attempt to reach a
decision on shared problems. It is difficult to specify the exact number of
participants that would make the group discussion useful. It has been found that
the character of interaction undergoes a change when one or two persons are
added to dyadic communication situation. Similarly, if the number of persons in
a group is ten or more, then they have a tendency to avoid participation and
remain just passive listeners. Thus, the significance of group discussion is lost
because in it each member is expected to participate actively.
Many studies indicate that if the number is kept in between five and nine,
fruitful discussion can take place. Effective communication in a discussion group
requires sensitivity to the dynamics of the group process. Generally a discussion
group is characterized by the presence of one or more leaders. The members still
have the shared characteristics like similar religious beliefs, similar ethnic
background, race etc. A common purpose or goal is the binding force of a
discussion group, whether that goal is specific or broad in scope.
Discussion groups can be either private or public. Private or closed
discussion groups are those in which there is no audience to listen to or
participate in the group discussion. The open or public discussion takes place
before an audience. One of the most important discussion groups namely the
problem-solving group is usually private.
7.4.2. The Big Group
The big groups vary in size and there is no formal agreement with regard to
the number. It will be a group communication and not a mass communication.
But this group tends to be more formal and more structured, and it may not
42
function effectively without a designated leader. At any cost a certain sort of
medium too is needed.
7.4.3. Family Group
In a sense this is the most important group communication. It is the best

example for group communication because the kith and kin, nearest and dearest
relationships bind the members together. They will be highly disciplined in the
sense that they are under the direction of ‘family supremo’.
7.4.4. Friendship Group
There will be a great amount of informality in this group. The relationship

will be cordial and intimate. There may not be any control for this type of group
unless certain prescribed agenda of particular intentions are set down.
7.4.5. Work Group
Work group communication can be informal and at the same time formal.
There will be cordiality and at the same time seriousness towards ones own
works and duties.15
7.5. Mass Communication
The process of communication through a mass medium to a large number

of people is termed as mass communication. Mass refers to a large body of
persons. The channels through which this kind of communication takes place are
referred to as mass media. But today both mass media and mass communication
are generally considered synonymous for the sake of convenience. The nature of
the audience and the feedback is different from that of other types of
communications.16
Mass communication necessitates the presence of gatekeepers, which
means that there exists people or systems that control and process the
information before it is disseminated to the public. Audience and feedback are
important components here.
43
Mass media can be broadly classified into print, television, radio, films,
mobile, internet etc. Print media has a history of about 500 years whereas the
electronic is a product of the twentieth century. New media has only certain
decades of history.
7. 6. Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
This is a general as well as peripheral division. It is believed that man is

born with an instinct for speech. Significant difference between verbal and
nonverbal communication are matters more of degree than of kind. It is difficult
to distinguish both because in kinesics and proxemics vocalizations are involved.
Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of

communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such
messages are communicated through gestures, body language, cues, gesture
clusters etc. We use both verbal and nonverbal communication when we are
talking to others and one cannot explicitly judge which is more important and it
largely depends upon the circumstances.
In expressing true feelings, most people believe that non verbal
communication is more reliable than verbal communication mainly because they
are spontaneous and there is no manipulation. Even if we pretend to hide it, our
body gestures will reveal the truth.
Non verbal communication occurs in two or more channels whereas verbal
communication tends to take place only in one channel. One implication of the
multi channeled nature of non verbal communication is that selective perception
is likely to operate. If you are visually oriented, you may tune in more to visual
cues than to smell or touch. On the other hand, if you may be touch oriented, you
may pay particular attention to tactile cues.
Nonverbal communication plays an important role in the communication
process. From the clothes the priests and nuns wear, to the music, one select, to
set a stage for an evening programme, nonverbal cues which sends message is
that are frequently more compelling and eloquent than any verbal statement.
44
There are certain forms of nonverbal behaviors and its frequent use expresses
personal identity and cultural values of an individual.
Because of the popularized reading, people consider body language as the
only form of nonverbal communication. However, non verbal communication
includes much more than this. Body language or kinesics- the scientific name of
body language- is an important way of emotional expression.
Haptics is closely related to the sense of touch. Artifacts are personal
objects which communicate easily. We use to announce our identities, heritage
and personalize our environments by way of dressing, the object we carry etc. It
also shows identity and heritage of the person.
Proxemics is personal space which also communicates. It is the study of
the way people and animals use space. Every culture has norms that prescribe
how people should use space.
Another major way of communication is chronemics which refers to how
we perceive and use time to define identities and interaction. One important type
of nonverbal communication is silence. It is a very powerful instrument. We use
silence to communicate different strong feelings.17
There is a narrative from the Narayana Guru and Ramana Maharishi

episode to this effect. It is stated that Narayana Guru, a sage from Kerala, had
gone to meet Ramana Maharishi at Thirunelveli. Followers of both were waiting
to have them talk one another to learn from their discourses. They met one
another and sat facing each other for hours, but never uttered a word. Then
Narayana Guru came back after meeting Ramana Maharishi without articulating
a single word. Indeed, this is a kind of communication between two yogis, but
common people are also capable of communicating through silence, especially
when one has a need of communicating very strongly.
8. Psychological Dimensions
The psychological dimensions of communication gained greater interest

among the contemporary psychologists since the Second World War.
45
Experiments showed that people can be persuaded by message repetition,
punishment, reward, motivation, intensity etc which lead to an important theory
termed as reinforcement theory. The same tactics are used to teach rats to
navigate a maze and to sell consumer products through advertising. Behaviorists
view communication in terms of stimulus response relationship between source
and receiver. Those who support Freud’s analysis of group psychology and ego
theory tend to regard interactions as reverberations of family group dynamics
experienced early in life.
Cognitive dissonance and cognitive consistency are some of the important

psychological theories put forward by the communication theorists. This applies
to both interpersonal and mass communication. In a layman’s language it can be
termed as disagreement and agreement to a particular point. People may not
tolerate more than a specific degree to a particular disseminated program and
there arrives inconsistency or discrepancy. They may avoid the disinterested
program, news, views or happenings. Cognitive consistency means that we are
more compatible with the disseminated idea and it is easy to attain a desired
effect.18
Cognitive dissonance is the psychological conflict that results from holding
two or more incompatible beliefs simultaneously. The agreement or
disagreement towards a communication is an important concern for the social
scientists and psychologists from the aspects of attitudinal change and influence.
It not only affects the behavior of the receiver but also the perception, vision,
opinion formation etc since they are related with the mind or thinking.
One important cognitive processing model put forward by the eminent mass
communication theoretician Denis Mc Quail is that of the Elaboration -
Likelihood Model of Influence (ELM). According to him:
“it refers to the extent to which a person thinks about the issue and
about relevant arguments contained in a message. The model is
based upon the assumption that people are motivated to hold correct
46
attitudes in the sense of their being rational, coherent and consistent
with other views”.19
Thus, we can understand that the effectiveness of the message disseminated
depends largely on dissonance reduction. In a state of dissonance, people will
avoid information and situations that might increase the dissonance. If the
people’s self esteem is appreciated at a high level, then there can be a reduction
in the dissonance. Thus challenge to the essential self perception is an important
dissonance reduction strategy.
Different types of communication techniques of the Catholic Church such
as the sermons, annual retreats, seminars, bible conventions, campaigns, monthly
recollection, examination of conscience, other spiritual exercises and even a
confession has in them a psychological dimension. It must be noted that this
includes all types of communications ranging from the intra personal (for
example daily meditation in the catholic tradition, examination of conscience
during mid noon and night) as well as other modes of communication. Even
from a wider angle the sacrament of confession has got such a perspective.
Certain others did put forward the concept of selective exposure which
includes selective perception, selective retention, selective attention and
selective recall.
Selective exposure refers to ‘a persons conscious or unconscious choice to
receive messages from a specific source’.20
These responses from the part of the audience explain why certain changes
occur in their attitude after viewing a particular programme and why some others
resist the change.21 The techniques to overcome selective exposure are ‘utility,
enlightened self-interest, proximity, involvement, consistency and reinforcing’.22
Selective attention occurs when a receiver cannot control messages to
which the receiver is exposed. Receiver cannot avoid the exposure, and therefore
simply select not to pay attention to the message. For example, take the case of a
church congregation which cannot avoid exposure to the sermon since they are
inside the church. But they may not pay attention to it. Instead of this they may
47
gaze out, whisper or rub the hands consistently. The factors which influence
selective attention are attention span, novelty, concreteness, size, length etc.
Selective perception is the process of attributing meanings to the messages.
The receiver selects the perceptions different from those the source intends.
“The different factors that cause the receiver to select perception are
puzzling messages, absence of message redundancy, absence of
receiver’s schema, early experiences, assumptions, biases etc.23
Selective retention is the decision of the receiver to save or not to save
information in long term memory. Certain factors which influence this are
absence of highlighting, absence of redundancy, absence of schema, absence of
tangible application, primacy and urgency principles.
9. Communication Competency
If others understand what a person is saying or writing, then we can say that
the person is competent enough. Thus it can be defined as the ability to make
ideas clear to others.24 It is said that communication competency depends on
three components namely, awareness of the communication process, the capacity
to produce necessary verbal and non-verbal communication behaviors, and a
positive affective attitude towards the communication. Effective communicators
exhibit three important elements in their communication. They are assertiveness,
responsiveness and flexibility. Let us discuss them in detail since they are
important in any communication technique.
9.1. Assertiveness or Aggressiveness
Assertiveness or Aggressiveness is the capacity to state self assured

manners, the beliefs and attitudes, take a stand, actively disagree, present
arguments in a confident manner, express positive or negative feelings, stand up
for oneself without attacking another person and initiate, maintain and disengage
from communication.25
Two important concepts in this regard are noteworthy. They are
masculinity and femininity as put forward by Sandra L. Bem in her researches.
48
Accordingly, it is termed as masculinity and femininity. Characters of a person
who shows assertive nature are that he:
“defends own beliefs, will be independent, dominant, forceful,
leader, have strong personality and willing to take a stand. ”26.
Aggressiveness is assertiveness plus or beyond assertiveness. The terms to
describe these communicators are quarrelsome, demanding, outspoken,
threatening, hostile, domineering, pushy and belligerent, attacking etc.
Assertive people make requests while aggressive people make demands.
Assertive insists that others respect their rights whereas aggressive demand that
others submit to them and their views. They often attempt to take away or ignore
the rights of others. Assertive people maintain positive relationships while
aggressive people often destroy relationships and alienate others. Thus, we can
conclude that a communication competent person must be assertive than
aggressive.
From the aspect of the communication strategy of the Church in Kerala the
above said regulation seems to be unimportant since Catholic Church often
executes and implements things in an aggressive, hierarchical and structured
manner as a part of their administration and a particular canonical frame work so
as to get attention of the critics regarding their policies. This is seen in the
Catholic Church throughout and especially in the context of severe criticisms.
9.2. Responsiveness or Submissiveness
This quality of the communicator is an added compliment which is termed

as femininity aspect by Sandra Bem.27 Responsiveness is the capacity to be
sensitive to others, to be a good listener, to make others comfortable and
recognize their needs and desires. This feminine nature is very pertinent to the
Catholic Church as a whole. A person who engages in responsive
communication is often termed in different ways such as helpful, sympathetic,
compassionate and sensitive to others needs, sincere, gentle, warm, tender,
friendly etc. Often these terms describe stereotypical female images in European
culture.
49
It should be noted that this is not mere submissiveness. Responsive people
are amiable, agreeable, attentive, mindful, open, understanding to the feelings of
others etc. Submissiveness is responsiveness plus or beyond responsiveness. The
former recognize and understand the feelings of others, whereas the later not
only understands the feeling of others but also yields to the others requests even
though they contradict their own needs and feelings.
The theory states that a communicator must be responsive but not
submissive. But in the context of our study it is important to note that both these
qualities are appreciated and is dear to the Church. Submissiveness is never
treated as a weakness or as negative, but it is the authentic strength of the Church
throughout its charitable and related activities. Mother Teresa of Calcutta and
Damien of Morocco were created in the human history with this virtue. The vow
of obedience taken by the priests and nuns of the Catholic Church is a fitting
example to illustrate this argument. This particular vow is not a weakness or a
person’s negative quality but it is something for the greatness of humanity or the
local Churches, provided properly channeled and taped.
9.3. Communication and Versatility
An efficient communicator will have the capacity to be appropriately

assertive and responsive depending on the context. This competency is termed as
versatility. Certain terms that describe this quality are:
“adaptable, accommodating, flexible, changeable, open minded,
multifaceted. Those who lack the versatile character are inflexible,
rigid, unaccommodating, obstinate, headstrong, uncompromising,
stubborn and unyielding”.28
10. Communication of Tolerance-Disagreement and Conflict
The impact of communication in disagreement and conflict is important

with regard to this study. Disagreement is simply a difference of opinion. It
allows the relationship to remain stable and productive. Disagreement doesn’t
necessarily lead to conflict and it should not be the case. People can disagree
50
loudly, strongly, and for long periods of time. But they can also disagree quietly,
softly and for long periods of time. Conflict occurs primarily when the level of
affinity between the communicators is low.
Conflict arises from intolerance, which is indeed lack of communication. It
is nothing but the inability of individuals articulate - legitimately and to receive
legitimately. Hence, conflicts should be taken as an inability of individuals
communicating and hence it should be treated as the absence or lack of
communication.
Conflict is characterized by hostility, dislike, belligerence, distrust,
suspicion, antagonism etc. The verbal and nonverbal cues generally demonstrate
the conflicting situation.
In contrast to this, the communication of tolerance is important from a
Christian perspective. Tolerance of disagreement is defined as the amount of
disagreement in which a person can engage before being thrust in to conflict
with another person.29
Even an average level of difference of opinion can lead to conflict. People
with this type of personality will be in conflict much of the time. These persons
might be dogmatic or authoritarian by nature. They are not very flexible and lack
adaptability. We do see this in lot of negotiations, discussions, mutual talks etc.
The communication strategy of almost all democratic organizations is to
maintain maximum tolerance. This intention of high tolerance depends on
certain factors such as the desire to keep the friend as a friend, coworker etc.
We find this communication methodology as a strategy in the Catholic
Church in different cases such as inter religious dialogues, couples counseling
especially in a marriage tribunal case, long hours of teenage counseling etc.
There are lots of reasons for the origin of a conflict. Some of them are:
“low self esteem, other person’s faults or failures, extremely low
liking for each other, dissimilar cultures collision, persons having
high aggressiveness and overbearing, negative power tactics,
demeaning language, negative nonverbal messages, disagreement for
51
extremely long periods, feeling of devaluation, the creation of a
defensive atmosphere etc”.30
They are destructive for relationships and must be avoided through proper
management and tactics. One important way to prevent the conflict is an attempt
to find a common ground or similar attitudes and beliefs. This is well referred as
huntin homophily. That is perceived as the similarity between a source and a
receiver. The more a person feels similar to another, the better the
communication and lower the likelihood of conflict. Other ways are affinity
seeking strategies, avoidance of situations in which conflict is likely to appear,
an open mindedness, careful selection of the topic on which one argues etc. It
should be stated that in many cases the Catholic Church in Kerala Society is a
failure in this regard. Tolerance at its zenith must be the mantra of Church
irrespective of any sort of provocation.
11. Change and Communication Networks
For decades, communication scholars have studied why people adopt

certain innovations and reject others. Changes and innovations are an important
concern in any organization. Everett M. Rogers, one of the pioneers in
development communication suggests that,
“an individual’s network links are important determinations of his

or her adoption of innovation”.31
11.1 The Bridge
There are lots of communication network roles which are distinct and
different. The first role is called bridge. This is a person who connects two or
more groups in a system because of the person’s position as a member of one of
the groups. Bridges are important in the change process because they have a
close and influential relationship with the other members. Change agents should
target the bridge to assist with introducing a change.
When we analyze the communication techniques of the Catholic Church in
Kerala we observe that there are a lot of bridges and change agents so as to
52
maintain the tradition of the church as well to implement new ideas and pastoral
plans. The Catechism teachers; Basic Christian Community leaders, Sacristans,
Kaikars etc. are brand ambassadors or change agents which are real bridges.
11.2. The Liaison
A liaison is another network role. He is a person who links two or more

groups in a system without being a member of any specific group. This person is
often referred to as a linker or linking pin within the organization.32 According to
Rogers:
“Liaison is the cement that holds the structural brick of an
organization together. When the liaison is removed, the system
ends to fill into isolated cliques.”33
11.3. Gatekeeper
Another important network role is gatekeeper. He is an individual who is

located in a position in the communication structure with the ability to control
the flow, progression, and movement of messages throughout the institution or
organization.34 They have more access to much of the information that flows
upward or downward in the system. They control access to information, ideas
and concerns that members of an organization might need to have. The
gatekeeper decides which information will go forward and which will not. They
have the potential to colour the mental pictures of peoples understanding of what
is happening around the globe.
This concept is very important in the process of communication since he is
a person who can open or close the information gate with enough influence or
authority. If gatekeepers’ selections are biased, the audience’s understanding will
be biased. The gate keeping literature is vast and it gains more attention in
modern communication scenario. It is not a negative concept. They are
inevitable and useful. But its effects must be thoroughly checked by news value,
objectivity, authenticity, audience feedback etc.35
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11.4. Opinion Leaders
Another change agent or network role in the process of transformation is

opinion leaders. They are informal leaders who can provide valuable information
or advice about the change or innovation. They have the ability to influence
other person’s attitudes and behaviors in a desired way. They are not born or
appointed, but are maintained and perpetuated by competence, accessibility,
homophily, willingness to the communicator and referent and expert power with
others.
11.5. Conditions for change in the Communication process
1. Create the needed resources

2. Support by both the formal and informal communication networks.
3. Involvement of the people who are expected to implement the change
from the initial process.
4. Every change must show obvious, positive results soon.
5. Change that is gradual, carefully organized and orderly is more likely to
be accepted than change that is forced, massive, unpredictable,
disorganized or disorderly.36
12. Flow of Communication
It is also important to know how communication flows from one level to

another or from sender to receiver to analyze the techniques. In this regard
certain concepts such as one step, two step and multi step flow of
communications are relevant.
One step flow means the message is directly transmitted from the sender
to the receiver without any intermediaries. It was believed earlier that
communication had powerful effect on all. This led to the theory of hypodermic
needle or one step flow. Two step flow assumes that individuals interact in
groups or networks. Here the opinion leaders play an active role. Here
information goes from the source directly to the opinion leaders, who act as step
one, then from them through interpersonal communication to the rest of the
54
public, thus achieving the step two. In multi-step flow of communication or n –
step flow as often called, there will be an interlocking style of communication in
social groups.
We witness all these types of communication flow in the Church scenario,
which will be detailed in the coming chapters.
13. Communication of Social Support
Socio scientists have been analyzing and exploring in fascinating detail the
effects of social support, caring, hospitality etc which are very peculiar in
Catholic communication. Thus, social support communication gains importance
from the perspective of the researcher. A tentative definition of the same is the
following:
“It is the subjective feeling of belonging, of being accepted or being

loved, of being needed for oneself and for what one can do”37.
The psychological perspective emphasizes the individual’s subjective sense
of being supported or support availability and satisfaction. This aspect of social
support is very customary, traditional and regular in the Church. No one can
deny that supporting and comforting are not important activities from a
psychological point of view. Even minor upsets and distresses can negatively
affect health and well being of an individual. In that instance emotional support
and relationship developments are very conducive.
We know that Christmas cards and related messages of peace and
prosperity are communication with less feedback. But these greeting cards, card
of remembrance and get-well cards are important means of supportive
communication. In this regard researches in micro- sociology elaborate a theory
of facework which assumes that saying the right thing involves selecting a
message that is appropriate. This is a politeness theory of positive and negative
faces. Positive face states that all persons want others to show acceptance of the
self image they project in interaction whereas negative face is the regard of
freedom from imposition.38
55
The areas of social support communication in the Catholic Church
comprise distinct arenas and social services ranging from pre marriage,
marriage, teenage, youth, parent, old age etc. It must be noted that the daily
prayers and spiritual exercises of any religion has got an important dimension
together with the spiritual one. We know that in any relationship, everyday talk
is very important. Everyday talk implicitly performs six primary functions such
as information, detection, ventilation, distraction, perpetuation and regulation.39
In this context, it is appropriate to remember the concept of logo therapy
developed by Dr. Victor Franklin, the eminent psychiatrist who survived the
concentration camp of Awswitz. The social support of his family, the sweet
remembrance of his wife and children, the deep faith etc led him to survive
amidst the most inhuman, atrocious and outrageous situations the history ever
heard of. The title of his famous book itself is “The Search for Meaning”.40
We are not making a stringent statement by establishing that a particular
religion is a must for this supportive communication. One cannot deny the fact
that in circumstances of ordinary day to day conversation between two people,
even if they are agnostic, words of support, value, soothing words and care
emerge spontaneously. The background of religiosity and consequent spiritual
attitudes help the person to overcome the factors of noise in this particular
supportive communication by ornamenting values of tolerance, trust, cordiality,
hospitality etc.
Take the case of a nun or missionary working in a social service institute or
a leprosy centre without any remuneration. Concrete examples of this point of
view are evident in the charitable activities of an organization. One may do a
nursing work in any unhygienic circumstance if he or she would be well paid.
But the same activity without any remuneration, praise or reward needs certain
supernatural qualities which we believe is the input of religiosity.
One may argue that he can perform all these without the help of religion.
But then in such cases, one has to be both capable and competitive enough to
self create the values and similar values that common people can easily and
instantly borrow from religion with an authority of religion. Thus, one man say
56
that practically, it is not possible to function so without the support from some
religion. It is evident from the marvelous work of Saint Mother Theresa.41
The story of Mother Teresa of Calcutta is well suited in this context.
Once, few inhabitants complained to the police against her activities accusing
her that she is converting Hindus to Christianity. The police inspector arrived for
the enquiry. After few minutes of close observation of the real situations, the
police officer commented towards the complainants like this: ‘we will quit her,
from this place; but it must be assured that you would do the same duties that she
is doing now’.
When we speak out of this social support we see that the ties that bind it
ranges from different levels such as individual, group, family, society, network
etc. This includes all memorable messages; get well greetings, positive stories of
survival and resurrection and other semantic networks.
14. Communication Theology
Though theology and communication are distinct disciplines, each with its
own methodology, theology has something to say about communication and vice
versa. More than that, there are elements of communication within theology, and
communication can rejuvenate and revitalize the flow of theological reflection.
In a wider perspective the term communication theology embraces the whole
theology from creation to parusia. From a Christian understanding this is a
concrete theological principle under which different categories of theologies
such as systematic, biblical, pastoral, mission, ecumenical etc are included and
the element and characters of communication are basic to all these types of
theology.
‘God is not a solitary individual in lonely isolation.’ It is a trinity of

persons in deep interpersonal communion. This is deep rooted in the Sacred
Scriptures. Divine communication or Gods revelation means a disclosure or a
process of unearthing. This aspect of revelation is evident in the Holy Bible, both
in the Old and New testaments.42
57
In the Old Testament statements Gods’ communication is generally known
as revelation and the feedback to it is faithful response. Response of the believer,
leads to proclamation of good news in his life situations. Creation is one form of
Gods’ communication outside Himself to humanity to build a community of love
among all people, and human beings are expected to respond to that. We see that
God chose prophets, revealed, spoke to and through them, and prepared them for
a definite purpose and send them out with a divine mission of prophetic
proclamation. Their main duty was to communicate the message of Kingdom of
God, which they received from the Almighty.
The New Testament agrees to the same. The revelation reached its zenith
with the incarnation of Jesus Christ. He was the fullness of revelation. The
Father in heaven revealed at many instances who the son is.43 Thus we can see
that there is a theological development about the divine communication from the
divine word. Later on in history, the tradition of the Church and teachings of the
Fathers of the Church served this purpose more vividly through their
interpretation of the Holy Bible. St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, St.
Bonoventure, St. Jerome and other Fathers of the Church continue the list.
In this respect one cannot avoid paying attention to the revelations of
Vasula Readen and such related personals44 in this electronic era, especially in
the European countries, regarding the communication of God to humanity.
Though they are considered as personal revelations, popular devoutness or pious
interpretations, they too add sumptuousness to this.
God’s love is another aspect of communication from Christian theology.
There are two Greek words used to mean two types of love. Love as ‘Eros’ is a
desiring love, wanting love or conditional love. But love as ‘agape’ is self giving
love, overflowing and unconditional. God loves as ‘agape’. It is the very
existence and nature of God to love. Such love is also a communicating love,
which communicates not only just ‘agape’, but also a whole system of things.
Generally speaking, the concept and dimensions of communication
theology is manifested throughout the visible communication techniques and
activities adopted by the Catholic Church. It is in itself a self disclosure. An
58
understanding and close analysis of the activities of the Church in general and
its vision - mission - action style enable one to get a better understanding of the
communication techniques in the Kerala Church in particular.
15. Religious Communication
This categorization in itself is very wide and perplexing because it has got
both connotative and denotative meanings. It can be explained only in terms of a
particular religion, faith, custom, belief etc. A tentative explanation in a general
sense is that it is the communicative activities of a religion, religious leader, or
even a particular person having religiosity. It comprises different dimensions of
external - internal, spiritual- secular, personal - community etc.
One cannot deny that an individuals personal faith expressions and prayer
is not a religious communication since, religion is something related with one’s
communion towards an extraordinary power. Furthermore, it is not confined to
any particular religion with a structural base or institutionalism. Religions
always motivate people to act, and it has a way of connecting itself to
everything.45.
16. Church - a Paradigm of Communication
Church by its very nature is called to be a communicating society. Her

basic mission and ministry are to communicate the Good news (Gospel) and
God’s love to His creatures till the end of the world. This is done in three fold
ways by proclaiming the good news (kerygma), a living community (koinonia)
and a caring service (diakonia). These are ‘communicative actions’ as noted by
eminent sociologist Habermas.46
This communicative action is the continuation of the accomplishment that

was revealed from the very beginning of creation itself. There exist a Triune
communion of God, the Son and the Holy Spirit. It is believed that human
communication itself is an echo and reflection of the Trinitarian communication.
59
The Church exists in order to bring people into communion with God.
Thus, it opens them up to communion with each other. According to Avery
Dullus:
“it is a vast communication network designed to bring people out of
their isolation and estrangement and to bring them individually and
corporally into communion with God in Christ”.47
The concept of a living community or a community of fellowship is very
important in the Church. The Church is not a believing community alone. It is
also a communicating community.
‘She is charged with the mission to witness, to preach, to
communicate, to be the word and the sacrament, to be the medium
and message of salvation, bringing all as the symbol of hope’48
Christians must testify to the fact of the good news that Christ came to set
us free, that is, to set persons free from personal sin, from corporate bondage,
and from all kinds of oppressions such as spiritual, mental, social, physical,
economic and political. This is evident in the beginning of the Galilean ministry
of Jesus at the synagogue. There Jesus stated that:
“the spirit of the lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to
bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to
the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed
go free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour.”49
This good news is for every person, regardless of location, belief, creed and
colour. But since the good news is the news of liberation, it has a definite bias
toward those who are most in need of liberation- the poor, the weak, and the
defenseless. For Christians, the primary role of communication therefore is to aid
in the process of liberation. This is very unique in the missionary activities of the
Catholic Church in Kerala Society also throughout her activities in the field of
education, charity, social service, hospital ministry etc.
The dictionary meaning as well as the practical meaning of communication
gives importance to exchange of information or occurrences of events between
60
certain people and things only. None gives sufficient emphasis to
communication as a relationship or relagare as we have seen in the introductory
part of this chapter, which involves persons and things or a relationship of which
we are all an integral part. Thus from a Christian perspective, communication
means a process in which relationships are established, maintained, modified, or
terminated through the increase or reduction of relationship.
‘A communicative spirituality is basically a relatedness or openness
in a triple dimension such as the openness to God, the openness to
self, and the openness to others.’50
The good news requires that communication in the community takes into
account all persons, and that it deals with them as sons and daughters of God.
Communication that does otherwise, that treats persons as objects, is in fact
oppressing them. Christians therefore have an advocacy role, to proclaim the
good news and to work toward the fulfillment of its promise.
Thus, Church must serve as a good model of communication, a paradigm

filled with divine qualities not as an oppressor but liberator in its true sense.
17. Messiah the Communicator
Messiah is often termed as the perfect communicator in many respects.

The communication model and way of expression of this ‘guru’ is relevant from
different dimensions.
First of all, the very incarnation was a communication to the humanity. It

was a communication technique of God, the father and the Holy Spirit from the
very inauguration of the world itself. Jesus very mission was proclamation of
the Kingdom of God. He did it mainly through preaching, teaching, healings etc.
This communication and communion still continues in many forms in the
Church through the salvation activities. After His death, His disciples took up
this activity as per the Divine Master’s order as we see it in His commissioning
of the disciples in the Bible likewise:
61
“go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in
the name of the father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and
teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you. And
remember I am with you always, to the end of the age.”51
The threefold communication of Jesus’ such as preaching, teaching and
healing is very evident in the Holy Bible.52 Furthermore, there was a master plan
for His communication. All the elements and variables of communication such
as intrapersonal, interpersonal, medio, group and mass are explicit here. Opinion
leaders were very active during that time itself as in other society. The network
plan of Jesus too is important to note.
The authorization for the authenticity of communication, persuasive
communication based on source’ credibility, quality of communicator, art of
preaching, power of delegation, the non verbal messages, total dismissal of
noise factors, audience awareness, response to the feedback, effects of
communication as conversion etc makes Jesus a perfect communicator.
The different forms of communication are very obvious in Him. His
intrapersonal communication is manifested in and through the Bible. He spends
more time in loneliness and prayer, communicating to Abba the Father. He did
his homework well meditatively and discussing everything with His inner self:
“when day light came, he left the house and made his way to a
lonely place.”53
There are ample evidences in the Holy Bible for His interpersonal
communication. During that time it was done with people on a journey, on the
way side, inside homes in teaching situations etc. St Luke, one among the
prominent Gospel writers describes Jesus as a walking preacher. He mostly
communicated in small groups respecting their culture and particular Judaic
background.
The effectiveness of Jesus message lies in the observation of Marshal Mc
Luhan namely, “medium is the message.”54 He was very definite about the
expected effect or feedback of His proclamation. The target audience was also
there in His mind. Though there were ideological conflicts among the Pharisees,
62
Sadducees and High Priests, He left no room for any misinterpretation among
the believers. There were special sessions of sharing among the disciples,
interactive sessions, attitude formations, time for clarifications etc in His mode
of communication.
The effectiveness of Jesus’ communication from a theoretical perspective is
very interesting. He effectively implemented the two step, multi step flow of
communication to spread the good news. Again, certain theories such as magic
bullet, uses and gratification, agenda setting etc are important in this context.
Their analysis gives us more clarity to the message disseminated by the Divine
Master.
An important one among them is the magic bullet theory or hypodermic
needle theory. Media is viewed as a syringe loaded with a dose of message
content and aimed at the receiving masses. Messages are treated as bullets here.
It goes straight to the intended target, with the intended effect. According to it, if
the message hits the target it has the desired effect.55 The media is powerful here
to the extent of imposing the message on the hearers even at the risk of his
freedom. But this trend never go in tune with that of Jesus methodology. To
exert pressure against human freedom is not His method. He always seeks
human freedom. Of course, certain supernatural qualities or faith are showered to
the concerned persons who meet Messiah. But it is up to the hearer to follow it
or not. He can ignore the word of God. This is evident from the classical parable
of the sower. We read it thus:
“a sower went out to sow his seed; and as he sowed, some fell on
the path and was trampled on, and the birds of the air ate it up.
Some fell on the rock; and as it grew up, it withered for lack of
moisture. Some fell among the thrones, and the thrones grew with
it and choked it. Some fell on the good soil, and when it grew, it
produced a hundred fold.”56
There is an interesting comparison for this with that of the communication
process. The sower is the source, the seed is the message, the hearer is the
receiver and hundredfold and sixty fold production is the feedback. There are a
63
lot of noise factors such as the bad soil, lack of moisture, rock, thrones, pathways
etc. Hundred fold production refers to the maximum feedback or creative
response from the part of the hearer. The communication process repeats again
in a cyclic process, as some communication model states, when the hearer after
accepting the word of God and producing hundredfold, acts vehemently as a
strong communicator to impart his beliefs and witness the Christian message.
It is true in the sense that Christians or Church are called to be the farmers,
sowing the seed of the Word of God in the world. Of course, the farmer must
sow his seed only in a good ground, avoiding maximum noise factor, so that it
will be fruitful to its maximum. And there are often a lot of things he can do to
prepare the soil. This refers to the authenticity, reliability and credibility of the
source, namely the Church and its authorities. Thus the parables and words of
Jesus in the light of modern theories of mass communication gives us more
luminosity and guidelines for the activities of the Church.
18. Communication in the Church
The primitive Church was deeply interested in the Kerygma. The early
Church communicated mostly about the risen Lord. It was mainly through the
oral tradition of the disciples who were real witnesses of the Lord. After this the
Gospels formed. This type of preaching and teaching continued for several
centuries. Then the written documents initiated the reformation period. The first
book to be printed by Gutenberg at a massive level was the Holy Bible or the
‘Vulgate’ itself. It took several centuries more to proliferate this multiplication
of the Word of God. In the modern era where there are high exposures for the
electronic communication, distinct modes of new media as well as new
techniques of communication, the Church must change accordingly.
That is why communicative spirituality, pastoral communication,

evangelical communication etc attains great importance among the catholic
circle. Several doctrines of the Church had given great stress to this. Further
more, much stress has been given to the public relations or public
64
communication of the Catholic Church than ever in this century. The real
intention of the public relation is not to give publicity, advertisement or
introduction of marketing technique. The Catholic Church is not at all concerned
with much publicity. Her main concern is to do good. Some of her major
concerns are to give proper information, interpretations and teaching to tackle
the day to day crisis related with Christian life. It is not at all a reactive style but
a proactive style as per the modern business parlance. It has a biblical basis too:
“so let your light shine before others that they may see your good
works and glorify your heavenly father.”57
19. Nonviolent Communication
The social communication of the Church which is so intimate with that of

Jesus is related to a new mode of communication in modern era known as the
non violent communication. The very wordings may smell that it is from the
greatest practitioner of non violence namely, Mahatma Gandhi. There is no
doubt that the bits and pieces of this quality existed in his language, messages,
actions, body language, way of life etc. But a theoretical base to this was
proposed by Marshall B. Rosenberg.58 Nonviolent Communication (NVC) is
sometimes referred to as compassionate communication too.
Its purpose is to strengthen our ability to inspire compassion from others

and to respond compassionately to others and to ourselves. NVC guides us to
reframe how we express ourselves and hear others by focusing our
consciousness on what we are observing, feeling, needing, and requesting. It is a
language of life, love and harmony and at most compromise.
The process of communication is very simple. There are two dimensions
for this. They are empathic listening and honestly expressing. The first one
consists of observations, feelings, needs and requests. The later consists of
openness, true expression etc.
In this type of communication we must be trained to make careful
observation free of evaluation, and to specify behaviors and conditions that are
65
affecting us. We learn to hear our own deeper needs and those of others, and to
identify and clearly articulate what we want at a given moment. When we focus
on clarifying what is being observed, felt, and needed, rather than on diagnosing
and judging, we discover the depth of our own compassion. Through its
emphasis on deep listening-to ourselves as well as others-NVC fosters respect,
attentiveness and empathy, and engenders a mutual desire to give from the heart.
The form is simple, yet powerfully transformative.
In a strict sense this is more than a process or a language. As our cultural
conditioning often leads our attention in directions unlikely to get us what we
want, NVC serves as an ongoing reminder to focus our attention on places that
have the potential to yield what we are seeking-a flow between ourselves and
others based on a mutual giving from the heart. So more than a process and a
language it is the mutual agreement between two hearts. That is the best
communication we needed.
Here the audience awareness or audience analysis which is important in the
ordinary communication to enhance maximum reach and minimize noise is not
so important since the use of NVC does not require that the persons with whom
we are communicating be literate in NVC, or even motivated to relate to us
compassionately. If we stay with the principles of NVC, with the sole intention
to give and receive compassionately, and do everything we can to let others
know that this is our only motive, they will join us in the process, and eventually
we will be able to respond compassionately to one another. This may not happen
quickly, but it will inevitably blossom into magnificent results, when we stay
true to the principles and process of Nonviolent Communication.
As the name implies, this approach to communication emphasizes
compassion as the motivation for action rather than fear, guilt, shame, blame,
coercion, threat or justification for punishment. In other words, it is about getting
what you want for reasons you will not regret later. These techniques allow you
to make conscious choices about how you will respond whether you get what
you want, or not.
66
Though there are a lot of criticisms against the Catholic Churches activities
today, especially in the educational sector in Kerala, this mode of
communication is very basic to her. We cannot deny the fact that there intruded
certain tendencies in the due course of time whereby the original spirit and
charisma might have faded away because of several reasons.
On the whole, this is a proactive language than reactive language.59 The
language and skills will assist us in dealing with the major blocks to
communication such as demands, diagnoses, criticisms and blaming. Practicing
of this will help us to minimize the likelihood of facing defensive reactions in
others, enables us to make clear requests, helps us to receive critical and hostile
messages without taking them personally, giving in, or losing self-esteem and
this is useful with in our family, friends, students, subordinates, supervisors, co-
workers and clients. Furthermore, these skills will be useful in our own internal
dialogues or intra personal communication so that there will be integral changes
in our relationships and dealings.
Even if people practice this as a mechanical technique, spirituality is at the
base of Nonviolent Communication and they learn the mechanics of the process
bearing it in mind. The name of God, according to Marshall B. Rosenberg, is
“Beloved Divine Energy.” One is connected with Beloved Divine Energy when
one is connected with human beings itself. According to this theory, God will be
very alive in oneself.
It is not just something one feels, but it is something people manifest,
something we do, something we have. Manifestation means giving ourselves in a
certain way. That is an honest expression of what’s alive in us in this particular
moment. To give a gift of one’s self is a manifestation of love. It is when you
reveal yourself transparently and honestly, at any given moment, for no other
purpose than as a gift of what’s alive in you. Not to blame, criticize, or punish.
Just “here I am, and here is what I would like.” The sacrament of confession in
the Christian tradition has got such a dimension of openness.
67
20. Towards a New Culture of Social Communication
In the light of modern communication theories, models and developments,

we can summarize that communication is very instinctive as well as basic to God
and Church. Communication of the Catholic Church as a whole, instigates its
inspiration from the belief that human beings are created in God’s image and
likeness.60
The basic philosophy or inspirations behind all the activities of the Church
originate from the key idea that human beings are called to establish
communicative relations with each other. The famous theologian of the Catholic
Church and the Archbishop Emeritus of the Archdiocese of Milan bring forth the
idea that:
“ the gospel of Pentecost is the gospel of communication.”61
Here, all the closed channels since Babel,62 which means the opposite of
communication such as division and disunity, re-establishes. Thus, the Church
emerges as a sign and instrument of communion with God and of the unity
between men.
The golden rule as we see in the Sermon on the Mount teaches the great
principle of love for enemies:
“Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you”.63
The completion of a person, according to the commandment of Jesus,
demands the community with other people. Since God is communion and
communication, human beings too enter into communication and also removes
everything which hinders this process. Thus the role of the Church is to create a
new culture of social communication.
Ultimately on a final analysis, one can see a distinct objective in the
communicating efforts of the church. The objective is to make every man a
better man and a better human being who is well rooted in all human values the
Church teaches. Further, through creating such better human beings it becomes
possible to create a better society were human beings can live meaningfully,
satisfying both empirical, existential as well as transcendental spiritual needs
68
Notes
1. Mc Luhan, Marshal; Understanding Media: the Extensions of Man,
Routledge Publishers, London, 2001.
2. The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Macropedia; Vol.16, Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc; U.S.A., 2003, p.623.
3. Balan, K.R, Applied Public Relation and Communication, Chandh &
Sons Publishers, New Delhi, 1984, p.128.
4. Grolier Academic Encyclopedia, Grolier International, U.S.A, 1983,
p.142.
5. The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Macropedia, Vol.16, Ibid; p.623.
6. Ronald B. Adler and George Rodman, Understanding Human
Communication, Rinehart and Winston Inc, U.S.A., 1988, p.5.
7. Vilanilam J. V. Dr., Mass Communication in India, A Sociological
Perspective, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2005, p.17.
8. Srampikal Jacob, Dr., Understanding Communication Media, Asian
Trading Cooperation, Bangalore, 1981, p.11.
9. J.V. Vilanilam Dr., Ibid., p.26.
10. Mc Quail Dennis, Mass Communication Theory, Vistar Publications, New
Delhi, 2005, 5 th ed., p.63.
11. Mc Quail Dennis, Ibid., p.63.
12. B. Aubery Fisher and Katharine L Adams, Interpersonal Communication,
Mc Graw Hill Books, Singapore, 1987, pp.33-35.
13. B. Aubery Fisher and Katharine L Adams, Ibid., p.103.
14. Cassata Mary B and Molefi K. Asante, Mass Communication Principles
and Practice, Mc Million Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1979, p.10.
15. Brown Rupent, Group Processes - Dynamics Within and Between
Groups, Basil Black Well, UK, 1988, p.120.
16. Viyay Kumar Anand, History of Mass Communication, Murali Lal and
Sons, New Delhi, 2007, p. 3.
17. Julia T Wood, Interpersonal Communication in Everyday Encounters,
Thomson Wardsworth, USA, 2007, pp.140-141.
69
18. Mc Quail Denis, Ibid., p.516.
19. Ibid., p.517.
20. Gerald Stone, Michael Singletary and Virginia P. Richmond, Clarifying
Communication Theories, Surjeet Publications, New Delhi, 2003, p.94.
21. The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Ibid., p. 628.
22. Gerald Stone, Ibid., pp.94-95.
23. Ibid., p.97.
24. Ibid., pp.74-75.
25. Ibid., pp.75.
26. Ibid., p.77.
27. Ibid., p.77.
28. Ibid., p.79.
29. Ibid., p. 118.
30. Ibid., p.121.
31. Rogers Everett M., Diffusion of Innovation, 4th edition, Free Press, New
York, 1995, p.273.
32. Gerald Stone, Ibid., p.133.
33. Rogers Everett M., Ibid., p.135.
34. Gerald Stone, Ibid., p. 134.
35. Ibid., p. 178.
36. Ibid., p. 137.
37. Brant R. Burleson, Terrance L. Albrecht, Irwin G. Sarason (ed),
Communication of Social Support, Messages, Interactions, Relations, and
Community, Sage Publications Inc, U.S.A.,1994, p.12.
38. Ibid., p.30.
39. Ibid., p.180.
40. Ref. Victor E Frankle, The Search for Meaning, St. Pauls publications,
Mumbai, 2003.
41. Choula Naveen, Mother Theresa, Peguin Books, New Delhi, 2003, p.
238.
42. Cf. I Samuel 20.30, Sir.11.27, Jos. 2.20.
70
43. Edappilly John Dr., The Emerging Electronic Church, Asian Trading
Corporation, Bangalore, 2003, p. 47.
44. Ibid., p.48
45. Judith M. Buddenbaum, Reporting News about Religion, Surjeet
Publications, New Delhi, 2004, p.9.
46. Eilers Franz-Josef, Communicating in Ministry and Mission, An
Introduction to Pastoral and Evangelical Communication, Asian Trading
Corporation, Bangalore, 2003, p. 18.
47. Edappilly Dr. John, Ibid., p.40.
48. Ibid., p.40.
49. Luke 4.18-19. The New R.S.V Bible
50. Eilers Franz-Josef, Ibid., p.30.
51. St. Matthew, 28.7.
52. Edappilly John Dr., Ibid., p.61.
53. St. Luke 4.42.
54. Ref. Mc Luhan Marshall, The Medium is the Message, Routledge,
London, 2002.
55. Melvin De Fleur, Theories of Mass Communication, as quoted in, John
Edappilly, Ibid., p.79.
56. St.Luke 8.4-15.
57. St. Mathew 5.16.
58. Ref. Rosenberg Marshall B., Non Violent Communication- a language of
life, Puddle Dancer Press, Canada, 2003.
59. Ref. Covey, Sean; Seven Habits of Highly Effective Teens, Fireside
Rockefeller Center, New York, 1998.
60. Genesis 1:26, Wis.2.
61. Eilers Franz-Josef., Ibid., p. 21.
62. Genesis 11.1ff.
63. Matthew 5.44.
71
«Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική»
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΩΝ

Οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες να προσεγγίσουν την έννοια και τη

σπουδαιότητα του ρόλου της Σχολικής Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής τόσο για τα
πρόσωπα που μετέχουν στην εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία όσο και για την λειτουργία της
σχολικής μονάδας.
- γνωρίζουν την έννοια της Σχολικής Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής
- αντιληφθούν το σημαντικό ρόλο της Σχολικής Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής στην

εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία
- αντιληφθούν ότι κάθε επικοινωνιακός τύπος/στυλ χρειάζεται ειδική «επικοινωνιακή

μεταχείριση».
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική». Υπό τον τίτλο αυτό,
γίνεται αναφορά στο πεδίο της Συμβουλευτικής για ζητήματα Επικοινωνίας στο χώρο της εκπαίδευσης.
Ζητήματα όπως η καλλιέργεια παιδαγωγικού σχολικού κλίματος, μέσω της εισαγωγής και τήρησης-
εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας, εντός και εκτός της αίθουσας διδασκαλίας, η διαμόρφωση του
διδακτικού πλαισίου ευρύτερα, με την εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας κ.ά., βρίσκονται στο επίκεντρο του
ενδιαφέροντος αυτής της συνεδρίας. Στην συνεδρία αυτή, επίσης, γίνεται έμμεση αναφορά στα ιδιαίτερα
χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό περιβάλλον καθώς και στο ρόλο των
χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με την υλοποίηση του εκπαιδευτικού έργου και την επίτευξη εύρυθμης
λειτουργίας στη σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα, από διοικητική, διδακτική και κοινωνική άποψη. Γίνεται,
επιπλέον, συνοπτική και έμμεση αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και παραμέτρων
επικοινωνίας που ισχύουν σε ολόκληρο σχεδόν το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας, το οποίο
διέπεται από επικοινωνιακές νόρμες ποικίλων μορφών, που αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της
Παιδαγωγικής Επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων.
Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική (school Τύπος ή στυλ επικοινωνίας (communication type/style): Ο

communication counseling): Η επικοινωνία κατέχει όρος αυτός αναφέρεται στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά τα
δεσπόζουσα θέση όχι μόνο στις σύγχρονες μαθησιακές οποία εμφανίζονται σταθερά στην επικοινωνιακή
διαδικασίες αλλά και στις διοικητικές διαδικασίες, καθώς συμπεριφορά κάθε ανθρώπου (Endress, 2016). Τρία είναι τα
η σχολική μονάδα αναπτύσσεται διαρκώς με πνεύμα κυριότερα από αυτά: το παθητικό (passive), το επιθετικό
ανοικτότητας και εξωστρέφειας. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, η (aggressive) και το διεκδικητικό (assertive). Ένας τέταρτος
Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική αποτελεί το τύπος/στυλ επικοινωνίας, μεταξύ πολλών άλλων, που
επιστημονικό πεδίο το οποίο μελετά, διαπιστώνει και ονομάζεται passive-aggressive φαίνεται να παρουσιάζει
προτείνει σε σχολικά διευθυντικά στελέχη, ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον για τους ερευνητές του συγκεκριμένου
εκπαιδευτικούς, μαθητές και γονείς τεχνικές και μεθόδους πεδίου.
βελτίωσης της επικοινωνιακής τους κατάστασης, σε
συλλογικό ή ατομικό επίπεδο κατά περίπτωση
(Porterfield, 2014).
Endress, P. (2016). The Magic of Communication Styles: Understanding yourself and those around you. Cardinal House Press.
Grapin, S. L., & Kranzler, J. H. (2018). School Psychology: Professional Issues and Practices. Springer Publishing Company.
Porterfield, K. (2014). Why School Communication Matters: Strategies from Professionals. USA: American Association of
School Administrators and Rowman & Littlefield.
Tomal, D. R. (2013). Resource Management for School Administrators: Optimizing Fiscal, Facility, and Human Resources.
Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
White, D. M., & Braddy, A. H. (2017). Ready-to-Go Instructional Strategies That Build Collaboration, Communication, and
Critical Thinking. California, CA, USA: Corwin / Sage Publishing Co.
Wood, J. T. (2015). Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters. Boston, MA, USA: Wadsworth Publishing CENGAGE
Learning.
Σταμάτης, Π. Ι. (2015). Προσχολική και Πρωτοσχολική Παιδαγωγική. Εκπαιδευτικές διαστάσεις της επικοινωνιακής
διαδικασίας. Αθήνα: Διάδραση
BΑ
«Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική»
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΩΝ

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Περιεχόμενα...................................................................................................................................... 1
Εισαγωγή........................................................................................................................................... 2
Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική.............................................................................................4
Τύποι Ή στυλ επικοινωνίας............................................................................................................... 8
Βιβλιογραφία...................................................................................................................................14
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Εισαγωγή
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική». Υπό τον
τίτλο αυτό, γίνεται αναφορά στο πεδίο της Συμβουλευτικής για ζητήματα Επικοινωνίας στο
χώρο της Εκπαίδευσης. Ζητήματα όπως η καλλιέργεια παιδαγωγικού σχολικού κλίματος,
μέσω της εισαγωγής και τήρησης-εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας, εντός και εκτός της
αίθουσας διδασκαλίας, η διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου ευρύτερα, με την
εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας κ.ά., βρίσκονται στο επίκεντρο του ενδιαφέροντος αυτής
Στην συνεδρία αυτή, επίσης, γίνεται έμμεση αναφορά στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της
επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό περιβάλλον καθώς και στο ρόλο των
χαρακτηριστικών αυτών, σε σχέση με την υλοποίηση του εκπαιδευτικού έργου και την
επίτευξη εύρυθμης λειτουργίας στη σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα, από διοικητική, διδακτική
και κοινωνική άποψη. Γίνεται, επιπλέον, συνοπτική και έμμεση αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση
των ειδικών συνθηκών και παραμέτρων επικοινωνίας που ισχύουν σε ολόκληρο σχεδόν το
φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται από επικοινωνιακές νόρμες
ποικίλων μορφών, που αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της Παιδαγωγικής Επικοινωνίας
και τη συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων. Τα ζητήματα αυτά αποτελούν
μέρος μιας ενιαίας διδακτικής ενότητα, η ο οποία τιτλοφορείται: «Επικοινωνία στη σχολική
τάξη». Πρόκειται για την 5η διδακτική ενότητα του Προγράμματος «Σχολική Ψυχολογία».
Σκοπός:
Να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες την έννοια και τη

σπουδαιότητα του ρόλου της Σχολικής Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής τόσο για τα
πρόσωπα που μετέχουν στην εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία όσο και για την λειτουργία της
σχολικής μονάδας.
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 γνωρίζουν την έννοια της Σχολικής Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής

 αντιληφθούν το σημαντικό ρόλο της Σχολικής Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής στην
εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία
 αντιληφθούν ότι κάθε επικοινωνιακός τύπος/στυλ χρειάζεται ειδική «επικοινωνιακή
μεταχείριση»
Διαπροσωπική επικοινωνία, διαχείριση σχολικής τάξης, διδακτική επικοινωνία, Σχολική

Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική, τύποι/στυλ επικοινωνίας
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5.4.1 Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική
Όπως αναφέρθηκε αναλυτικά στις προηγούμενες ενότητες, η επικοινωνία αποτελεί έναν

ιδιαίτερο παράγοντα, ο οποίος ρυθμίζει τις διαπροσωπικές σχέσεις των μελών της σχολικής
κοινότητας και ως εκ τούτου, την ποιότητα λειτουργίας κάθε σχολικής μονάδας. Συνεπώς, η
επικοινωνία θα πρέπει να αποτελεί το κύριο μέλημα όλων των συμμετεχόντων στην
εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία είτε πρόκειται για εκπαιδευτικούς είτε για μαθητές είτε για γονείς.
Δηλαδή, αν θέλουμε μια σχολική μονάδα να λειτουργεί ποιοτικά, χωρίς προβλήματα και
παρέχοντας μόνο θετικά στοιχεία αναφορικά με τη διδακτική και μαθησιακή διαδικασία,
τότε θα πρέπει να ενδιαφερθούμε ιδιαίτερα για την επικοινωνία και τον τρόπο που αυτή
διεξάγεται, σε όλα τα επίπεδα λειτουργίας της σχολικής μονάδας. Με βάση το σκεπτικό
αυτό, η σχολική συμβουλευτική αποτελεί μια αναγκαιότητα την οποία η εκπαιδευτική
κοινότητα δεν θα μπορούσε ποτέ να παραβλέψει.
Τα τελευταία χρόνια, ολοένα και περισσότερο, γίνεται προσπάθεια να αναπτυχθεί η
Σχολική Συμβουλευτική σε όλα τα γνωστικά πεδία καθώς και στο πεδίο της Εκπαιδευτικής ή
Παιδαγωγικής Επικοινωνίας. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, στο πλαίσιο ερευνών που διεξάγονται στο
συγκεκριμένο επιστημονικό πεδίο, γίνεται προσπάθεια να διερευνηθούν οι επικοινωνιακές
σχέσεις που αναπτύσσονται ανάμεσα σε εκπαιδευτικούς, ανάμεσα σε εκπαιδευτικούς και
μαθητές, ανάμεσα σε μαθητές και ανάμεσα σε εκπαιδευτικούς και γονείς. Οι περισσότερες
μελέτες δείχνουν ότι η επικοινωνία που αναπτύσσεται σε κάθε διοικητικό και λειτουργικό
επίπεδο μιας σχολικής μονάδας έχει ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά, τα οποία απαιτούν ειδικές
συνθήκες και ενέργειες, προκειμένου να καταστεί η σχολική μονάδα αποτελεσματική και να
μπορέσει να λειτουργήσει απρόσκοπτα.
Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, η μελέτη της επικοινωνιακής συμπεριφοράς των εκπαιδευτικών,
μολονότι βρίσκεται ακόμα σε αρχικά στάδια, τουλάχιστον στο χώρο της Ελλάδας, οδηγεί στο
συμπέρασμα ότι οι εκπαιδευτικοί χρειάζονται ειδικά σεμινάρια διδακτικής επικοινωνίας,
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προκειμένου να βελτιώσουν τον τρόπο με τον οποίο επικοινωνούν μέσα στην τάξη και έξω
από αυτήν, δηλαδή όχι μόνο με τους μαθητές αλλά και με τους άλλους εκπαιδευτικούς και
τους γονείς. Με ανάλογο τρόπο, οι έρευνες δείχνουν ότι απαιτείται ειδική επιμόρφωση στα
διευθυντικά στελέχη σε ζητήματα επικοινωνίας, προκειμένου αυτά να αναπτύξουν
περισσότερο τις δεξιότητες επικοινωνίας τους, οι οποίες, με τη σειρά τους, καθορίζουν σε
μεγάλο βαθμό την ποιότητα του εκπαιδευτικού έργου και την ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών
σχέσεων στη σχολική τους μονάδα (Tomal, 2013).
Μολονότι η έρευνα δεν έχει προχωρήσει αρκετά σε ζητήματα επικοινωνίας
εκπαιδευτικών και γονέων, εντούτοις στη βιβλιογραφία υπάρχουν αναφορές οι οποίες
επισημαίνουν τα προβλήματα που αναπτύσσονται σε αυτό το διμερές επικοινωνιακό
πλαίσιο (Grapin, & Kranzler, 2018). Τα προβλήματα αυτά, οφείλονται κατά κύριο λόγο στο
γεγονός ότι οι γονείς επιδιώκουν να παρεμβαίνουν στο εκπαιδευτικό έργο την ίδια στιγμή
που οι εκπαιδευτικοί δεν είναι σε θέση να ανεχτούν τέτοιου είδους παρεμβάσεις, όταν,
μάλιστα, οι παρεμβάσεις αυτές πραγματοποιούνται ανεξέλεγκτα, με απαξιωτική και
προσβλητική διάθεση και με αδιακρισία.
Πιο συγκεκριμένα, θα μπορούσε κανείς να παρατηρήσει ότι ενώ, ειδικά στον κατεξοχήν
χώρο διδασκαλίας και μάθησης, στις σχολικές μονάδες, η εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία θα
έπρεπε να διεξάγεται σε απόλυτα ήρεμο κλίμα, χωρίς εντάσεις, χωρίς φωνές, χωρίς
συγκρούσεις, δεν συμβαίνει συνήθως κάτι τέτοιο. Για αυτό ευθύνονται όλα τα μέλη της
σχολικής κοινότητας.
Έτσι, λοιπόν, σε ανάλογες περιπτώσεις, οι εκπαιδευτικοί έχουν την κύρια ευθύνη να
αποφεύγονται τέτοιου είδους καταστάσεις. Τα διευθυντικά στελέχη έχουν την κύρια ευθύνη
να διαχειρίζονται και να διευθετούν τέτοιου είδους καταστάσεις με τον πλέον κατάλληλο
τρόπο, όποτε αυτές ανακύπτουν (Porterfield, 2014). Οι μαθητές έχουν την υποχρέωση που
απορρέει από την ιδιότητά τους, να μην δημιουργούν προβλήματα με τη συμπεριφορά
τους, τα οποία να φέρνουν σε δύσκολη θέση τους εκπαιδευτικούς. Επίσης, οι γονείς δεν
μπορούν να συμπεριφέρονται με τρόπο ξένο προς τα σχολικά ήθη, παρεμβαίνοντας και
δημιουργώντας εντάσεις, οι οποίες δεν συνάδουν, σε καμία περίπτωση, με το πνεύμα της
εκπαίδευσης γενικότερα και την εύρυθμη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας.
Αποτελεί κοινό μυστικό ότι σε κάθε σχολική μονάδα υπάρχουν άγραφοι κανόνες
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συμπεριφοράς. Μεταξύ των κανόνων αυτών, συγκαταλέγονται και οι κανόνες διδακτικής

επικοινωνίας (White & Braddy, 2017). Ο τρόπος με τον οποίο οφείλει ο εκπαιδευτικός να
απευθύνεται στους μαθητές και το αντίστροφο, ο τρόπος με τον οποίο οι γονείς οφείλουν
να απευθύνονται σε εκπαιδευτικούς και το αντίστροφο καθώς και ο τρόπος με τον οποίο θα
πρέπει να απευθύνονται οι μαθητές στους συμμαθητές τους, αποτελούν ζητήματα ζωτικής
σημασίας για την εύρυθμη λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας, για τη διδακτική και
μαθησιακή της αποτελεσματικότητα. Ο αμοιβαίος σεβασμός αποτελεί τον θεμέλιο λίθο
ανάπτυξης επικοινωνιακών σχέσεων αλληλοσεβασμού, αμοιβαίας συνεργασίας και
γενικότερα, όλων όσων εννοούμε μιλώντας για «καλή συμπεριφορά» στο σχολείο.
Στην πραγματικότητα, κάθε μέλος της σχολικής κοινότητας καλείται να διαδραματίσει
έναν επικοινωνιακό ρόλο. Το μέλος εκείνο που θα καταφέρει να παίξει καλύτερα το ρόλο
του, θα γίνει, τελικά, εκείνο που θα σημειώσει εξαιρετικές επιτυχίες στο σχολικό του
περίγυρο σε αρχική φάση και μεταγενέστερα στο κοινωνικό του περιβάλλον. Ο
επικοινωνιακός ρόλος αντιστοιχίζεται, στην ουσία, με την ανάπτυξη της θεμελιώδους
κοινωνικής δεξιότητας της επικοινωνίας, χωρίς την επαρκή ανάπτυξη της οποίας τα άτομα
θα είναι καταδικασμένα να ζουν συνεχώς στο κοινωνικό περιθώριο, αποτυγχάνοντας στο
μεγαλύτερο μέρος των δραστηριοτήτων και των κοινωνικών τους στοχεύσεων, σύμφωνα με
ερευνητικά συμπεράσματα (Wood, 2015).
Συνεπώς, γνωρίζοντας τη σπουδαιότητα της επικοινωνίας στη ζωή του ανθρώπου,
αποτελεί σοφή επιλογή η πλήρης ανάπτυξη των επικοινωνιακών δεξιοτήτων συστηματικά,
οργανωμένα και θεσμικά, μέσα από την εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία. Το γεγονός αυτό ισχύει
για όλους όσους εμπλέκονται στη διαδικασία αυτή είτε πρόκειται για γονείς είτε για
μαθητές είτε, βεβαίως και πολύ περισσότερο θα έλεγε κανείς, για εκπαιδευτικούς.
Σε περιπτώσεις κατά τις οποίες οι εκπαιδευτικοί εντοπίζουν μαθητές οι οποίοι
αποκλίνουν επικοινωνιακά ή εμφανίζουν αδυναμίες και προβλήματα στην επικοινωνία τους,
τότε θα πρέπει να συνεργάζονται με ειδικούς, αφού ενημερώσουν τη σχολική διεύθυνση και
τους γονείς, προκειμένου τα παιδιά να ξεπεράσουν τα προβλήματα και τις αδυναμίες τους
και να καταστούν επικοινωνιακά επαρκή. Συνήθως, πολλοί εκπαιδευτικοί και γονείς
πιστεύουν ότι τα παιδιά που παρουσιάζουν επικοινωνιακά προβλήματα, θα έχουν τη
δυνατότητα να τα υπερβούν επιτυχώς, με την πάροδο του χρόνου και να τα ξεπεράσουν.
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Όμως, κάτι τέτοιο δεν ευσταθεί διότι, όπως έχουν δείξει σχετικές έρευνες, μόνο η έγκαιρη
αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων επικοινωνίας και η ειδική υποστήριξη και συμβουλευτική των
παιδιών, ανάλογα με τη φύση και την ένταση του προβλήματος, βοηθούν στην
αντιμετώπιση των επικοινωνιακών προβλημάτων (Slavin, 2018).
Σε χώρες του εξωτερικού, λειτουργούν ειδικά συμβουλευτικά κέντρα για την
αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων επικοινωνίας. Τέτοιας μορφής προβλήματα μπορεί να είναι,
παραδείγματος χάριν, η απροθυμία ενός παιδιού, λόγω έντονου στρες, να μιλήσει μπροστά
σε συγκεκριμένα πρόσωπα ή σε συγκεκριμένο ακροατήριο, η αδυναμία ενός παιδιού να
εκφράσει αυθόρμητα τις σκέψεις και τα συναισθήματά του, η αδυναμία ενός παιδιού να
θυμηθεί μια αλληλουχία γεγονότων και να την αναπαραστήσει λεκτικά, να εκφραστεί με τη
γλώσσα του σώματος, να έχει την τάση να διακόπτει συνεχώς τους συνομιλητές του κ.π.ά.
Τα περισσότερα προβλήματα επικοινωνίας μπορούν να αντιμετωπιστούν σχετικά εύκολα
με την καθοδήγηση ειδικού. Όμως, οι διαταραχές επικοινωνίας αντιμετωπίζονται συνήθως
ελάχιστα ή καθόλου και πάντως εξαιρετικά δύσκολα. Ο ρόλος του εκπαιδευτικού σε όλα
αυτά είναι καθοριστικής σημασίας, όπως εξάλλου είναι και ο ρόλος των γονέων. Για το λόγο
αυτό και οι δύο, οι εκπαιδευτικοί και οι γονείς, οφείλουν πάντα να συνεργάζονται πολύ
στενά μεταξύ τους, υπερβαίνοντας για το συμφέρον του παιδιού τυχόν μικροψυχίες,
απερισκεψίες και ανόητους εγωισμούς.
Ορισμός 1
Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική (school communication counseling): Η επικοινωνία
κατέχει δεσπόζουσα θέση όχι μόνο στις σύγχρονες μαθησιακές διαδικασίες αλλά και στις διοικητικές
διαδικασίες, καθώς η σχολική μονάδα αναπτύσσεται διαρκώς με πνεύμα ανοικτότητας και
εξωστρέφειας. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, η Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική αποτελεί το επιστημονικό
πεδίο το οποίο μελετά, διαπιστώνει και προτείνει σε σχολικά διευθυντικά στελέχη, εκπαιδευτικούς,
μαθητές και γονείς τεχνικές και μεθόδους βελτίωσης της επικοινωνιακής τους κατάστασης, σε
συλλογικό ή ατομικό επίπεδο κατά περίπτωση (Porterfield, 2014).
5.4.2 Τύποι ή στυλ επικοινωνίας
Όπως κάθε άλλη συμπεριφορά διαφέρει μεταξύ των ανθρώπων, έτσι και η
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επικοινωνιακή συμπεριφορά διαφέρει από άνθρωπο σε άνθρωπο. Μολονότι όλοι οι

άνθρωποι διαθέτουν την ικανότητα να επικοινωνούν, εκτός εάν συντρέχουν ειδικοί λόγοι
που στερούν ή παρεμποδίζουν την ικανότητα αυτή, κανένας άνθρωπος δεν επικοινωνεί με
τον ίδιο τρόπο που επικοινωνεί οποιοσδήποτε άλλος άνθρωπος. Η επικοινωνιακή
συμπεριφορά κάθε ανθρώπου αποτελεί μοναδικό και χαρακτηριστικό στοιχείο της
ταυτότητάς του. Βασισμένοι σε αυτή την απλοϊκή αλλά πέρα για πέρα ορθή παρατήρηση,
ειδικοί από το χώρο της Κοινωνικής Ψυχολογίας κατά κύριο λόγο, αφού μελέτησαν
επισταμένα την επικοινωνιακή συμπεριφορά χιλιάδων ανθρώπων προερχόμενων από
διαφορετικά πολιτισμικά και κοινωνικά περιβάλλοντα, προσπάθησαν, βασισμένοι στα
ιδιαίτερα επικοινωνιακά χαρακτηριστικά του καθενός, να τους διακρίνουν σε κατηγορίες, τις
οποίες ονόμασαν «τύπους» ή «στυλ» επικοινωνίας (communication types/styles) (Endress,
2016). Κάθε μια από αυτές τις προσπάθειες, δίνοντας έμφαση σε διαφορετικά
χαρακτηριστικά, οδήγησε τους ειδικούς στη δημιουργία διαφορετικών κατηγοριών τόσο από
άποψη ονόματος όσο και από άποψη περιεχομένου, δηλαδή από άποψη επικοινωνιακών
χαρακτηριστικών. Με τον τρόπο αυτό, αν και σε πολλές περιπτώσεις οι πολιτισμικές
επιδράσεις αποτελούν ένα ισχυρά διαμορφωτικό παράγοντα, δημιουργήθηκαν, μεταξύ
άλλων, οι ακόλουθες βασικές κατηγορίες, οι οποίες διαμορφώνονται σταδιακά και
μακροχρόνια από γενετικούς και ποικίλους επίκτητους παράγοντες: 1. Παθητικός,
Επιθετικός, Διεκδικητικός, 2. Εκφραστικός, Υπεύθυνος, Κοινωνικός, Σχολαστικός, 3.
Συμβιβαστικός, Επικριτικός, Υπολογιστικός, Παραπλανητικός, Ευθύς (Σταμάτης, 2013).
Καθένας από τους προαναφερόμενους επιθετικούς χαρακτηρισμούς, παραπέμπει στα
κυρίαρχα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνιακής συμπεριφοράς, τα οποία και περιγράφει
μονολεκτικά. Έτσι, π.χ., στην περίπτωση των βασικών τύπων/στυλ επικοινωνίας που
αναφέρονται ως «Παθητικός, Επιθετικός, Διεκδικητικός»:
Παθητικός (passive) ονομάζεται ο επικοινωνιακός τύπος ο οποίος αποφεύγει, συνήθως,
να συγκρουστεί μετέχοντας σε μια επικοινωνιακή διαδικασία, είναι λιγομίλητος και
εκδηλώνει, γενικότερα, μια φοβική συμπεριφορά, όταν καλείται να συμμετάσχει σε μια
συζήτηση, την οποία και θα προτιμούσε να αποφύγει, αφήνοντας να εννοηθεί ότι
αποδέχεται τις απόψεις των άλλων. Κοντά στα χαρακτηριστικά αυτού του τύπου/στυλ
επικοινωνίας βρίσκονται και οι ακόλουθοι τύποι:
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α. Ντροπαλός. Αποφεύγει να συμμετάσχει σε συζήτηση. Αποφεύγει την οπτική επαφή

και διστάζει να απαντήσει. Προτιμά να απομονώνεται επικοινωνιακά, όχι γιατί δεν έχει
άποψη αλλά γιατί διστάζει να την εκφράσει δημοσίως.
β. Σιωπηλός. Δεν μιλάει πολύ και δε μοιράζεται τις απόψεις του, για αυτό και περνάει
εύκολα απαρατήρητος. Επικοινωνεί με τρόπο αφηρημένο, αμφίσημο και διαλλακτικό,
αποφεύγοντας να εστιάζει αποκλειστικά στο κύριο θέμα της συζήτησης.
Επιθετικός (aggressive) ονομάζεται ο επικοινωνιακός τύπος ο οποίος, σε αντίθεση με τον
Παθητικό, δεν αποφεύγει, αλλά επιδιώκει, συνήθως, να εκφράζεται επιδεικτικά, εριστικά
και με στόμφο, επιχειρώντας να επιβάλει την άποψή του στο συνομιλητή με
ισχυρογνωμοσύνη. Ορισμένοι επιθετικοί τύποι επιλέγουν να εκφράζονται με συγκαλυμμένη
επιθετικότητα, τηρώντας μια στάση έκφρασης γαλαντόμων, ευγενικών και κολακευτικών
σχολίων, τα οποία τεχνηέντως εκφράζουν ήρεμα και με αβρότητα προς το συνομιλητή τους,
ακολουθώντας ωστόσο την τακτική του σκορπιού, ο οποίος αν και ορισμένοι πιστεύουν ότι
κινδυνεύουν από τις δαγκάνες του, εντούτοις το δηλητήριο βρίσκεται στο κρυμμένο κεντρί
της ουράς του. Κοντά στα χαρακτηριστικά αυτού του τύπου/στυλ επικοινωνίας βρίσκονται
και οι ακόλουθοι τύποι:
α. Αντιδραστικός. Αντιδρά διαρκώς, αμφισβητεί και απορρίπτει τις απόψεις των άλλων,
εκφράζοντας, σχεδόν πάντα, αντίθετη άποψη.
β. Αδιάκριτος. Συνεχώς διακόπτει τον ομιλητή, διεκδικώντας να μονοπωλήσει το χρόνο
της συζήτησης. Γίνεται προπέτης προσπαθώντας διαρκώς να βρει συμμάχους για τις
απόψεις του.
γ. Γλείφτης. Είναι πολύ φιλικός και επαινεί υποκριτικά το συνομιλητή, αδιαφορώντας για
τις συνέπειες. Δείχνει σίγουρος για τον εαυτό του και πρόθυμος να βοηθήσει. Επιδιώκει την
επιβράβευση.
δ. Εξυπνάκιας. Επιφανειακός, ειρωνικός και εγωιστής, δείχνει καλά ενημερωμένος για
όλα (παντογνώστης ή ξερόλας). Για αυτό, προσπαθεί να επιβάλει την άποψή του,
διακόπτοντας συχνά. Δεν θέλει να μάθει από κανέναν και αγνοεί την άποψη των άλλων.
ε. Επιδειξίας. Μιλά χωρίς να σκέφτεται, έχει μεγάλη ιδέα για τον εαυτό του, κάνει
άσχετες κινήσεις και σχόλια. Συχνά, για να προκαλέσει το ενδιαφέρον, δε διστάζει να γίνει
ακόμα και ο κλόουν της παρέας.
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στ. Ρουφιάνος. Παρακολουθεί αμέτοχος αλλά προσεκτικά όλα τα τεκταινόμενα στην

ομάδα, ενώ επινοεί τρόπους μετάδοσής τους σε τρίτα, ενδιαφερόμενα πρόσωπα,
αποσκοπώντας να πλήξει συγκεκριμένα μέλη της ομάδας ή ακόμη και το σύνολό της.
«Πουλάει» εκδούλευση για να είναι χρήσιμος και ευχάριστος σε άτομα με ισχύ,
προκειμένου να διασφαλίσει την εύνοιά τους, προς ίδιον όφελος. «Καρφώνει» αδίστακτα το
συνάδελφο προκαλώντας σκόπιμο διάλογο μαζί του, για να τον διαβάλλει και να γίνει
αρεστός σε πρόσωπα ανώτερης θέσης ευθύνης.
Διεκδικητικός (assertive) ονομάζεται ο επικοινωνιακός τύπος ο οποίος, συνήθως,
επιλέγει να εκφράζεται ήρεμα και αποφασιστικά, δομώντας το λόγο του με βάσιμα
επιχειρήματα. Δεν επιτίθεται αλλά και δεν φοβάται να εκφράσει όσα πιστεύει, διεκδικώντας
να γίνουν σεβαστές οι απόψεις και οι αιτιολογημένες-βάσιμες επιδιώξεις του.
Με ανάλογο τρόπο, θα μπορούσε να αντιληφθεί και να ερμηνεύσει κανείς τους
επιθετικούς προσδιορισμούς για τους επικοινωνιακούς τύπους Εκφραστικός, Υπεύθυνος,
Κοινωνικός, Σχολαστικός και Συμβιβαστικός, Επικριτικός, Υπολογιστικός, Παραπλανητικός,
Ευθύς και όσους ακόμη θα μπορούσε να συναντήσει στη σχετική βιβλιογραφία. Ο βασικός
λόγος για τον οποίο γίνεται αναφορά σε αυτή τη συνεδρία στους τύπους ή στα στυλ
επικοινωνίας είναι ότι τόσο οι εκπαιδευτικοί όσο και τα λοιπά μέλη κάθε εκπαιδευτικής
κοινότητας, εκτός των μαθητών μικρής ηλικίας, αποτελούν «εκπροσώπους» αυτών των
τύπων/στυλ επικοινωνίας, κατά κανόνα.
Όσο καλύτερα και συντομότερα αντιλαμβάνεται κανείς τον επικοινωνιακό τύπο/στυλ των
ανθρώπων με τους οποίους συναναστρέφεται ή αλληλεπιδρά καθημερινά σε μια σχολική
μονάδα τόσο πιο αποτελεσματική μπορεί να γίνει η μεταξύ τους επικοινωνία. Οι
εκπαιδευτικοί μπορούν να προσαρμόζουν την επικοινωνιακή τους στρατηγική αναλόγως,
επιλέγοντας τον τρόπο, το λεξιλόγιο ή ακόμα και το ύφος με το οποίο θα επικοινωνήσουν σε
σχέση με τον επικοινωνιακό τύπο του διευθυντή ή του γονέα κατά περίσταση, ώστε να
υπάρξει καλύτερη συνεννόηση.
Οι μαθητές μικρών ηλικιών δεν έχουν διαμορφώσει ακόμα τύπο/στυλ επικοινωνίας,
δεδομένου ότι ακόμα μαθαίνουν, αποκτούν γνώσεις αναφορικά με την επικοινωνιακή
συμπεριφορά και τις παραμέτρους που τη συνοδεύουν και την εμπλουτίζουν. Επίσης,
αποκτούν διαρκώς ποικίλα επικοινωνιακά βιώματα, τα οποία συμβάλλουν στην
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επικοινωνιακή τους βελτίωση, ακολουθώντας μια μακρά πορεία μάθησης ανάπτυξης και
βελτίωσης της επικοινωνιακής τους ικανότητας. Η πορεία αυτή, ενώ θεωρητικά εκτιμάται
ότι θα μπορούσε να ολοκληρωθεί με εκπαίδευση και ειδικές σπουδές στο πεδίο της
επικοινωνίας, προκειμένου η επικοινωνιακή επάρκεια καθενός που εκδηλώνει σχετικό
ενδιαφέρον να αποτυπωθεί σε βεβαιώσεις, πιστοποιητικά ή τίτλους σπουδών, στην
πραγματικότητα είναι διά βίου, είναι ατέρμονη, είναι μια πορεία η οποία δεν έχει τέλος.
Η ρήση του αρχαίου Αθηναίου σοφού και νομοθέτη Σόλωνα «γηράσκω δ’ αιεί πολλά
διδασκόμενος», στην περίπτωση της βελτίωσης της επικοινωνιακής ικανότητας, βρίσκει
τέλεια επαλήθευση. Επειδή η «τέχνη» της επικοινωνίας και οι τεχνικές που συμβάλλουν
στην αποτελεσματικότητά της είναι ζωτικής σημασίας, η προσπάθεια για εκπαίδευση και
βελτίωση σε θέματα επικοινωνίας πρέπει να απασχολεί διαρκώς κάθε άνθρωπο, σε κάθε
στάδιο της ζωής του και ιδιαίτερα όσες και όσους ασκούν επαγγέλματα ή δραστηριότητες οι
οποίες επηρεάζονται ή εξαρτώνται άμεσα ή έμμεσα από την επικοινωνία και τις εκφάνσεις
της.
Ορισμός 2
Τύπος ή στυλ επικοινωνίας (communication type/style): Ο όρος αναφέρεται στα ιδιαίτερα
χαρακτηριστικά τα οποία εμφανίζονται σταθερά στην επικοινωνιακή συμπεριφορά κάθε
ανθρώπου (Endress, 2016). Τρία είναι τα κυριότερα από αυτά: το παθητικό (passive), το
επιθετικό (aggressive) και το διεκδικητικό (assertive). Ένας τέταρτος τύπος/στυλ
επικοινωνίας, μεταξύ πολλών άλλων, που ονομάζεται passive-aggressive φαίνεται να
παρουσιάζει ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον για τους ερευνητές του συγκεκριμένου πεδίου.
Δραστηριότητα πρόκλησης δημόσιου διαλόγου 5ησ διδακτικησ ενοτητασ (προαιρετικη)

Σκέψου, με βάση τα παραπάνω δεδομένα και τις προσωπικές σου εμπειρίες και συζήτησε το θέμα
αναφορικά με το ποιος τύπος επικοινωνίας θα συνέβαλλε θετικά στην αποτελεσματική λειτουργία
των σύγχρονων σχολικών μονάδων. Η παράθεση επιχειρημάτων για την άποψή σου είναι
απαραίτητη.
Διατύπωσε τις απόψεις σου στον αντίστοιχο χώρο συζητήσεων στο Moodle.
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Αν επιθυμείτε να μελετήσετε περαιτέρω τις διαστάσεις ζητημάτων επικοινωνίας στη

σύγχρονη εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία, μπορείτε να ανατρέξετε στο κείμενο «Έννοια και
μορφές επικοινωνίας» στα Παράλληλα Κείμενα της συνεδρίας.
Επίσης, αν επιθυμείτε, μπορείτε να ανατρέξετε στους παρακάτω δυο συνδέσμους οι

https://www.uky.edu/hr/sites/www.uky.edu.hr/files/wellness/images/Conf14_FourCommSty
les.pdf
https://self-sufficiency.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/communication_styles.pdf
Σύ
νοψη/Ανακεφαλαίωση Αντικειμένου Συνεδρίας
Η παρούσα συνεδρία φέρει τον τίτλο: «Σχολική Επικοινωνιακή Συμβουλευτική». Υπό

τον τίτλο αυτό, έγινε αναφορά στο πεδίο της Συμβουλευτικής για ζητήματα Επικοινωνίας
στο χώρο της εκπαίδευσης, δημιουργώντας προβληματισμούς και δίνοντας απαντήσεις σε
ζητήματα που περιλαμβάνονται στο πεδίο της Εκπαιδευτικής Επικοινωνίας ή της
Επικοινωνίας της Εκπαίδευσης (Educational Communication). Σε αυτό το πλαίσιο,
προσεγγίστηκαν γενικότερα ζητήματα όπως η καλλιέργεια και βελτίωση του παιδαγωγικού
σχολικού κλίματος, μέσω της εισαγωγής και τήρησης-εφαρμογής κανόνων επικοινωνίας,
εντός και εκτός της αίθουσας διδασκαλίας, η διαμόρφωση του διδακτικού πλαισίου
ευρύτερα, με την εφαρμογή τεχνικών επικοινωνίας κ.ά., τα οποία βρέθηκαν στο επίκεντρο
του ενδιαφέροντος αυτής της συνεδρίας.
Στην συνεδρία αυτή, επίσης, έγινε άμεση αναφορά σε τύπους ή στυλ επικοινωνίας
καθώς, επίσης και έμμεση αναφορά στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά και παραμέτρους της
επικοινωνίας που αναπτύσσεται στο σχολικό περιβάλλον και στο ρόλο των χαρακτηριστικών
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αυτών, σε σχέση με την υλοποίηση του εκπαιδευτικού έργου και την επίτευξη εύρυθμης
λειτουργίας στη σχολική μονάδα γενικότερα. Επιπλέον, έγινε συνοπτική και έμμεση
αναφορά στη διαμόρφωση των ειδικών συνθηκών και παραμέτρων επικοινωνίας που
ισχύουν σε ολόκληρο σχεδόν το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας, το οποίο διέπεται
από επικοινωνιακές νόρμες ποικίλων μορφών, που αποτυπώνονται στον ιδιαίτερο ρόλο της
Παιδαγωγικής Επικοινωνίας και τη συμβολή της στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων, οι
οποίες δύναται να καθοριστούν από το στυλ επικοινωνίας του κάθε συνομιλητή.
Η θεωρητική προσέγγιση της έννοιας και της σπουδαιότητας του ρόλου της Σχολικής
Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής τόσο για τα πρόσωπα που μετέχουν στην εκπαιδευτική
διαδικασία όσο και για την λειτουργία της σχολικής μονάδας, αναμένεται να συμβάλλει
θετικά στη δυνατότητα των επιμορφούμενων να αντιληφθούν το σημαντικό ρόλο της
Σχολικής Επικοινωνιακής Συμβουλευτικής στην εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία και να
αντιληφθούν ότι κάθε επικοινωνιακός τύπος/στυλ χρειάζεται ειδική «επικοινωνιακή
μεταχείριση».
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Learning.
Gilchrist-Petty, E. (2017). Deviant Communication in Teacher-Student Interactions: Emerging
Research and Opportunities. USA: IGI Global.
USA: Routledge.
Pearson.
Sage Publishing Co.
Ελληνική
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15
The Four Basic Styles of Communication
1. PASSIVE COMMUNICATION is a style in which individuals have developed a pattern of avoiding expressing their
opinions or feelings, protecting their rights, and identifying and meeting their needs. As a result, passive individuals do
not respond overtly to hurtful or anger-inducing situations. Instead, they allow grievances and annoyances to mount,
usually unaware of the buildup. But once they have reached their high tolerance threshold for unacceptable behavior,
they are prone to explosive outbursts, which are usually out of proportion to the triggering incident. After the outburst,
however, they may feel shame, guilt, and confusion, so they return to being passive.
Passive communicators will often:

 fail to assert for themselves
 allow others to deliberately or inadvertently infringe on their rights
 fail to express their feelings, needs, or opinions
 tend to speak softly or apologetically
 exhibit poor eye contact and slumped body posture
The impact of a pattern of passive communication is that these individuals:

 often feel anxious because life seems out of their control
 often feel depressed because they feel stuck and hopeless
 often feel resentful (but are unaware of it) because their needs are not being met
 often feel confused because they ignore their own feelings
 are unable to mature because real issues are never addressed
A passive communicator will say, believe, or behave like:

 “I’m unable to stand up for my rights.”
 “I don’t know what my rights are.”
 “I get stepped on by everyone."
 “I’m weak and unable to take care of myself.”
 “People never consider my feelings.”
2. AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATION is a style in which individuals express their feelings and opinions and advocate for
their needs in a way that violates the rights of others. Thus, aggressive communicators are verbally and/or physically
abusive.
Aggressive communicators will often:

 try to dominate others
 use humiliation to control others
 criticize, blame, or attack others
 be very impulsive
 have low frustration tolerance
 speak in a loud, demanding, and overbearing voice
 act threateningly and rudely
 not listen well
 interrupt frequently
 use “you” statements
This resource is provided by the UK Violence Intervention and Prevention Center
 have an overbearing or intimidating posture
The impact of a pattern of aggressive communication is that these individuals:
 become alienated from others
 alienate others
 generate fear and hatred in others
 always blame others instead of owning their issues, and thus are unable to mature
The aggressive communicator will say, believe, or behave like:

 “I’m superior and right and you’re inferior and wrong.”
 “I’m loud, bossy and pushy.”
 “I can dominate and intimidate you.”
 “I can violate your rights.”
 “I’ll get my way no matter what.”
 “You’re not worth anything.”
 “It’s all your fault.”
 “I react instantly.”
 “I’m entitled.”
 “You owe me.”
 “I own you.”
3. PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATION is a style in which individuals appear passive on the surface but are really
acting out anger in a subtle, indirect, or behind-the-scenes way. People who develop a pattern of passive-aggressive
communication usually feel powerless, stuck, and resentful – in other words, they feel incapable of dealing directly with
the object of their resentments. Instead, they express their anger by subtly undermining the object (real or imagined) of
their resentments.
Passive-Aggressive communicators will often:

 mutter to themselves rather than confront the person or issue
 have difficulty acknowledging their anger
 use facial expressions that don't match how they feel - i.e., smiling when angry
 use sarcasm
 deny there is a problem
 appear cooperative while purposely doing things to annoy and disrupt
 use subtle sabotage to get even
The impact of a pattern of passive-aggressive communication is that these individuals:

 become alienated from those around them
 remain stuck in a position of powerlessness (like POWs)
 discharge resentment while real issues are never addressed so they can't mature
The passive-aggressive communicator will say, believe, or behave like:

 “I’m weak and resentful, so I sabotage, frustrate, and disrupt.”
 “I’m powerless to deal with you head on so I must use guerilla warfare.”
 “I will appear cooperative but I’m not.”

4. ASSERTIVE COMMUNICATION is a style in which individuals clearly state their opinions and feelings, and firmly
advocate for their rights and needs without violating the rights of others. These individuals value themselves, their time,
and their emotional, spiritual, and physical needs and are strong advocates for themselves while being very respectful of
the rights of others.
Assertive communicators will:

 state needs and wants clearly, appropriately, and respectfully
 express feelings clearly, appropriately, and respectfully
 use “I” statements
 communicate respect for others
 listen well without interrupting
 feel in control of self
 have good eye contact
 speak in a calm and clear tone of voice
 have a relaxed body posture
 feel connected to others
 feel competent and in control
 not allow others to abuse or manipulate them
 stand up for their rights
The impact of a pattern of assertive communication is that these individuals:

 feel connected to others
 feel in control of their lives
 are able to mature because they address issues and problems as they arise
 create a respectful environment for others to grow and mature
The assertive communicator will say, believe, or behave in a way that says:
 “We are equally entitled to express ourselves respectfully to one another.”
 “I am confident about who I am.”
 “I realize I have choices in my life and I consider my options.”
 “I speak clearly, honestly, and to the point.”
 “I can’t control others but I can control myself.”
 “I place a high priority on having my rights respected.”
 “I am responsible for getting my needs met in a respectful manner.”
 “I respect the rights of others.”
 “Nobody owes me anything unless they’ve agreed to give it to me.”
 “I’m 100% responsible for my own happiness.”
Assertiveness allows us to take care of ourselves, and is fundamental for good mental health and healthy relationships.

UNDERSTANDING YOUR
COMMUNICATION STYLE
LEVEL 2 PROJECT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 Introduction
3 Your Assignment
4 Assess Your Skills
5 Competencies
5 Communication Styles
8 Effective Use of Communication Styles
9 Adapting to Other Communication Styles
10 Review and Apply
11 Complete Your Assignment
12 Resources
TOASTMASTERS INTERNATIONAL
www.toastmasters.org
© 2016 Toastmasters International. All rights reserved.

Toastmasters International, the Toastmasters International logo, and all other
Toastmasters International trademarks and copyrights are the sole property
of Toastmasters International and may be used only with permission.
Rev. 11/2016 Item 8206

INTRODUCTION
Communication is a two-way process for reaching mutual understanding through

verbal, non-verbal, and written messages. Communication style is defined
as the way in which individuals interact with one another and the messages
they send, intentionally or not, through their behaviors. Determining your own
communication style can help you improve how you share information with others.
Learning how to effectively communicate with styles different from your own will
enable you to establish effective relationships and create better understanding.
In this project, you will learn how to identify different communication styles,
understand your preferred communication style, and recognize how your
communication style may impact your interactions with others. You will
determine how to improve your relationships by mastering and adapting your
communication styles and tailor your message to match situational expectations.
Page 2 UNDERSTANDING YOUR COMMUNICATION STYLE

YOUR ASSIGNMENT
Purpose: The purpose of this project is to learn about different communication For all
styles and identify your primary style. assignment
Overview: Complete the Discover Your Communication Style questionnaire to
details and
help you identify your style. Deliver a 5- to 7-minute speech at a club meeting requirements,
about your communication style and its impact on your professional and/or review the
personal relationships. If you are uncomfortable discussing your communication Project Checklist
style, you may speak about the communication styles you have encountered and on page 12.
how they impact you. Your speech should not be a report of the content of this
project.
Throughout this project you will see icons in the margins next to the text.
These icons indicate additional resources available online.
Video: Sign in to Base Camp to watch a video that supports

this project.
Interactive Activity: Sign in to Base Camp to complete an

interactive activity.
Resource: Sign in to Base Camp to view this resource

online.
UNDERSTANDING YOUR COMMUNICATION STYLE Page 3

ASSESS YOUR SKILLS
Evaluate your current skill level by rating each statement.
Select the appropriate number based on your skills today:
5 4 3 2 1
EXEMPLARY EXCEL ACCOMPLISHED EMERGING DEVELOPING
Pre-Project Statement Post-Project
5 4 3 2 1 I understand different communication styles. 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1 I am aware of my preferred communication style. 5 4 3 2 1

I understand how my behavior and chosen communication
5 4 3 2 1 style(s) may impact my interactions with others. 5 4 3 2 1
I can select or adjust my communication style to fit any
5 4 3 2 1 situation or relationship. 5 4 3 2 1
I recognize how this project applies to my life
5 4 3 2 1 outside of Toastmasters. 5 4 3 2 1

COMPETENCIES
The following is a list of competencies that

you will learn and practice in this project.
■■ Understand different communication styles.
■■ Identify your preferred communication style.
■■ Recognize how your communication style may impact your interactions.
■■ Determine how to improve your relationships by mastering and adapting your
application of communication styles based on the situation.
■■ Tailor your style to match situational expectations.
COMMUNICATION STYLES
DISCOVER YOUR COMMUNICATION STYLE

At this time, complete the following questionnaire.
Please choose the word that is most descriptive of you.
1. I like to be seen as
a. Sociable c. Cautious
b. Decisive d. Patient
2. When collaborating with others, I am

a. Competitive c. Cooperative
b. Spontaneous d. Precise
3. When it comes to sharing feelings with others, I am

a. Reserved c. Private
b. Sympathetic d. Self-assured
4. Others would describe me as

a. Gentle c. Results-oriented
b. Fun-loving d. Disciplined

5. I like my appearance to be
a. Formal c. Stylish
b. Casual d. Business-like
6. I want support for my

a. Goals c. Feelings
b. Ideas d. Thoughts
7. When working on a project, I am

a. Enthusiastic c. Purposeful
b. Ambitious d. Persistent
8. Some may perceive me negatively as

a. Indecisive c. Impulsive
b. A perfectionist d. Strong-willed
9. As a leader, I would be perceived as

a. Focused c. Dependable
b. A risk-taker d. A problem-solver
10. When placed in a new situation, I am

a. Conscientious c. Optimistic
b. Fearless d. Friendly
11. My perfect occupation would give me a sense of

a. Accomplishment c. Acceptance
b. Enjoyment d. Accuracy
12. My favorite way to work is by

a. Networking c. Delegating
b. Brainstorming d. Working
independently

IDENTIFYING YOUR COMMUNICATION STYLE
At this time, refer to the Communication Style Scoring Guide on page 17 to identify
your communication style. Calculate your scores and keep them available for review as
you read through the remainder of this project.
Most people will find they produce a score in multiple categories. Each
communication style has value and there is no best overall style. Having a higher
score in one communication style indicates you are comfortable using that style
in many situations, but is not necessarily what you choose in all communication.
The goal of understanding your communication style preferences is to
communicate with others in a way that is comfortable and effective.
Direct
This style is decisive, competitive, independent, and confident. Because the
person with a Direct communication style is focused, results-oriented, ambitious,
goal-oriented, and driven, others may perceive her as strong-willed or demanding.
She can be seen as impatient when bored.
She likes to feel in control and may become frustrated if dependent on others.
She measures progress by achievements and successes and is motivated by
challenges. At work she displays more concern for results than relationships and
does not easily share feelings. Her pace is fast and decisive and she likes a busy,
efficient, structured, and formal environment.
Initiating
This style is sociable, enthusiastic, energetic, spontaneous, and fun-loving. Due to the
gregarious nature of the person with an Initiating communication style, he may be
perceived as someone who talks more than listens. He is often perceived as self-
assured, innovative, and persuasive.
He likes to feel accepted and is motivated by relationships. He responds strongly to

praise and approval. His pace is fast and he may appear impulsive at times. He prefers
a stimulating, personal, and friendly work environment.
Supportive
This style is calm, steady, approachable, sincere, and gentle. Because the person
with a Supportive communication style dislikes change, she may appear
indecisive. More often she is perceived as careful, patient, and amiable. Due to her
active listening skills, others see her as cooperative, dependable, and loyal.
She is often modest and prefers praise be given privately. Patient and slow-paced,
she likes a personal, relaxed, no-tension environment. She puts high priority on
close relationships and does not like conflict, but may mediate if necessary.

Analytical
This style is precise, exact, analytical, and logical. Because the person with an
Analytical communication style is systematic and task-oriented, he is sometimes
perceived as a perfectionist. He is organized, self-reliant, purposeful, and
diplomatic.
He is motivated by certainty and will rarely give an opinion unless asked. He

is slow and cautious in his pace and likes a structured, ordered, and functional
environment. Because he needs to feel sure of his position and others’
expectations, he is often private with personal information and does not easily
express emotions.
EFFECTIVE USE OF
It is important to recognize how effective communication can impact your

interactions with others. It can lead to higher efficiency and good morale in the
workplace, increased innovation and creative potential in groups, and satisfactory
personal and familial relationships.
Communication styles are often situational. Be sure to monitor your application of

communication styles. Decide if your current style is effective based on feedback
and outcomes. If necessary, adjust your behavior and adopt new styles to fit a
situation, team, or person.
There is much research and many theories about communication styles and their
impacts. To develop a deeper understanding, you may choose to do your own
research.

ADAPTING TO OTHER
Direct Communicators
Direct communicators prefer when you get to the point quickly and in a
succinct manner. When dealing with these communicators, be specific and
avoid over-explaining or repeating yourself. Focus on solutions and only
provide details when asked.
Initiating Communicators
Initiating communicators value interacting with others and sharing stories.
Allow time for socializing at the beginning of meetings and create a friendly,
non-threatening environment. Provide time for them to express their feelings
and opinions.
Supportive Communicators
Supportive communicators appreciate a calm, steady approach. Earn their
trust by providing them with plenty of reassurance. When seeking their
opinions and ideas, encourage them to express their concerns and allow
them time to make decisions.
Analytical Communicators
Analytical communicators like facts and figures. Present information to them
in an organized manner and be prepared to answer questions. Be patient
while they think through and process new information.

REVIEW AND APPLY
Before you complete the assignment, take a moment to read through the
questions you see here. If you are not able to answer them comfortably, review
the project.
■■ When might you want to adjust your communication style?

■■ How can an understanding of your communication style improve your
interactions with others?
■■ How does your preferred communication style impact you as a listener?

■■ How can you tailor your communication style to match situational expectations?

COMPLETE YOUR ASSIGNMENT
Now that you have read through the project, plan and prepare your speech
or report.
Review: Return to page 3 to review your assignment.
Organize: Use the Project Checklist on page 12 to review the steps and add your
own. This will help you organize and prepare your assignment.
Schedule: Work with the vice president education to schedule your speech.
Prepare: Prepare for your evaluation. Review the evaluation resources on pages
14–16 and share all resources with your evaluator before your speech. You may
choose to share your evaluation resources online.

PROJECT CHECKLIST
Understanding Your Communication Style
Purpose: The purpose of this project is to learn about different communication styles and identify your primary style.
Overview: Complete the Discover Your Communication Style questionnaire to help you identify your style. Deliver
a 5- to 7-minute speech at a club meeting about your communication style and its impact on your professional
and/or personal relationships. If you are uncomfortable discussing your communication style, you may speak about
the communication styles you have encountered and how they impact you. Your speech should not be a report of
the content of this project.
This project includes:

■ The Discover Your Communication Style questionnaire
■ A 5- to 7-minute speech
Below are tasks you will need to complete for this project. Please remember, your project is unique to you. You may
alter the following list to incorporate any other tasks necessary for your project.
Complete the Discover Your Communication Style questionnaire.

Schedule your speech with the vice president education.

Write your speech. Include information about your current communication style and how you
can effectively adapt your communication to connect with other styles. If you are uncomfortable
discussing your communication style, you may speak about styles you have encountered and
how they impact you.

Rehearse your speech.


Page 1 of 2
PROJECT CHECKLIST – Understanding Your Communication Style
After you have completed all components of the assignment, including your speech, return to
page 4 to rate your skills in the post-project section.

Additional Notes

© 2016 Toastmasters International. All rights reserved. Toastmasters International, the Toastmasters International logo, and all
other Toastmasters International trademarks and copyrights are the sole property of Toastmasters International and may be Page 2 of 2
used only with permission. Rev. 5/2016 Item 8206C
EVALUATION FORM
Member Name Date
Evaluator Speech Length: 5 – 7 minutes
Speech Title
Purpose Statements
■ The purpose of this project is for the member to learn about different communication styles and identify his or
her primary style.
■ The purpose of this speech is for the member to share the impact of his or her style on others.
Notes for the Evaluator

During the completion of this project, the member responded to a questionnaire to help identify his or her
communication style.
About this speech:

■ The member will deliver a well-organized speech about some aspect of communication styles.
■ The member may choose to speak about his or her own communication style or the impact of communication
styles on him or her.
■ The speech may be humorous, informational, or any style the member chooses.
■ The speech should not be a report on the content of the “Understanding Your Communication Style” project.
General Comments
You excelled at:
You may want to work on:
To challenge yourself:

Page 1 of 3
EVALUATION FORM – Understanding Your Communication Style
For the evaluator: In addition to your verbal evaluation, please complete this form.
5 4 3 2 1
EXEMPLARY EXCELS ACCOMPLISHED EMERGING DEVELOPING
Clarity: Spoken language is clear and is easily understood Comment:
5 4 3 2 1
Vocal Variety: Uses tone, speed, and volume as tools Comment:
5 4 3 2 1
Eye Contact: Effectively uses eye contact to engage audience Comment:
5 4 3 2 1
Gestures: Uses physical gestures effectively Comment:
5 4 3 2 1
Audience Awareness: Demonstrates awareness of audience engagement Comment:

and needs
5 4 3 2 1
Comfort Level: Appears comfortable with the audience Comment:
5 4 3 2 1
Interest: Engages audience with interesting, well-constructed content Comment:
5 4 3 2 1
Topic: Shares some aspect of his or her communication style and the impact Comment:
of that style on self or others
5 4 3 2 1

Page 2 of 3
EVALUATION CRITERIA
This criteria lists the specific goals and expectations for the speech. Please review each level to help you complete
the evaluation.
Clarity 3 – Demonstrates awareness of audience

5 – Is an exemplary public speaker who is always engagement and needs
understood 2 – Audience engagement or awareness of audience
4 – Excels at communicating using the spoken word requires further practice
3 – Spoken language is clear and is easily understood 1 – Makes little or no attempt to engage audience or
meet audience needs
2 – Spoken language is somewhat unclear or
challenging to understand Comfort Level
1 – Spoken language is unclear or not easily understood 5 – Appears completely self-assured with the audience
Vocal Variety 4 – Appears fully at ease with the audience
5 – Uses the tools of tone, speed, and volume 3 – Appears comfortable with the audience
to perfection 2 – Appears uncomfortable with the audience
4 – Excels at using tone, speed, and volume as tools 1 – Appears highly uncomfortable with the audience
3 – Uses tone, speed, and volume as tools
Interest
2 – Use of tone, speed, and volume requires
further practice 5 – Fully engages audience with exemplary, well-
constructed content
1 – Ineffective use of tone, speed, and volume
4 – Engages audience with highly compelling, well-
Eye Contact constructed content
5 – Uses eye contact to convey emotion and 3 – Engages audience with interesting, well-
elicit response constructed content
4 – Uses eye contact to gauge audience reaction 2 – Content is interesting but not well-constructed
and response or is well-constructed but not interesting
3 – Effectively uses eye contact to engage audience 1 – Content is neither interesting nor well-constructed
2 – Eye contact with audience needs improvement Topic
1 – Makes little or no eye contact with audience 5 – Delivers an exemplary speech about his or her
communication style and the impact of that style
Gestures on self or others
5 – Fully integrates physical gestures with content to 4 – Delivers an excellent speech about his or her
deliver an exemplary speech communication style and the impact of that style
4 – Uses physical gestures as a tool to enhance speech on self or others
3 – Uses physical gestures effectively 3 – Shares some aspect of his or her communication
2 – Uses somewhat distracting or limited gestures style and the impact of that style on self or others
1 – Uses very distracting gestures or no gestures 2 – Mentions some aspect of his or her
communication style and the impact of that style
Audience Awareness on self or others, but does not fully address
5 – Engages audience completely and anticipates 1 – Delivers a speech on a topic other than some
audience needs aspect of communication styles
4 – Is fully aware of audience engagement/needs
and responds effectively

© 2016 Toastmasters International. All rights reserved. Toastmasters International, the Toastmasters International logo, and all
other Toastmasters International trademarks and copyrights are the sole property of Toastmasters International and may be Page 3 of 3
used only with permission. Rev. 5/2016 Item 8206E
COMMUNICATION STYLE SCORING GUIDE
Use this scoring sheet to determine your communication style.
1. Using your completed questionnaire, circle the corresponding letters in the twelve sections below. For example,
if you chose a for item 1 on the questionnaire, circle a in the item 1 section below.
2. Count the number of times you selected each communication style and note the totals in the Results box below.
3. The style with the highest value in the Results box indicates your preferred communication style.
There is no right or wrong communication style, and each has value. A higher score in one communication style
indicates you are comfortable using that style in many situations. If you score equally in two or more categories,
you are likely to feel comfortable adapting your communication style. Read descriptions of each style on the
following page.
1. a. Initiating 5. a. Analytical 9. a. Direct

b. Direct b. Supportive b. Initiating
c. Analytical c. Initiating c. Supportive
d. Supportive d. Direct d. Analytical
2. a. Direct 6. a. Direct 10. a. Analytical

b. Initiating b. Initiating b. Direct
c. Supportive c. Supportive c. Initiating
d. Analytical d. Analytical d. Supportive
3. a. Direct 7. a. Initiating 11. a. Direct

b. Supportive b. Direct b. Initiating
c. Analytical c. Supportive c. Supportive
d. Initiating d. Analytical d. Analytical
4. a. Supportive 8. a. Supportive 12. a. Initiating

b. Initiating b. Analytical b. Supportive
c. Direct c. Initiating c. Direct
d. Analytical d. Direct d. Anayltical
Results
a. Direct Initiating Supportive Analytical

© 2016 Toastmasters International. All rights reserved. Toastmasters International, the Toastmasters International logo, and all Page 1 of 1
other Toastmasters International trademarks and copyrights are the sole property of Toastmasters International and may be
used only with permission. Rev. 6/2016 Item 8003
www.toastmasters.org

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«Σχολική Ψυχολογία»

ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ ΑΙΓΑΙΟΥ - ΠΡΟΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΑ ΔΙΑ ΒΙΟΥ ΜΑΘΗΣΗΣ © 2019-2020

5.1.1 Η έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων..................................... 4

Σύνοψη/Ανακεφαλαίωση Αντικειμένου Συνεδρίας........................................................................12

Να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες τις διαστάσεις και

Προσδοκώμενα μαθησιακά αποτελέσματα:

Με τη λήξη της συνεδρίας οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες αναμένεται να:

 γνωρίζουν την έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων

Επικοινωνία, διαπροσωπική επικοινωνία, σχολικό κλίμα, διδακτική επικοινωνία

Συγγραφέας Βασικού Κειμένου Μελέτης

5.1.1 Η έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών

Η επικοινωνία αποτελεί μια πολύπλοκη διαδικασία, η οποία απαιτεί την ταυτόχρονη

υπάρχουν πολλοί ορισμοί οι οποίοι θα μπορούσαν να την ορίσουν συμπληρώνοντας ο ένας

Η επικοινωνία επιτυγχάνεται-πραγματώνεται λεκτικά και μη λεκτικά. Η επικοινωνία

Σύμφωνα με σύγχρονες μελέτες, η επικοινωνία δεν θα μπορούσε να χαρακτηριστεί ως

5.1.2 Τα χαρακτηριστικά και ο ρόλος της επικοινωνίας στην

Επικοινωνία υπάρχει ουσιαστικά, όπως προαναφέρθηκε, στην περίπτωση που

Η επικοινωνία έχει προσλάβει διαχρονικά διάφορους χαρακτηρισμούς, οι οποίοι

Οριζόντια ονομάζεται η επικοινωνία η οποία αναπτύσσεται συνήθως μεταξύ

Ως διαγώνια χαρακτηρίζεται η επικοινωνία η οποία αναπτύσσεται διαμεσολαβημένα,

Γενικότερα, τα χαρακτηριστικά της επικοινωνίας διαφοροποιούνται ανάλογα με τις

Παραδείγματος χάριν, ο εκπαιδευτικός επικοινωνεί με διαφορετικό τρόπο από αυτόν που

Γενικότερα, χωρίς επικοινωνία θα επικρατούσαν καταστάσεις φαυλότητας, οι οποίες,

Σύμφωνα με σύγχρονες έρευνες, τα άτομα που έχουν αναπτύξει εξαιρετικές

ΠΡΟΤΑΣΗ ΠΕΡΑΙΤΕΡΩ ΜΕΛΕΤΗΣ ΜΕ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΗΛΑ ΚΕΙΜΕΝΑ

Αν επιθυμείτε να μελετήσετε περαιτέρω το ζήτημα της έννοιας της επικοινωνίας, μπορείτε

Επίσης, αν επιθυμείτε, μπορείτε να ανατρέξετε στους παρακάτω δυο συνδέσμους οι

συνθηκών και παραμέτρων σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας καθώς

Στο πλαίσιο της συνεδρίας αυτής οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες

Αθανασούλα-Ρέππα, Α. (2008). Εκπαιδευτική Διοίκηση & Οργανωσιακή Συμπεριφορά. Η

Οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες να προσεγγίσουν θεωρητικά τις διαστάσεις

Με τη λήξη της συνεδρίας οι επιμορφούμενοι και οι επιμορφούμενες αναμένεται να:

- γνωρίζουν την έννοια της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη διαπροσωπικών σχέσεων

- γνωρίζουν τα χαρακτηριστικά και το ρόλο της επικοινωνίας στην ανάπτυξη

Communication: The Process, Barriers,

Communication is the process of transmitting information and common

The study of communication is important, because every administrative function

Defining Communication and Describing the Process

Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information and

exchange of information, there is no communication. Figure 1 reflects the definition and

Barriers to Effective Communication

A school administrator has no greater responsibility than to develop effective

• Sender barrier. A new administrator with an innovative idea fails to speak up at a

Because communication is a complex, give-and-take process, breakdowns anywhere in

Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of

• Sincerity. Nearly all communication theorists assert that sincerity is the

Improving Communication Effectiveness

Effective communication is a two-way process that requires effort and skill by

Several communication theorists (Cheney, 2011; Keyton, 2011; Tourish, 2010)

administrators can use when communicating with various school stakeholders.

1. School administrators need to clarify their ideas before communicating. The

7. Administrators need to follow up their communication. An administrator’s best

Communication is the process of transmitting information and common

Abrell, R. (2004). Preventing communication breakdowns. Reston, VA: National

Larson, R. K. (2011). The evolution of human language: Biolinguistic perspectives. New

1.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

1.1.1 Elements in Communication

Well, communication has been defined as the act of giving, receiving or

Figure 1.1: The communication process

Clearly, there are several major elements in the communication process ă a

A message is only considered successfully communicated when both the sender

The meaning of communication lies in the way that it is received.

1.1.2 Factors Affecting Communication

(b) Cultural Differences