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Optical Communications
Chapter 4: Optical Sources, part! (LASER 1)
eee

Dr. Saughar Jarchi

Imam Khomeini International University (IKI)

saugharjarchi@gmail.com

Introduction

= The optical source is considered to be the active component

™ Its function is to convert electrical energy (in the form of a current) to
optical energy.
: = The | process should be efficient,
“A The output light should be effectively eousled to the into the optical fiber.
= Two main sources for optical fibers:
= Light-emitting diodes (LED)
LASER) /

Av
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ening (Qe re

Sy bre
7, 7 ; oo)-j

Major requirements of an optical fiber source:

m™ Size& eqnpayration Compatible fo launch power into an opticalfiber

: -
UJ
-» Accurately’ ‘track the ele trical i input si dat must be linear ares
/ t
Wa et bie Aah)» 7O 52! ¢ {VANE 1/64 Mo 3 iba ee aU BD PoaJ)sb-s wt Uy yp Pte
0 Emit fight at eyelet where the.fiber has lolow losses and low eu
AM)! el A) 9% prSJl p aap
or]
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= Capable of Sample signal modulation over a wvide
nal fl J is

Gandwidte 6
=eg sufficient optical power to overcome attenuation. - ie Ze
Se lye) US a fhe)) 33, sos | 9a? CTT bo ahd
» Have a very narrow spectral bandwidth (linewidth) to imize ‘ dispersi on Niet
JB) x |p lar ty t jose Pe
J Vf £
= Maintaining a stable optical output which is unaffected by’ changes i in ambient
conditions
™ It should be cheap and highly reliable

mr
if

Comparison of sources:

LED and injection laser diode (ILD) are semiconductor sources

= LEDs have been mainly used for multimode fibers
™ ILDs are used for single mode fibers
m™ LEDs have advantages of simple construction and low cost
= ILD are used for long distances
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Ea Basic concept:
fen Awl yg Gurls AL gp) carpe .

®™ LASER light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

wht ae bake
™ LASER isa device which amplifies light NE. Z
; e w Meee giUard A nad 5 de
™ Practical realization ofa LASER is an optical osciffator ‘dl Oy be Pow ppl tip on Ae By 97)
= Formation of an ne sande wave within a cavity (or optical resonator)
- i So yA . i Pp ‘es
* LASER provides an output of monochromatic, highly coherent radiation
® LED provides optical emission without an inherent gain mechanism

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rption & emission of radiation:

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= Interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete packets of energy or quanta,
called photons erg es . ;
“= Atoms exists only in certain discrete energy states
© Absorption and emission of light, causes the atoms to make a transition from one
discrete energy state to another.
= The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation is related to the difference
between the higher energy £2 and the lower energy state £,

E=68,-—6&, =hf
= Absorption & emission of radiation:

; = These discrete energy states for the atom: may be considered to correspond to
electrons occurring in particular energy levels relative to the nucleus. ~
® Single electron transition between two energy levels within the atom will provide
s a change in energy suitable for the absorption or emission ofa photon.
® Modern quantum theory gives a probabilistic description which specifies the
energy levels in which electrons are most likely to be found.
i,
be bbueund

Absorption & emission of radiation:

YHOOY

= Three processes:
( = Absorption —Y
eaten emission 59x jpvl (LED »» pthavl >
™ Stimulated emission f
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Initial state Final state

i ————_a—_—___
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Lr" Absorption

£, ——__e———

> An atom is initially in the lower energy state E,

> A photon with energy (£2 — £,) is incident on the atom
> The atom may be excited into the higher energy state E> through
absorption of the photon
> The process is called absorption (stimulated absorption)

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Spontaneous
emission i —

“* Spontaneous emission. the atom returns to the lower

energy state in an entirely random manner
7 4” The random nature gives incoherent emission E=£,-£, = hf. }
zi % The basic mechanism for light generation in LEDs. J ;
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Stimulated emission: when a photon having an energy

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equal to (Z — £;) interacts with the atom in the upper

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energy state causing it to return to the lower energy state

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with the creation of a second photon

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> in LASER
Stimulated emission:
> is of an identical energy (frequency) to the one which caused it
The produced photon
> in phase and has the same polarization of the incident photon
The produced light is
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> obtained
Coherent radiation is
> The liberated energy can add to the wave in a co nstructive manner, providing
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™ Under thermal equilibrium, lower energy level E, contains more atoms than

——
the upper energy level £,
® To achieve optical amplification, population of the upper energy level
must be
greater than that of the lower energy level
“= This condition is known as population inversion, '
INS, Weel Sap! oe
® To exsiatoms into the upper energy level an external energy source in used
» The process is referred to as ‘pumping’
1

= With suitable pumping the electrons in some of the atoms may be excited
from
the ground state into the higher level E,
rereeenao®

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 REED Energy (E)
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Ey eae

Es Ey
(a) (b)

Figure 6.3 Energy-level diagrams showing population inversion and lasing for two
nonsemiconductor lasers: (a) three-level system — ruby (crystal) laser; (b) four-level
system — He—Ne (gas) laser

Optical feedback and laser oscillation

 SITIAGGG4
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d coherent. emieion is obtained.

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™ It is necessary to contain photons within the laser medium.

™ Placing mirrors (plane or curved) at either end of the amplifying
medium
= An optical cavity is formed.
™ Laser is analogous to an oscillator:
(@ Amplifier —» *imuletecl ere''ss ion
m4 > Positive feedback —> mirvers ia Coury 5 cee &
STEPPES

(= Frequency selecting mechanism —> /seytio °° County

® Positive feedback is provided through reflection
at the mirrors.
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® Laser is analogous to an oscillator:
™ Amplifier
= Positive feedback
™ Frequency selecting mechanism
= Positive feedback is provided through reflection at the mirrors.
™ Amplifier is the laser medium.
= The optical signal is fed back many times while receiving
amplifications it passes through the medium.

= The structure is a Fabry-Perot resonator.

* The amplification of the signal from a single path through the
medium is small.
s After multiple passes, the net gain can be large.
™ If one mirror is partially transmitting, useful radiation may escape
from the cavity. Mee pyr Sia ae

Fabry-Perot is named after Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot,

two scientists, who developed the instrument in 1899.
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19
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2? RIEL EPPRPORONNDONDDDG
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= Losses result from:
. , ( @ Absorption and scattering in the amplifying medium
P: rT ) . . . 1

Wi e, = Absorption, scattering and diffraction at the mirrors

® Non useful transmission from the mirrors
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_ Where t € cavity
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gain is suffici
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to overeome the losses tee!
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ad> T hus, “the. device is not a perfectly monochromatic source but emits over a
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= The central frequency of this spectral band is determined by the mean
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= The amplification within the laser medium results in a broadened laser
transition or gain curve over a finite spectral width.

Relative A 0
amplification

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or envelope
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s= We assume the amplifying medium occupies a length L completely

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filling the region between the two mirrors.

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intensity at z = 0

intensity at Z
 E(z,t) = I(z)ei(t-62)
I(z) = (Oe! g(tw)~a(nv)]z

a: ef fective absorption coef ficient of the laser medium

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i _——?;
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values of m, and each constitutes a resonance or mode.
® Since the frequencies are obtained for the case when L is along the
longitudinal axis of the structure, these frequencies are known as the
longitudinal or axial modes.

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laser.
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Te
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gain curve.
EPieee reece
™ The laser emission with only include the longitudinal modes
contained within the spectral width of the gain curve.
=™ Such device ts said to be multimode.
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Optical Communications
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Chapter 4: Optical Sources, part2 (LASER 2)

DS
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Dr. Saughar Jarchi

Imam Khomeini International University (TKTU)
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saugharjarchi@gmail.com

Optical emission from semiconductors

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Res The p-n junction:

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to be intrinsic ly NO Agw sly Np aah eae pe tee OT
™ The energy band structure of an intrinsic santicondictor |is rerned by the valance
and conduction bands separated by a forbidden energy gap or band-gap E,
= The width of the band-gap varies for different materials.

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= Theses electrons and holes are called carners, and allow conduction through the material
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temperature T, such that it will be found occupying a particular energy level F, is given by
the Fermi-Dirae distribution:
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J! p(B)= 1
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E,;: Fermi energy (Fermi level)

TT

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the material.
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w

band gap.
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electrons occupying energy levels at the bottom of the conduction
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band and a corresponding number of holes occupying energy levels

at the top of the valance band.
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band.
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1
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maximum energy of the valance band.
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particle, a phonon,

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low (10-2 to 10~* s).
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semiconductor.
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band-gap materials.
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— : . a
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™ At absolute zero, conduction band contains no electrons. ; ~-
eoek
™ When electrons are injected into the material, they fill the lower g [ t
energy states in the conduction band up to the injection energy or 6 | t
the quasi-Fermi level for electrons. on :
™ Incident photons with energy Eg, but less than Eg = Erc — Ery, can ——
not be absorbed. —E
o c
® These photons can induce a downward transition of an electron from a Ls
the filled conduction band states into the empty valance band states, 4 Ls
, thus stimulating the emission of another photon
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absolute zero CRef. 6]: (a) In equilibrium; (b) with high carrier injection Vv e [§
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™An interface between two adjoining single crystal

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semiconductors with different band-gap energies,.~ (4 (->4e wu
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structure which is useful for the con the
finement of minority carriers to a
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™ It is achieved by band-gap difference
of the adjoining materials.
@ The technique is used for the fabricat
ion of injection lasers and high-
radiance LEDs.
= Anisotype heterojunctions with
sufficiently large band gap differences
Improve the injection efficiency of
either electrons or holes.
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small active region.

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b) Energy band diagram a =

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The double heterojunction injection laser: A Cleve ar A

a) The layer structure
b) Energy band diagram
c) Refractive index diagram * (ection electrons
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1
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following characteristics:
™ Appropriate p-n junction: have suitable characteristics for carrier
wy

injection.
® Efficient electroluminescence: have a high probability of radiative
HH

transitions.
® Useful emission wavelength: emit light at a suitable wavelength to
SIS

be utilized with current optical fibers and detectors (0.8 to 1.7m).

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used in the fabrication of
electroluminescent sources for optical fiber communications eT
& | Soe
Material systems
—
& = |

active layer/contining layers Useful wavelength <y

range (jum) € 5
Substrate eat
GaASIALGay,AS* UU! ; i
ie oxi, 018-0.9
GaAs/in,Ga,_,P 0.9 GaAs “Te
Al,Ga,_,AS/Al,Ga,_,As
0.65-0.9 Gafs as | al
InjGa,_,As/in,Ga,_,P GaAs exact
GaAs, ,Sb,/Ga,_Al,As, ,Sb, 0.85-1.1 GaAs
0.9-1.1 oat
Ga,_,Al,As,_,Sb,/GaSb GaAs ~
In,_,Ga,As,P,.,/InP 1.0-1.7 GaSb
0.92-1.7 + ns
In,Ga,_,As/InGaAlAs InP i
In;_¥GaN,As,_,/GaNAs 1.3 InGaAs
1.3-1.55 é it :
In,_,Ga,N,,As,Sb/Ga, ,Al, As
1.31
GaAs Gam
GaAs é : 4
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Stimulated emission by the recombination
9
=)? carriers is encouraged in the semiconductor injection laser or
-—@
e. 3 injection laser diode (ILD) or injection laser.
a a |

oe; * ® An optical cavity must be formed to provide positive feedback.

fie er rm]

® ||_Ds have advantages over LEDs.

9
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Advantages of ILDs: ie
12
> High radiance due to amplifying effect of stimulated emission. They
ie g
“will{| generally supply milli-watts of optical output power.
oye ® Narrow line-width on the Ordes of 1 nm, which minimizes effects of
oh bs Hs
il 2 material dispersion foul |
oi 2 ® Relative temporal coherence, which results in narrow liné-width:
;a 4
Le2 = Good spatial coherence which allows the output to be focused by a
in directiona
lens into a spol (and results crt l radiation pattern). Apis Core CCE
if i abe 9 Cy
o4,J EE.01.5 Lice onIT se ha Gia “
Me ey Asli
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ent angle per unit projected area ofradiating surface.
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pn junction Ohmic contact Sines

AHEM Y
Schematic diagram of a GaAs homojunction laser with a Baby ete! cavity

PEP
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sclioe There are a number of ways in which the operational efficiency of the
|

on semiconductor laser may be defined.

2 = Se) by spe, Differential externalI quantum efficiency (slope quantum efficiency):
wit » ‘the ratio of the increase in photon output rate for a given increase in the
a » number of injected electrons.
~ % For a CW semiconductor laser is around 40% to 60%.
: _ = Np: differential external quantum ef ficiency
=e, P.; optical power emitted from the device
a I; the current
I 2 e: the charge of an electron
a ~~] = hv: the photon energy

=?
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e-—- @ _ the number of emitted photons rate _ energy of one photon fy _ @ 4P
6 @ ips injected electrons current ~ dl hvdl
— 2 Uno sents lads electron charge e
“ai O50 Beocel 5 w hap
=e ine

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a tt. bandgap energy: E, = hv

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( IG fy Lady Q) 302, MPI 9 :

Light A

output
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Idealized optical output power
against current characteristics
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current characteristic) for a
Stimulated semiconductor laser
emission
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. r number of photons produced in the laer cavity

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re : Hf vals number of injected electrons
df Cay y (ea gd Jake
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L: length of the laser cavity

Jt g4 Cy wll
R,,Rz: the mirror reif lectivities
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total number of output photons hv

Nr ~ total number of injected electrons Ta

II
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p-GaAs
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A broad-area GaAs/AlGaAs double heterojunction (DH) injection laser.

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Contact
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Silicon dioxide
j
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st

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Confinement layers

p-A|,Ga,._ As
(active layer)
ee Emitting lone
Leer region U
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eo 7
—

DEVORE
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2 GaAlAs/GaAs {
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5
lon implantation
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7 ie GaAs {
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y= ™ T is the device absolute temperature
¥ ut ° ® 7p is the threshold temperature coefficient which depends on the material
i] = ™ For AlGaAs devices, Tp is in the range 120 to 190K
mii > @ For InGaAsP devices, 7p is in the range 40 to 75K
Mle = Thus, temperature dependence of InGaAsP devices is ‘Stronger, 301.) » in‘ iAP
i Mig = Thermal dissipation should be considered and adequate heat sinking 1sessential,
— 2 fs
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40 40
30 | 50 30 50
20 60°C 20 60°C
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— 9 Current (mA) Current (mA)
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Light power
per facet (mW) =
_

| KE0 50 100 150

i 200
Current (mA)
Ligth output against current characteristics at various temperatures for an
InGaAsP double-channel planar BH laser emitting at WANelEHEtE of 1.55um
Gueaawne
WP

Optical Comm
un i cate ms

Chapter+ Optical Sources, part3 (LED)

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™ Spontaneous emission of radiation from a forward-biased p-n
Junction was discussed. 7
a
™ The normally empty conduction band of the semiconductor is =
populated by electrons injected into it by the forward current Fal
through the junction. Smt
= Light is generated when these electrons recombine with the holes in & 5

--
e© ‘
valance band.
™ This the the mechanism by which light emitted from an LED.
_
ad Stimulated emission is not Ses ihas.
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——
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s BC ® Generally less temperature dependence’ The output light is less affected by Cae tri
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ane = Simpler drive circuitry’ generally lower drive current and reduced temperature “le
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the LED tends to limit the internal quantum efficiency.
® Internal quantum efficiency: ratio of generated photons to injected
electrons.
@ Non radiative recombination occurs due to crystalline imperfections
and impurities.
= At best, an internal quantum efficiency of 50% is achieved for
simple homojunction devices.
© Using double heterojunction (DH) structures quantum efficiency of
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it

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eo Ol Thesenminority carriers diffuse away from the junction, recombining with the
— majority carriers,
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ie O Fl ectroluminescence only occurs in the GaAs junction.
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around 120
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ign Super-luminescence diode (SLD):

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a ® Directional output beam
— oe ® Narrow spectral beam
=~ . .
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— conventional LEDs.
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= LED is a very linear device in comparison with the majority of
injection lasers.
® LEDs are more suitable for analog transmission where sever
constraints are put on the linearity of the optical source.
™TIt is often necessary to use some form of linearizing circuit
technique (e g. negative feedback).
= Internal quantum efficiency of LEDs decreases exponentially with
increasing temperature.

12 a
10 10 (b)

Light &F Light 8

output output
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100 200 39 100 200 300
aaa rshe sn) Current (mA)
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Light output power into air against dc. drive current

a) An AJGaAs surface emitter with 50 ym diameter dot contact
b) An AlGaAs edge emitter with a 65 ym wide stripe and 100 jam length

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points
® For materials with smaller band-gap energies operating in the 1.1 to 1.7 um
wavelength region, the line-width tends to increase to around 50 to 160 nm.
s The output spectra also tend to broaden with increase in temperature.
em It may be necessary to utilize heat sink with LEDs for certain optical fiber
communication applications, although this is far less critical than the cooling
requirements for injection lasers.
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