FM-I CHP 02

10/25/2023
0
19-Oct-23
Fluid Mechanics - I
Chapter
2
Dr Muhammad Sajid
• Fluid Statics
Assistant Professor
– Point pressure NUST, SMME.
– Manometers Email: m.sajid@smme.nust.edu.pk
Office: #416 East Wing, SMME
– Hydrostatic forces 051 9085 6065
– Buoyancy and stability Reference Text:

Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 6th Ed
By Munson, Young, Okiishi
and Huebsch
© 2017 Sajid
Fluid Mechanics - I 1
19-Oct-23
Introduction to fluid statics

• Motivation
– Many fluid problems do not involve motion.
– They concern the pressure distribution in a
static fluid and its effect on solid surfaces and
on floating and submerged bodies.
1
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19-Oct-23 Introduction to fluid statics

• Objectives
– determine the pressure at various locations in
a fluid at rest.
– explain the concept of manometers and apply
appropriate equations to determine pressures.
– calculate the hydrostatic pressure force on a
plane or curved submerged surface.
– calculate the buoyant force and discuss the
stability of floating or submerged objects.
19-Oct-23
Introduction to fluid statics

• When the fluid velocity is zero, denoted as the
hydrostatic condition, the pressure variation is due
only to the weight of the fluid.
• Assuming a known fluid in a given gravity field, the
pressure may easily be calculated by integration.
• If the fluid is moving in rigid-body motion, such as a
tank of liquid which has been spinning for a long
time, the pressure also can be easily calculated,
because the fluid is free of shear stress.
• The assumption of zero shearing stresses is valid
so long as there is no relative motion between
adjacent fluid elements, i.e. Rigid Body Motion.
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19-Oct-23 Pressure at a point

• Consider forces on an arbitrary
fluid element.
• For simplicity, ignore forces in x
direction.
• Equation of motion (F=ma) in y
direction is:
𝛿x𝛿y𝛿z
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 𝛿x𝛿𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿x𝛿s sinθ = 𝜌 𝑎𝑦
2
Where, 𝛿s sinθ = 𝛿z
𝛿x𝛿y𝛿z
⇒ 𝑝𝑦 𝛿x𝛿𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿x𝛿z = 𝜌 𝑎𝑦
2
By eliminating 𝛿x𝛿𝑧 we get,
𝛿y
⇒ 𝑝𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑎
2 𝑦
19-Oct-23
Pressure at a point
• Similarly equation of motion (F=ma) in z
direction is:
𝛿x𝛿y𝛿z 𝛿x𝛿y𝛿z
𝐹𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 𝛿x𝛿𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿x𝛿s 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ − 𝛾 =𝜌 𝑎𝑧
2 2
Where, 𝛿s cosθ = 𝛿y
𝛿x𝛿y𝛿z 𝛿x𝛿y𝛿z
𝑝𝑧 𝛿x𝛿𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿x𝛿𝑦 − 𝛾 =𝜌 𝑎𝑧
2 2
By eliminating 𝛿x𝛿𝑦 we get,

𝛿z 𝛿z
𝑝𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑧 + 𝛾
2 2
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19-Oct-23 Pressure at a point

• Hence in y – and z – direction
δy δz
𝑝𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 = (𝜌𝑎𝑧 + 𝛾)
2 2
• To obtain pressure at a point, shrink the element
down to an infinitesimal point, so that 𝛿𝑥 = 𝛿𝑦 =
𝛿𝑧 = 0 then;
𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑠 & 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠
• In the absence of shearing stresses the pressure
at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is
independent of direction.
“A change in pressure at any point in an

enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted
undiminished to all points in the fluid.”
- Pascal’s Law.
19-Oct-23
Hydrostatic pressure
• Normal stress at any point in a fluid in
equilibrium is the same in all directions.
• This stress is called hydrostatic pressure.
• Pressure has units of force per unit area.
• P = F/A [N/m2]
• The objective of hydrostatics is to find the
pressure field (distribution) in a given body
of fluid at rest.
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19-Oct-23 Pressure field

• How does pressure
in fluid vary from 𝑝+
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
point to point? 𝑝−
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑥
𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
• Consider small
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑦
rectangular fluid 𝑝 −𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2
×
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑦
element with 𝑝+
𝜕𝑦 2
×
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
pressure p at its
center. 𝑝+
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2
𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝛾𝛿𝑥𝛿y𝛿z
– Surface forces 𝑝−
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
𝜕𝑧 2
– Body forces
19-Oct-23
Pressure field
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧
𝑝+ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
• The resultant surface forces are 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝 − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − 𝑝 + 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑦 𝑝+ ×
→ 𝛿𝐹𝑦 = − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 𝑝− × 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
similarly 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝛾𝛿𝑥𝛿y𝛿z
𝛿𝐹𝑥 = − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 & 𝛿𝐹𝑧 = − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑝− 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦
𝜕𝑧 2
• Now we can write resultant surface force

𝛿𝐹𝑆 = 𝛿𝐹𝑥 𝑖 + 𝛿𝐹𝑦 𝑗 + 𝛿𝐹𝑧 𝑘 And hence 𝛿𝐹𝑆 = −𝛻𝑝𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
• Resultant body force is given by

𝛿𝐹𝐵 = −𝛾𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 𝑘
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19-Oct-23 Pressure field

• From Newton’s second law
𝛿𝐹 = 𝛿𝑚𝑎, 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝐹𝑆 + 𝛿𝐹𝐵 = 𝛿𝑚𝑎

so,
−𝛻𝑝𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − 𝛾𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧𝑘 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 𝑎
hence
−𝛻𝑝 − 𝛾𝑘 = 𝜌𝑎
• This is the general equation of motion for

fluid with no shearing stress.
19-Oct-23
Pressure variation in fluids

• When fluid is at rest a = 0, therefore:
−𝛻𝑝 − 𝛾 𝑘 = 𝜌𝑎 will change to −𝛻𝑝 − 𝛾 𝑘 = 0
• Separating into components

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑝
= 0, = 0, = −𝛾 Or = −𝛾
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧
• For fluids at rest the pressure gradient in the

vertical direction depends only on the specific
weight, γ.
• Since γ = ρg, pressure gradient depends on
variation in density and gravitational acceleration.
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19-Oct-23 Pressure variation in fluids

• In Incompressible fluids, density is considered constant (ρ = const.).
• Now, integrating equation for pressure variation
𝑝2 𝑧2
𝑑𝑝 = −𝛾 𝑑𝑧
𝑝1 𝑧1
After simplifying
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Or
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾ℎ
Or (if po is pressure at surface)
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝𝑜
• We have a linear distribution of pressure field which increases with
depth to “hold up” the fluid above it
• Pressure head h, now can be defined as the height of a fluid column
of SW = γ required to give a pressure difference of p1 - p2.
19-Oct-23

• In the figure, all points, a, b, c and d, have the
same value of pressure, pa = pb = pc = pd
• However, the pressure at point D is not the
same as at points, A, B, and C since the fluid
is different, i.e. pA = pB = pC ≠ pD
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• Compressible fluids
– Density and Specific Gravity of gases is very
small as compared to liquids, therefore
pressure variation is usually negligible.
– In situations where variations in heights are
large, on the order of thousands of feet,
attention must be given to the variation in the
specific weight and density.
19-Oct-23

• Compressible fluids
From Ideal Gas law:
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 & 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
Now, as we know
𝑑𝑝
= −𝛾
𝑑𝑧
Substituting into first equation, we get.
𝑑𝑝 𝑔𝑝
=−
𝑑𝑧 𝑅𝑇
Integrating
𝑝2
1 𝑔 𝑧2 𝑝2 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑑𝑝 = − 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑙𝑛 = −
𝑝1 𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑧1 𝑝1 𝑅𝑇
𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑂𝑅 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
𝑅𝑇
Note: This is only valid for isothermal conditions
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• Standard atmosphere is an
idealized representation of
mean conditions of the earths
atmosphere.
• In troposphere temperature
varies as:
– T = To – βz
– To= 288.15 K and β= 0.0065 K/m.
• Using T in following equation
𝑝2 𝑧2
𝑔 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑝 = −
𝑝1 𝑅 𝑧1 𝑇
Temperature variation with altitude
𝑔
𝑅𝛽 for the U.S. standard atmosphere
𝛽𝑧
⇒ 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜 1 −
𝑇𝑂
19-Oct-23
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19-Oct-23 Example
• An underground gasoline tank is accidentally
opened during rain causing the water to seep in
and occupy the bottom part of the tank as shown.
• If the specific gravity for gasoline is 0.68, find the
gauge pressure at the interface of the gasoline
and water and at the bottom of the tank.
• Express the pressure in pascals and as a pressure
head in meters of water.
Use;
water = 998 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
19-Oct-23
Solution
– For gasoline: g = 0.68(998) = 678.64kg/m3
At the free surface, atmospheric pressure is zero, or p0 = 0 (gage)
– p1 = p0 + gghg = 0 + (678.64)(9.81)(5.5) = 36616.02 N/m 2
= 36.6 kPa
The pressure head in meters of water is:
– h1 = (p1 – p0) / wg = (36616.02 – 0) / (998)(9.81)
= 3.74 m of water
At the bottom of the tank, the pressure:
– p2 = p1 + gghg = 36616.02 + (998)(9.81)(1) = 46406.4 N/m 2
= 46.6 kPa
And, the pressure head in meters of water is:
– h2 = (p1 – p0) / wg = (46406.4 – 0) / (998)(9.81)
= 4.74 m of water
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19-Oct-23 Example
• A closed, 5-m-tall tank is filled with water to
a depth of 4 m. The top portion of the tank
is filled with air which; as indicated by a
pressure gage at the top of the tank, is at a
pressure of 20 kPa.
• Determine the pressure that the water
exerts on the bottom of the tank.
Answer: 59.2 kPa
19-Oct-23
Pressure measurement
• Pressure is force per unit area, P = N/m2 = Pa
• Pressure is designated as either absolute pressure or
gage pressure. Pabs = Patm + Pg
• Pressure is also expressed as:
– “height of a column of liquid”.
– 1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 mm Hg = 10m Water
• Pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum
pressure, Pvac = Patm – Pabs
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19-Oct-23 Barometer
• A glass tube is filled with
mercury.
• It is turned upside down,
with the open end in a
mercury container.
• The column of mercury will
come to an equilibrium
position when,
pvapor = 0.00016kPa (which is negligible)
19-Oct-23
Barometer
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19-Oct-23 Manometry
• A standard technique for
measuring pressure
involves the use of liquid
columns in vertical or
inclined tubes. Pressure
measuring devices based
on this technique are
called manometers.
• Three common types are:
– Piezometer tube
– U-tube manometer
– Inclined –tube manometer
19-Oct-23
Piezometer
• It is the simplest type of
sphygmomanometer
manometer and consists of a

vertical tube, open at the
top, and attached to the
container in which pressure
is desired
• It is suitable for liquids only
when:
– pA > patm
– Difference between patm and
pA should not be large, inorder
to accommodate height of
column
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19-Oct-23 Piezometer
• Blood pressure measurement
19-Oct-23
U-Tube manometer
• It consists of a tube
formed into the
shape U.
• pA will be calculated
in following manner
• 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝1
• 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾1 ℎ1
• 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
• 𝑝3 − 𝑝𝑜 = 𝛾2 ℎ2
• 𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾2 ℎ2 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
(po is atmospheric/ambient pressure)
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19-Oct-23 U-tube manometer

• The U-tube manometer is
widely used to measure the
difference in pressure
between two containers or
two points in a given system.
• 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝1
• 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾1 ℎ1
• 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
• 𝑝3 − 𝑝4 = 𝛾2 ℎ2
• 𝑝4 − 𝑝5 = 𝛾3 ℎ3
• 𝑝5 = 𝑝𝐵
• Combining above
• 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 ℎ2 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 −
𝛾1 ℎ1
19-Oct-23
Inclined tube manometer

• They are used to measure small pressure
differences.
• One leg of the manometer is inclined at angle θ.
• Thus, for relatively small angles the differential
reading along the inclined tube can be made large
even for small pressure differences.
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
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19-Oct-23 Manometry
• Differential manometer
• Similar to U-Tube
manometer, used to
measure P.
Fluid Mechanics - I
Practice Questions
• 2.2, 2.3, 2.5-2.7
• 2.24-2.26, 2.29-2.33, 2.40-2.47
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19-Oct-23 Problem
• Find the P between two
pipes pA - pB?
19-Oct-23
Problem
• Determine the new
differential reading
along the inclined leg
of the mercury
manometer shown, if
– the pressure in pipe A
is decreased 10 kPa,
and
– the pressure in pipe B
remains unchanged.
• The fluid in A has a
specific gravity of 0.9
and the fluid in B is
water.
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19-Oct-23 Design problem

• A manometer based pressure gauge is
required for measurement of gas
consumption by domestic users.
• Pressure varies from 108.219 kPa for single
residence to 115.1145 kPa for multi unit
housing.
• Decide the kind of manometer to use and its
working fluid?
• What is the least count of your device?
• What is the approximate size of your device?
19-Oct-23
CLASS ASSIGNMENT 01
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19-Oct-23 Problem 01
• A U-Tube mercury
manometer is
connected to a
pipe through which
water is flowing.
• Find the gauge and
absolute pressure
at point 4, if…
h = 0.6m
l = 1.8m
19-Oct-23
Solution 01
P4 = 62.1 kPa, and P4,abs = 163.4 kPa Ans
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• Find the location of
the surface in the
manometer.
• The distance h is
the height of the
liquid in the
manometer above
the heavier liquid
(SG=3) in the tank.
19-Oct-23
Solution 02
h = 3.33 cm Ans
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• Find…
• … the pressure in pipe B, and
• … the pressure head, in mm of mercury, at the
top of the dome (point C).
19-Oct-23
Solution 03
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• Water flows upward in
a pipe slanted at 30°.
• The mercury
manometer reads, h =
12 cm.
• What is the P
between points (1)
and (2) in the pipe?
19-Oct-23
Problem 04
h1=1.155m
h2
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• The pressures at A and B are 100 kPa.

• If pA increase to 130 kPa, find the new
positions of the mercury menisci.
• The connecting tube is 1cm in diameter.
19-Oct-23
Problem 05
Initially with 100 kPa in A and B …
𝑝𝐵 + 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℎ𝐵 − 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝐴 = 𝑝𝐴
⟹ 𝜸𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒉𝑩 = 𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝑨
Here, both hA and hB are unknown.
After change in pressure at A…
𝒑𝑩 + 𝜸𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒉𝑩 − ∆𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝜸𝑯𝒈 ∆𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + ∆𝒉 − 𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝑨 + ∆𝒉 = 𝒑𝑨

Since tube diameter is constant, the volume of mercury will be displaced a distance Δh
down the left side, equal to the volume increase on the right side; Δh = ΔL.
⇒ 𝑝𝐵 + 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℎ𝐵 − 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝐴 + 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 −∆𝐿 sin 𝜃

+ 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ∆𝐿 sin 𝜃 + 1 − 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∆𝐿 = 𝑝𝐴
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵
⇒ ∆𝐿 =
−𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝛾𝐻𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 1 − 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
30𝑘
⇒ ∆𝐿 = ⇒ ∆𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟑 m
−12 sin 15 + 133𝑘 sin 15 + 1 − 9790
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• An 8-cm-diameter
piston compresses
manometer oil into an
inclined 7-mm-diameter
tube.
• When a weight W is
added to the top of the
piston, the oil rises an
additional distance of
10 cm up the tube.
• How large is the weight,
in N?
19-Oct-23
Solution
• Piston Dia (D) = 0.08m
• Tube Dia (d) = 0.007m
• At initial condition.
• Equating pressure at XX
𝑃𝑥 = 𝛾𝑚 𝐿1 sin 15
Equating the pressure at new level (YY)
• Due to compression, the fluid 𝑊
in the container moves down + 𝑃𝑥 = 𝛾𝑚 𝑑ℎ + 𝐿1 + ℎ sin 15
𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
by dh and the fluid in the tube
moves up by 10cm. 𝑊
⇒ 𝜋 = 𝛾𝑚 𝑑ℎ + ℎ sin 15
• Volume of fluid fallen 0.082
4 Since 𝑃𝑥 = 𝛾𝑚 𝐿1 sin 15
= Volume of fluid risen
𝜋
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑚 𝑑ℎ + ℎ sin 15 0.082
4
⇒ 𝑊 = 0.827 × 9810 0.000766 + 0.0258 0.00502
dh = 0.000766m
⇒ 𝑊 = 1.08 𝑁
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19-Oct-23
HYDROSTATICS
FM-I Fluid
Fluid Mechanics
Statics -I 59
19-Oct-23
Hydrostatic forces on a plane surface

• Forces develop on a surface submerged in
a fluid, due to the fluid.
• Example: Storage tanks, ships, dams etc
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10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

The origin O is at the Free
Surface.
q is the angle the plane makes
with the free surface.
y is directed along the plane

surface.
A is the area of the surface.
dA is a differential element
of the surface.
dF is the force acting on
the differential element.
C is the centroid. General Shape: Planar

View, in the x-y plane
CP is the center of Pressure
FR is the resultant force

acting through CP
FM-I Fluid
Fluid Mechanics
Statics -I 62
19-Oct-23
Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

• Consider a submerged inclined surface making
an angle q with the free horizontal surface.
 At depth h force on dA is
dF  hdA q
h
dF y
 Direction, location &
magnitude of resultant
force acting on one side
due to liquid. X-axis
FR   hdA
dA
FR   y sin qdA
y sin q
A A
A
26
10/25/2023
FM-I Fluid Mechanics

Statics -I 63
19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

• For constant  and q F. R   sin q  ydA
yc A
• First moment of area with x-axis A
FR  Ayc sin q
q
FR  Ahc hc
h
y
yc
 Does the resultant force
FR pass through the
centroid, c ?
 Summation of forces
about x-axis.
c
FM-I Fluid
Fluid Mechanics
Statics -I 64
19-Oct-23

• Moment of resultant force (FRYR) should
equal moment of distributed pressure force.
FR y R   ydF q
A h
hc
FR y R    sin qy 2 dA
y
yc
FR
yR
A
 FR  Ayc sin q
 Ayc sin qy R    sin qy 2 dA
 y dA
2 A
CP (xR,yR)
 yR  A
I x Second moment of the area
Ayc (inertia)
27
10/25/2023
FM-I Fluid Mechanics

Statics -I 65
19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

• Similarly we get xR from balance of moments
about y-axis. q
FR xR   xdF hc
h
y
yc
A FR
FR xR    sin qxydA yR
A
 FR  Ay c sin q
 Ayc sin qxR    sin qxydA
X-axis
xR
 xydA
A
 xR  A
I xy Second moment of the area
Ayc (inertia)
FM-I Fluid
Fluid Mechanics
Statics -I 66
19-Oct-23

• Using parallel axis theorem:
“The moment of inertia of a plane region
about any axis is given by the sum of its
moment of inertia about the parallel axis
through its centroid and the perpendicular
distance between the axes.”
I y  I yc  Ayc2 I xy  I xyc  Ayc2
I yc I xyc
 yR   yc  xR   xc
Ayc Ayc
28
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

Geometric
Properties
Centroid Coordinates
Areas
Moments of Inertia
19-Oct-23
Example
• A 60 x 60 cm square
gate has its top edge 12
m below the water
surface.
• It is on a 45° angle and
its bottom edge is hinged
as shown.
• What force P is needed
to just open the gate?
29
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Solution
• Free body diagram.
• Resultant force
• The geometric center

• The center of pressure
• principle, 𝑀 = 0.
19-Oct-23
Example
• Find force P needed
to hold the 2-m-wide
gate in the position
shown, if h = 1.2 m.
30
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Solution
• The geometric center is
yc  0.6 sin 65  0.8  1.46 m
• Resultant Force,
 1 .2 
FR  hc A  9810  0.6    2   15586 N
 sin 65 
• The center of pressure is y R  I yc Ayc   yc
yR 
1.32  2  12  1.46  1.69 m
3
1.32  21.46
• M = 0
  1 .2 
2.12 P  FR d  P  15586  0.8  1.69  2.12
  sin 65 
P  3191 N  3.19 kΝ
19-Oct-23
Example
• A circular door having a
diameter of 4 m is
positioned at the inclined
wall, which forms part of a
large water tank.
• The door is mounted on a
shaft which acts to close
the door by rotating it and Calculate:
the door is restrained by a a) Magnitude of the hydrostatic force
stopper. acting on the door and its center of
• The depth of the water is pressure,
10 m at the level of the b) The moment required by the shaft
to open the door.
shaft,
 water = 998 kg/m3 & g = 9.81 m/s2
31
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Solution
• Resultant force, FR
𝐹𝑅 = 10 4𝜋 998 × 9.81
𝐹𝑅 = 1230 × 103 𝑁 = 1.23 𝑀𝑁
• For the center of pressure,
𝜋24 4 10
𝑦𝑅 = +
10 sin 60
sin 60 4𝜋
𝑦𝑅 = 0.0866 + 11.547 = 11.633 𝑚
• Distance from shaft to gate center is
𝑦𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 = 0.0866
• The moment M required to open the
door is:
• M = FR ( yR - yC )
= (1.230 x 106) (0.0866)
= 1.065 x 105 N • m
= 107 kN • m
 water = 998 kg/m3 & g = 9.81 m/s2
19-Oct-23
Example
• Determine that height H at which
the gate will open if b = ___.
• (a) 1.2m (b) 1.6m (c) 2.0 m
Answer
• (a) 2.08 m (b) 2.77m (c) 3.46 m
32
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Force: Vertical Wall

• Pressure varies linearly with
depth by the hydrostatic
equation.
• The magnitude of pressure
at the bottom is p = h
• The width of the wall is “b”
into the board
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝𝑎𝑣 𝐴
• By inspection, the average y-coordinate:
pressure occurs at h/2,
pav = h/2
ℎ I xc 
1 3
bh yR 
bh3

h
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾 𝐴
12 bh 2
12 h
2 h
yc  2
• The resultant force acts through 2 h h 2
the center of pressure, CP: A  bh yR    h
6 2 3
19-Oct-23
Force: Vertical Wall

x-coordinate:
I xyc  0 0 b
b xR   Center of Pressure:
yc 
2
h
bh 2
2  b 2h 
 , 
A  bh b 2 3 
xR 
2
• Now, we have both the resultant force and

its location.
• The pressure prism is a second way of
analyzing the forces on a vertical wall.
33
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Pressure Prism: Vertical Wall

• Pressure Prism:
– A graphical
interpretation of the
forces due to a fluid
acting on a plane area.
– The “volume” of fluid
acting on the wall is the Resultant Force:
pressure prism and FR = volume
equals the resultant 1
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑏ℎ
force acting on the 2
1
wall. 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ 𝐴
2
19-Oct-23
Pressure Prism: Submerged Vertical Wall
Trapezoidal
The Resultant Force: break into two “volumes”

Location of Resultant Force: “use sum of moments”
F1  h1  A Solve for yA

F2   h2  h1 A
1
2 y1 and y2 is the centroid location for the two
A  bh2  h1  volumes where F1 and F2 are the resultant forces of
the volumes.
34
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Pressure Prism: Inclined Submerged Wall
• Now we have an incline trapezoidal volume. The

methodology is the same as the last problem, and we
affix the coordinate system to the plane.
• The use of pressure prisms in only convenient if we
have regular geometry, otherwise integration is needed
• In that case we have to revert to the general theory.
19-Oct-23
Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

• The hydrostatic force
distribution on a curved
surface can be quite
complex because
• Force acts normal to
the surface, and the
direction of the normal
varies from point-to-
point along the
surface.
• A pressure vessel must
be designed to
withstand the
pressures generated.
35
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

• General theory of plane Then we mark a F.B.D. for
the volume:
surfaces does not apply to
curved surfaces
• Many surfaces in dams, pumps,
pipes or tanks are curved
• No simple
formulas by
integration F1 and F2 is the hydrostatic
similar to those Isolated Volume force on each planar face
for plane Bounded
by AB, FH and FV is the component
surfaces AC and of the resultant force on the
curved surface.
• A new method
BC
W is the weight of the fluid

must be used volume.
19-Oct-23
Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

• Now, balancing the forces for the Equilibrium
condition:
– Horizontal Force: 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹2
– Vertical Force: 𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹1 + 𝑊
– Resultant Force: 𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝐻 2 + 𝐹𝑉 2
• The location of the Resultant Force is through

O by sum of Moments:
– Y-axis: 𝐹1 𝑥1 + 𝑊𝑥𝑐 = 𝐹𝑉 𝑥𝑉
– X-axis: 𝐹2 𝑥2 = 𝐹𝐻 𝑥𝐻
36
10/25/2023
Fluid Mechanics - I
Problem
1. Find the FR and the CP for
the problem shown.
10
19-Oct-23
Solution
Or using the pressure prism

principle
37
10/25/2023
10
19-Oct-23 Problem
• Find the Resultant
force FR and the
center of pressure
CP for the problem
shown.
10
19-Oct-23
Solution
Or using the pressure prism

principle, 𝑀 = 0.
38
10/25/2023
Fluid Mechanics - I
Example Problem
• Find the resultant force, FR (specific weight
of fluid is 9.81kN/m3)
10
19-Oct-23
Solution
39
10/25/2023
10
19-Oct-23 Problem
• A fuel truck has an elliptical cross section
tank, with a 3-m horizontal major axis and
a 2-m vertical minor axis.
• The top is vented to the atmosphere. If the
tank is filled half with water and half with
gasoline, what is the hydrostatic force on
the flat elliptical end panel?
10
19-Oct-23
Solution
• The centroids of the top
and bottom halves are
4(1 m)/(3π) = 0.424 m from
the center line.
Gasoline 680
• The area of each half
Water 998
ellipse is
(π/2)(1 m)(1.5 m) = 2.356 m2.
• The forces by gasoline and
water are:
40
10/25/2023
11
19-Oct-23
BUOYANCY, FLOTATION, AND

STABILITY
11
19-Oct-23
Archimedes’ Principle
• Archimedes' principle states that:
“the net hydrostatic pressure force on a

submerged or floating body is equal to the
weight of the volume of fluid displaced by the
object”
41
10/25/2023
11
19-Oct-23 Archimedes’ Principle

• By pressing the sides
of the bottle, the
pressure within it is
increased and the air
within the inverted test
tube is compressed.
• This allows additional
water to enter the test
tube, thereby causing
the average specific
weight of the object
(the test tube, air, and
the enclosed water) to
be greater than that of
the surrounding water.
The tube sinks.
11
19-Oct-23
42
10/25/2023
11

• The buoyant force has a
magnitude equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the
body and is directed vertically
upward.
• Buoyant force results from a
floating or submerged body in a
fluid.
• Caused by different pressures
on the surfaces of the object.
• Now, treat an arbitrary
submerged object as a planar
surface:
11
19-Oct-23
• Balancing the vertical forces of the
F.B.D.
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹2 −𝐹1 −𝑊
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 A
𝐹𝐵 = 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴 − 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴 − 𝑉
• After simplifying;
𝐹𝐵 = 𝛾𝑉
• The force of the fluid on the body is • W is the weight of the
shaded area
opposite, or vertically upward and • F1 and F2 are the forces
is known as the Buoyant Force. •
on the plane surfaces
FB is the force the body
• The force is equal to the weight of exerts on the fluid
the fluid it displaces.
43
10/25/2023

• Find where the Buoyant
Force Acts by Summing
Moments:
𝐹𝐵 𝑦𝑐 = 𝐹2 𝑦1 − 𝐹1 𝑦1 − 𝑊𝑦2
• We find that the buoyant

forces acts through the
centroid of the displaced
volume.
• The location is known as
the center of buoyancy.

19-Oct-23
• We can apply the same principles to floating objects:
• Since the fluid acting on the upper surfaces has very

small specific weight (air), the centroid is simply that of
the displaced volume, and the buoyant force is as
before.
44
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Example
• Spherical buoy has a diameter of 1.5 m, weighs
8.50 kN, and is anchored to the sea floor with a
cable as shown.
• The buoy normally floats on the surface, at other
times the water depth increases so that the buoy is
completely immersed as shown.
• What is the tension in the cable?
Solution

19-Oct-23
Hydrometer
• A hydrometer floats at a level
which is a measure of the
specific gravity of the liquid.
• The stem is of constant
diameter D, and a weight in
the bottom stabilizes the
body to float vertically.
• Buoyant force balances its
weight, FB = weight of the
hydrometer, and must remain
constant.
• Hydrometer floats deeper or
shallower depending on the
specific weight of the fluid.
45
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Hydrometer
• When placed in a
liquid, such as water,
it will float when the
constant weight of the
hydrometer is
balanced by the
buoyant force.
• If the water is
replaced with a
heavier liquid (green
salt water) the
hydrometer will rise
since a smaller
displaced volume is
required to balance
the weight.

19-Oct-23
Example
• A hydrometer weighs 0.0216 N and
has a stem at the upper end that is
cylindrical and 2.8 mm in diameter.
• How much deeper will it float in oil of
S=0.78 than in alcohol of S=0.821?
Solution
46
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Stability
• A completely submerged body..
– Is in a stable equilibrium as long as its CG is directly
below the CB.
– Is in a neutral equilibrium if its CG coincide with CB.
– Is unstable if the CG is above the CB and the problem
requires further analysis.
Unstable Equilibrium:
Stable Equilibrium:
C > CG, “Higher” C < CG, “Lower”
12
19-Oct-23
Stability
• For a partially
submerged
floating bodies
(e.g. Ships)
stability is more
complicated.
– Because as the
body rotates the
center of
buoyancy (which
passes through
centroid of
displaced
volume) may
change.
47
10/25/2023
19-Oct-23 Stability
• A floating body can be stable
even though its center of
gravity is located above its
center of buoyancy
• The center of gravity can be
raised or lowered by moving
the weights on the mast.
• The center of buoyancy
remains below the free
surface.
• With a low center of gravity,
the object is very stable.
• As the center of gravity is
raised, the object becomes
more tippy.
• Eventually it becomes
unstable.

19-Oct-23
Metacentric height
• Metacenter (MC) is the point of intersection of
vertical centerline axis of the body and the
line of action of the buoyant force.
– When the MC is above CG, a restoring couple is
produced and the floating body is stable.
– When the MC is below CG, an overturning couple
is produced and the body is unstable.
C.G. C.G.
M.C.
C.B. C.B.
48
10/25/2023
13
19-Oct-23 Problem
• A 1-m-diameter cylindrical mass, M, is connected to a
2-m-wide rectangular gate as shown.
• The gate is to open when the water level, h, drops
below 2.5 m.
• Determine the required value for M. Neglect friction at
the gate hinge and the pulley.
13
19-Oct-23
Solution
T 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴
𝐹𝑅 = 6.25𝛾
𝑀𝑂 = 0
FR
h/3 ⇒ 4𝑇 = 𝐹𝑅 ℎ 3
⇒ 𝑇 = 1.302𝛾
T
O
𝑀𝑔 = 𝑇 + 𝐹𝐵
⇒ 𝑀𝑔 = 1.302𝛾 + 𝛾𝑉
M*g
⇒ 𝑀𝑔 = 𝛾 1.302 + 𝜋0.375
⇒ 𝑀 = 2475 kg FB
49
10/25/2023
13
19-Oct-23
END OF CHAPTER
50

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10/25/2023

– Buoyancy and stability Reference Text:

Introduction to fluid statics

19-Oct-23 Introduction to fluid statics

Introduction to fluid statics

19-Oct-23 Pressure at a point

By eliminating 𝛿x𝛿𝑦 we get,

19-Oct-23 Pressure at a point

“A change in pressure at any point in an

19-Oct-23 Pressure field

• Now we can write resultant surface force

• Resultant body force is given by

19-Oct-23 Pressure field

𝛿𝐹𝑆 + 𝛿𝐹𝐵 = 𝛿𝑚𝑎

• This is the general equation of motion for

Pressure variation in fluids

• Separating into components

• For fluids at rest the pressure gradient in the

19-Oct-23 Pressure variation in fluids

Pressure variation in fluids

19-Oct-23 Pressure variation in fluids

Pressure variation in fluids

19-Oct-23 Pressure variation in fluids

Answer: 59.2 kPa

manometer and consists of a

(po is atmospheric/ambient pressure)

19-Oct-23 U-tube manometer

Inclined tube manometer

19-Oct-23 Design problem

P4 = 62.1 kPa, and P4,abs = 163.4 kPa Ans

• The pressures at A and B are 100 kPa.

𝒑𝑩 + 𝜸𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒉𝑩 − ∆𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝜸𝑯𝒈 ∆𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + ∆𝒉 − 𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝑨 + ∆𝒉 = 𝒑𝑨

⇒ 𝑝𝐵 + 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℎ𝐵 − 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝐴 + 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 −∆𝐿 sin 𝜃

Hydrostatic forces on a plane surface

19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

y is directed along the plane

A is the area of the surface.

C is the centroid. General Shape: Planar

FR is the resultant force

Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

FM-I Fluid Mechanics

19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

FM-I Fluid Mechanics

19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

Hydrostatic force on inclined surface

19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

• The geometric center

 water = 998 kg/m3 & g = 9.81 m/s2

19-Oct-23 Force: Vertical Wall

Force: Vertical Wall

• Now, we have both the resultant force and

19-Oct-23 Pressure Prism: Vertical Wall

Pressure Prism: Submerged Vertical Wall

The Resultant Force: break into two “volumes”

F1  h1  A Solve for yA

19-Oct-23 Pressure Prism: Inclined Submerged Wall

• Now we have an incline trapezoidal volume. The

Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

19-Oct-23 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

W is the weight of the fluid

Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

• The location of the Resultant Force is through