Classifying the Elements: The

Lecture Presentation
Periodic Law and the Periodic Table

Chapter 7 •1869 Dimitri Mendeleev

Lothar Meyer
Periodic Properties
of the Elements
When the elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of
properties recur periodically.

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— = 44
— = 68 — = 72
—= 100

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table: similar elements are

Hardness, compressibility and boiling point placed in vertical groups and the properties
also vary periodically. change gradually from top to bottom.
 Development of Periodic Table
Dmitri
Mendeleev and
Lothar Meyer
independently
came to the
same conclusion
about how
elements should The rather uncanny ability of Mendeleev’s system to
be grouped. predict properties of yet undiscovered elements meant
Periodic the quick adoption of his version of the Periodic
Properties
of the Table.
Elements
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Alkali Metals The Periodic table Noble Gases

Development of Periodic Table Main Group
Alkaline Earths Halogens

Transition Metals

Mendeleev, for instance, predicted the discovery of

germanium (which he called eka-silicon) as an
element with an atomic weight between that of zinc
and arsenic, but with chemical properties similar to Periodic
Properties
Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides
those of silicon. of the
Elements
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 Metals and Nonmetals and Their Ions Main-Group Metal Ions
• Metals
– Good conductors of heat and electricity.
– Malleable and ductile.
– Moderate to high melting points.
• Nonmetals
– Nonconductors of heat and electricity.
– Brittle solids.
– Some are gases at room temperature.
• Metalloids
– Metallic and non-metallic properties
Metals tend to lose electrons to attain noble gas electron configurations.

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Main-Group Nonmetal Ions Periodic Trends

• In this chapter, we will rationalize observed
trends in
– Sizes of atoms and ions.
– Ionization energy.
– Electron affinity.

Nonmetals tend to gain electrons to attain noble-gas electron configurations

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
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 Sizes of Atoms and Ions
Atomic or ionic sizes can help us understand
certain physical and chemical properties.

Half of the distance between the

Half of the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms in
nuclei of two identical atoms contact in crystalline solid metal.
joined by a single covalent bond.

Is based on the distance between the

nuclei of two ions joined by an ionic Atomic number
bond. (normally relative to O2- or F-)

Screening and Penetration

Effective Nuclear Charge
Screen of electron charge
In a many-electron from 10 core electrons
atom, electrons are Overall Zeff
both attracted to the is closer to
nucleus and repelled +3 than +2
by other electrons. (12+)

The nuclear charge (-)

(-)
that an electron
experiences depends
on both factors. Periodic The shielding effect and
Properties
of the
Elements
effective nuclear charge, Zeff
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Effective Nuclear Charge Ionic Radius

The effective nuclear

charge, Zeff, is found this
way:
Zeff = Z − S
where Z is the atomic
number and S is a
screening constant,
usually close to the
number of inner
FIGURE 9-7
electrons. Periodic
•A comparison of atomic and ionic sizes
Properties
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Sizes of Ions Sizes of Ions

• Ionic size depends • Cations are
upon smaller than their
– The nuclear parent atoms:
charge. – The outermost
– The number of electron is
electrons. removed and
– The orbitals in repulsions
which electrons between electrons
reside. are reduced.

Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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 Sizes of Ions
• Anions are larger
than their parent
atoms”
– Electrons are
added and
repulsions
between electrons
are increased.

FIGURE 9-8
Periodic
Covalent and anionic radii compared
Properties
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Elements Inc.
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Sizes of Ions Sizes of Ions

• Ions increase in size
as you go down a
column:
– This increase in size
is due to the
increasing value of n.

• In an isoelectronic series, ions have the

same number of electrons.
• Ionic size decreases with an increasing
Periodic
Properties
nuclear charge. Periodic
Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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 Ionic Radius Ionization Energy
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are
formed. • The ionization energy is the amount of
energy required to remove an electron
For isoelectronic (containing the same number of electrons) from the ground state of a gaseous
cations, the more positive the ionic charge, the smaller atom or ion.
the ionic radius.
– The first ionization energy is that energy
required to remove the first electron.
Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are
– The second ionization energy is that
formed. For isoelectronic anions, the more negative the
energy required to remove the second
charge, the larger the ionic radius.
electron, etc. Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
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Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the amount of energy a gaseous
atom or ion in its ground state must absorb to loose
an electron.
Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e- I1 = 738 kJ

Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e- I2 = 1451 kJ

Zeff2
I = RH
n2
Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii
increase. First ionization energies as a function of atomic number
 Ionization Energy Trends in First Ionization Energies
• It requires more energy to remove each
successive electron. • As one goes down a
• When all valence electrons have been removed, column, less energy
the ionization energy takes a quantum leap. is required to remove
the first electron.
– For atoms in the same
group, Zeff is
essentially the same,
but the valence
electrons are farther
from the nucleus.
Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Trends in First Ionization Energies Trends in First Ionization Energies

• Generally, as one However, there are
goes across a row, it two apparent
gets harder to discontinuities in this
remove an electron. trend.
– As you go from left to
right, Zeff increases.

Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Trends in First Ionization Energies Trends in First Ionization Energies
• The first occurs between
Groups 2 and 13. • The second
• In this case the electron is discontinuity occurs
removed from a p orbital between Groups 15
rather than an s orbital. and 16.
– The electron removed is – The electron removed
farther from the nucleus. comes from a doubly
– There is also a small amount occupied orbital.
of repulsion by the s – Repulsion from the
electrons. other electron in the
orbital aids in its
Periodic removal. Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Electron Affinity Electron Affinity

The tendency of a neutral atom to gain an electron
Electron affinity is the energy change
accompanying the addition of an F(g) + e- → F-(g) EA = -328 kJmol-1
electron to a gaseous atom:
F(1s22s22p5) + e- → F-(1s22s22p6)

Cl + e−  Cl−
Li(g) + e- → Li-(g) EA = -59.6 kJmol-1

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Properties
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Trends in Electron Affinity Trends in Electron Affinity
There are
In general, electron again,
affinity becomes however, two
more exothermic as discontinuities
you go from left to in this trend.
right across a row.

Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Trends in Electron Affinity Trends in Electron Affinity

• The first occurs • The second
between Groups 1A discontinuity occurs
and 2A. between Groups 4A
and 5A.
– The added electron
must go in a p orbital, – Group VA has no
empty orbitals.
not an s orbital.
– The extra electron
– The electron is farther must go into an
from the nucleus and already occupied
feels repulsion from orbital, creating
the s electrons. repulsion.
Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Periodic Properties of the Elements Properties of Metal, Nonmetals,
and Metalloids

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
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Metals versus Nonmetals Metals versus Nonmetals

• Metals tend to form cations.
• Nonmetals tend to form anions.

Differences between metals and nonmetals

tend to revolve around these properties.

Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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 Metals Metals
• Compounds formed between metals and
Metals tend to be nonmetals tend to be ionic.
lustrous, malleable,
• Metal oxides tend to be basic.
ductile, and good
conductors of heat
and electricity.

Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Nonmetals Nonmetals
• Nonmetals are dull,
brittle substances that
are poor conductors
of heat and electricity.
• They tend to gain
electrons in reactions
with metals to acquire
a noble-gas • Substances containing only nonmetals are
configuration. molecular compounds.
Periodic • Most nonmetal oxides are acidic. Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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 Metals and Nonmetals and Their Ions
Metalloids
• Metals
• Metalloids have – Good conductors of heat and electricity.
some characteristics – Malleable and ductile.
of metals and some – Moderate to high melting points.
of nonmetals. • Nonmetals
• For instance, silicon – Nonconductors of heat and electricity.
looks shiny, but is – Brittle solids.
brittle and a fairly – Some are gases at room temperature.
poor conductor. • Metalloids
– Metallic and non-metallic properties
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
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Group Trends

Periodic
Properties
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 Alkali Metals Alkali Metals
• They are found only in compounds in nature,
• Alkali metals are not in their elemental forms.
soft, metallic solids.
• They have low densities and melting points.
• The name comes
• They also have low ionization energies.
from the Arabic
word for ashes.

Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Alkali Metals Alkali Metals

• Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to form
peroxides.
• K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:
K + O2  KO2
• They produce bright colors when placed in a flame.

Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.

Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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 Alkaline Earth Metals Alkaline Earth Metals
• Beryllium does not react
with water, and
magnesium reacts only
with steam, but the
other alkaline earth
metals react readily with
water.
• Reactivity tends to
• Alkaline earth metals have higher densities increase as you go
and melting points than alkali metals. down the group.
• Their ionization energies are low, but not as
Periodic Periodic
low as those of alkali metals. Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Group 6A Sulfur

• Sulfur is a weaker
oxidizer than
oxygen.
• The most stable
allotrope is S8, a
ringed molecule.
• Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.
• Tellurium is a metalloid.
• The radioactive polonium is a metal. Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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 Group VIIA: Halogens Group VIIA: Halogens
• They have large, negative
electron affinities.
– Therefore, they tend to oxidize
other elements easily.
• They react directly with
metals to form metal halides.
• The halogens are prototypical nonmetals. • Chlorine is added to water
• The name comes from the Greek words halos supplies to serve as a
and gennao: “salt formers.” disinfectant.
Periodic Periodic
Properties Properties
of the of the
Elements Elements
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Group VIIIA: Noble Gases

• The noble gases have astronomical ionization

energies.
• Their electron affinities are positive.
– Therefore, they are relatively unreactive. Periodic
Properties
• They are found as monatomic gases. of the
Elements
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