ELEMENTARY

SUBSTANCES
ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE OF
ELEMENTS
ATOMS: THE SMALLEST PARTICLE OF MATTER
EVIDENCES OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
DETERMINATION OF ATOMIC MASSES
THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION BY MAIN
ENERGY LEVEL AND BY ENERGY SUBLEVEL
PERIODICITY AND PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS
 ELEMENT
A PURE SUBSTANCE WHICH IS COMPOSED OF A SINGLE TYPE OF
ATOM
IT IS CONSISTS ONLY OF ATOMS THAT ALL HAVE THE SAME NUMBER
OF PROTONS IN THEIR ATOMIC NUCLEI
THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN THE NUCLEUS IS THE DEFINING
PROPERTY OF AN ELEMENT, AND IS REFERRED TO AS ITS ATOMIC
NUMBER (z).
ALL ATOMS WITH THE SAME ATOMIC
NUMBER ARE ATOMS OF THE SAME
ELEMENT
IT CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN INTO
SIMPLER SUBSTANCES BY CHEMICAL
MEANS. 13e 13p
14n
WHEN DIFFERENT ELEMENTS UNDERGO
CHEMICAL REACTION, ATOMS ARE
REARRANGED INTO NEW COMPOUNDS
HELD TOGETHER BY CHEMICAL BONDS.
 ELEMENTS CAN BE EXPRESSED
USING CHEMICAL SYMBOLS.
BORON GOLD TITANIUM SULFUR TANTALUM

BARIUM URANIUM TITANIUM SULFUR TANTALUM

EXERCISES. DECIPHER THE FOLLOWING
USING CHEMICAL SYMBOLS SULFUR
SODIUM LANTHANUM OXYGEN AMERICIUM
NEON URANIUM CARBON OXYGEN
THORIUM RHENIUM AMERICIUM NITROGEN
NITROGEN POLONIUM TELLURIUM
EINSTEINIUM TELLURIUM PROTACTINIUM
PROTACTINIUM IRIDIUM
MOLYBDENUM RADIUM
RHENIUM IODINE
NICKEL IODINE
SULFUR SULFUR
COBALT SULFUR
PRASEODYMIUM NICKEL
MOLYBDENUM OXYGEN
INDIUM IODINE
NITROGEN SODIUM, CARBON,
CERIUM POTASSIUM
IODINE IODINE, OXYGEN,
SULFUR POTASSIUM
CARBON NITROGEN,
SULFUR IODINE
OXYGEN ALUMINUM
 TYPES OF
ELEMENTARY
SUBSTANCES
 B B
B
B

METALS
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

METALS
B
B
B B
B B
B B
B B
NON
METALS

B
 METALLIC ELEMENTS
Nearly all are Densities are Close-packed crystal structures
shiny and generally with high coordination numbers
grey-white in high. Atomic radius is from
color with some
intermediate to very large.
Cu, Cs, and Au are exceptions such as 112–298 pm (average 187 pm)
shiny and golden alkali metals

Reflectivity is Most metals Around half form allotropes

Sn has a metalloid-like allotrope (grey Sn)
from are ductile
which forms below 13.2 °C.
intermediate and malleable.
Some are brittle like Thermal conductivity is from
to typically Cr, Mn, Ge, Ru, W, medium to high
high. Os, and Bi
Melting point is mostly high and
Almost all are Most have
generally expands during
solid in form. hexagonal
Rb, Cs, Fr, Cs and and cubic
melting.
Hg are liquid at/near Enthalpy of fusion is from low
STP structure at
to high.
freezing point.
 s, p, d, and f Electrical All metals tend to form cations.
periodic table conductivity
block. Metals seldom form covalent
is from
compounds (non-covalent bond)
Few number good to
of electrons in high but Oxidation number is nearly
outer s and p. falls always positive
except for Pd (0), gradually as
Sn, Pb, and Fl (with Ionization energy is relatively
4), Bi (with 5) and temperature
low.
Po (with 6) rises (as it
turns to Electronegativity is usually low.
All has free
electrons that liquid)
They are base-forming
facilitates
Over-all Their names usually end in –um
electrical and
metallic or –ium with the following
thermal
conductivity. behavior exceptions: Bi, W, Mn, Ni, and
Co.
nonMETALLI They are brittle

C ELEMENTS
when solid
Some (C, P, S, and Se)
have non-brittle forms.

Their crystalline structure at

most are colourless or dull
freezing point ranges from
red, yellow, green, or
hexagonal (H, He, C, N, and Xe), to
intermediate shades
C, P, Se, and I are shiny and grey-white
cubic (O, F, Ne, P, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn)
and orthorhombic ( S, Cl, Br & I).
Reflectivity is from zero
They have open structures
or low (mostly) to
& low coordination
intermediate.
numbers.
most are gases.
C, P, S, Se, and I are solid while Br is liquid. Atomic radius is from very
small to intermediate
Their densities are often low. 31–120 pm, average 76.4 pm
Some form Most high All nonmetals Electrical
allotropes number of tend to form conductivity
while some electrons in the anions. is from poor
(like graphitic C, outer s and p Nonmetals form to good but
black P and grey except H and He. increases as
Se) are more
many covalent
no, few, or compounds temperature
metalloidal directionally rises
or metallic confined free
in nature Oxidation number is either
electrons
positive or negative.
Thermal (generally
conductivity hampering electrical
and thermal
Ionization energy and
is from almost conductivity) electronegativity are usually high.
negligible to They are acid-forming
very high. Over-all Their names usually end in –on,
s and p nonmetallic -gen, or –ine with the following
periodic behavior exceptions: S ends with –ur and
table block. Te and He end with -ium
METALLOIDS
all or nearly all
form allotropes
Some (red B and
yellow As) are more
shiny and grey- Their crystalline nonmetallic in
white in color structure at freezing nature
Reflectivity is point ranges from
rhombohedral (B, As, Si has high
intermediate. thermal
and Sb), to cubic (Si and
All are solid in Ge) and hexagonal (Te).
conductivity but
form mostly are
relatively open crystal intermediate.
Their densities
are lower than structures and medium
Melting point
nearby metals but coordination numbers[
is high and
higher than Atomic radius is from some contract,
nearby nonmetals small to intermediate: unlike (most)
B, Si Ge, As, Sb, and Te
They are brittle. 87–123 pm, average 115.5 pm metals.
 p periodic Some have tendency to
table block. Electrical form anions in water.
conductivity Solution chemistry
medium
is from dominated by formation
number (3–7)
intermediate and reactions of
in the outer
to good. Most oxyanions.
level
behaves like
valence metals. Form salts as well as
electrons less covalent compounds
freely Over-all
delocalized; nonmetallic Oxidation number is either
considerable behavior positive or negative.
covalent
bonding Intermediate ionization energy and
present electronegativity is close to 2 (between 1.9
and 2.2)
 GIVE THE CHEMICAL NAMES AND
IDENTIFY WHETHER METAL, NONMETAL
OR METALLOID
1. C 11. S
2. Ca 12. Sb
3. Cl 13. Sc
4. Ce 14. Sm
5. Cf 15. Sn
6. Cm 16. Sr
7. Co 17. Mg
8. Cr 18. Mn
9. Cs 19. Mo
10. Cu 20. Mt
 DIFFERENT
GROUPS OF
ELEMENTARY
SUBSTANCES
 An element family is a set of elements sharing common
properties. Elements are classified into families because the
three main categories of elements (metals, nonmetals and
metalloids) are very broad. The characteristics of the
elements in these families are determined primarily by the
number of electrons in the outer energy shell.

Element groups, on the other hand, are collections of

elements categorized according to similar properties.
Because element properties are largely determined by the
behavior of valence electrons, families and groups may be
the same.
PERIODS &
GROUPS
 PERIODS
The rows of the table are known as periods. It is in the succesive periods
that we observe the periodicity of properties of the elements. Each
period has the full range of properties. For example more metallic
elements occur to the left of a period, and the less metallic elements to
the right; or oxides of the elements to the left are basic and acidic for
elements to the right. The periods are simply numbered 1 though 7 from
the top down
GROUPS
The columns of the table are known as groups or families. All the
elements in a group have similar properties. Placing elements in groups
is one of the most important ways of classifying them. There is some
variation in properties within a group, but the changes are relatively
small as one goes down (or up) the group. Each group of elements forms
what is called a chemical series.
 GROUP
1 TO 18
IA, IIA, IIIB, IVB, VB,
VIB, VIIB, VIIIB, IIIA-
VIIIA

PERIOD
1 TO 7
 B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
FAMILY B
B
B
B
B
B
A

B
B
FAMILY

B
The periodic table groups are as follows (in the brackets are shown the old systems:
European and American):
Group 1 (IA): the alkali metals
Group 2 (IIA): the alkaline earth metals
Group 3 (IIIB)
Group 4 (IVB)
Group 5 (VB)
Group 6 (VIB)
Group 7 (VIIB)
Group 8 (VIIIB)
Group 9 (VIIIB)
Group 10 (VIIIB)
Group 11 (IB): the coinage metals (not a IUPAC-recommended name)
Group 12 (IIB)
Group 13 (IIIA): the boron group
Group 14 (IVA): the carbon group
Group 15 (VA): the pnictogens (not a IUPAC-recommended name) or nitrogen group
Group 16 (VIA): the chalcogens
Group 17 (VIIA): the halogens
Group 18 (Group 0): the noble gases
ALKALI METALS are recognized as a group and family of
elements. These elements are metals. Hydrogen is not
considered an alkali metal because the gas does not exhibit the
typical properties of the group. However, under the right
conditions of temperature and pressure, hydrogen can be an
alkali metal.
1 valence electron
Soft metallic solids
GROUP IA
(CAS)
Shiny, lustrous
High thermal and electrical conductivity GROUP 1
(IUPAC)
Low densities, increasing with atomic mass
Relatively low melting points, decreasing with atomic mass
Vigorous exothermic reaction with water to produce hydrogen
gas and an alkali metal hydroxide solution
Ionize to lose their electron, so the ion has a +1 charge
ALKALINE EARTH METALS or simply alkaline earths are
recognized as an important group and family of elements. These
elements are metals. Examples include calcium and magnesium.
2 valence electrons
Metallic solids, harder than the alkali metals
Shiny, lustrous, oxidize easily GROUP IIA
(CAS)
High thermal and electrical conductivity
More dense than the alkali metals GROUP 2
Higher melting points than alkali metals (IUPAC)

Exothermic reaction with water, increasing as you move down

the group; beryllium does not react with water; magnesium
reacts only with steam
Ionize to lose their valence electrons, so the ion has a +2
charge
TRANSITION METALS is the largest family of elements. The center of the
periodic table contains the transition metals, plus the two rows below the
body of the table (lanthanides and actinides) are special transition
metals. GROUP IIIB GROUP VIIIB GROUP IB / IIB
Groups 3-12 GROUP 3 GROUP 8, 9, 10 GROUP 11, 12

The d and f block metals have

2 valence electrons
Hard metallic solids
Shiny, lustrous
High thermal and
electrical conductivity
Dense
High melting points
Large atoms exhibit
a range of oxidation states
 GROUP IIIA GROUP IVA
BORON GROUP or earth metal family is not
GROUP 13 GROUP 14
as well-known as some of the other
element families.
3 valence electrons
Diverse properties, intermediate between
those of metals and nonmetals

CARBON GROUP is made up of elements

called tetrels, which refers to their ability
to carry a charge of 4.
4 valence electrons
Diverse properties, intermediate between those
of metals and nonmetals
NITROGEN GROUP or pnictogens is a significant
element family.
5 valence electrons
Diverse properties, intermediate GROUP VA
(CAS)
between those of metals and
nonmetals GROUP 15
(IUPAC)

OXYGEN GROUP or the chalcogens family.

6 valence electrons
Diverse properties, changing from GROUP VIA
(CAS)
nonmetallic to metallic in moving
down the family GROUP 16
(IUPAC)
HALOGEN FAMILY is a group of reactive nonmetals.
7 valence electrons
Reactive nonmetals GROUP VIIA
(CAS)
Melting points and boiling points increase
with increasing atomic number
High electron affinities
GROUP 17
(IUPAC)
Change state as it moves down the family,
with fluorine and chlorine existing as
gases at room temperature while
bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid
NOBLE GASES are a family of GROUP VIIIA
nonreactive nonmetals. (CAS)

8 valence electrons
Typically exist as monatomic gases,
GROUP 18
(IUPAC)
although these elements do (rarely) form compounds
Stable electron octet makes nonreactive (inert) under ordinary circumstances
ATOMS
• incredibly tiny
• numerous
• perpetually in motion
• ageless
• An atom takes part in
chemical reactions
independently.
• An atom can be
divided into a number
of sub-atomic particles -
electron, proton and
neutron.
SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES
• ELECTRONS

– discovered by Sir John Joseph Thomson in 1897

– are located in an electron cloud, which is the

area
surrounding the nucleus of the atom

– can abbreviated as e-

– have a negative charge that is equal in

magnitude to the positive charge of the protons

– mass is considerably less than that of a proton

or neutron
• PROTONS

– discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 1919, when he

performed his gold foil experiment.

– exist in a nucleus and have a positive nuclear charge.

– atomic number or proton number is the number of protons

present in an atom

– The atomic number determines an element (e.g., the element

of atomic number 6 is carbon).
• NEUTRONS

– were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, when he

demonstrated that penetrating radiation incorporated beams
of neutral particles

– located in the nucleus with the protons

– Along with protons, they make up almost all of the mass of the
atom

– The number of neutrons is called the neutron number and can

be found by subtracting the proton number from the atomic
mass number.
• u is the SI symbol for atomic mass unit.
• The positive charge of protons cancels the negative charge of the
electrons. Neutrons have no charge.
• With regard to mass, protons and neutrons are very similar, and have
a much greater mass than electrons. Compared with neutrons and
protons, the mass of an electron is usually negligible.
• Spin is associated with the rotation of a particle. Protons, neutrons,
and electrons each have a total spin of 1/2.
 RELATIONSHIP OF THE ATOMIC
MASS AND ATOMIC NUMBER
WITH THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

• A = p + n - Atomic mass (A) is the sum of the

number of protons (p) and neutrons (n) in the
nucleus of an atom.
• Z=p - Atomic number (Z) gives the number of
protons (p) in the nucleus. It is what
distinguishes the atoms of a given element.
• n = A – p - The number of neutrons can be found by
subtracting the proton number from the
atomic mass number.
 Atomic
Atomic Mass Protons Electrons Neutrons
Element Number
(A) (p) ( e- ) (n)
(Z)

K 39 19 19 19 20
Ar 40 18 18 18 22
Na 23 11 11 11 12
O 16 8 8 8 8
Au 197 79 79 79 118
Ag 108 47 47 47 61
Zn
Mg
Og
Mn
I
 ISOTOPES: Not all atoms are alike

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element

with different number of neutrons or
different atomic masses

• Isotopes are atoms with the same

number of neutrons. Isotopes are
different forms of a single element.
 Known Isotopes of an Element
• Hydrogen  Lithium  Beryllium  Boron  Carbon
- 1H - 3Li - 8Li - 5Be - 12Be - 6B - 12B
- 8C - 14C

- 2H - 4Li - 9Li 6Be 13Be - 7B - 13B

- 9C - 15C
- -
- 3H - 5Li - 10Li 7Be 14Be - 8B - 14B
- 10C - 16C
- -
- 4H - 6Li - 11Li - 9B - 15B 11C 17C
- 8Be - 15Be - -
- 5H
- 7Li - 12Li
- 9Be - 16Be - 10B - 16B
- 12C - 18C
-6H - 11B - 17B
- 13C - 19C
- 10Be
-7H
- 11Be

particle p eparticle
- n p e- particle n p e- n
1H 1 1 3Li 0 3 3 5Be 0 4 4 1
2H 1 1 4Li 1 3 3 6Be 1 4 4 2
3H 1 1 5Li 2 3 3 7Be 2 4 4 3
HOW IS ATOMIC MASS DETERMINED?

A = (IM X FA)1 + (IM X FA)2 + (IM X FA)3 + .......

IM is the isotopic mass of a naturally occuring element
FA is the isotopic abundance of a naturally occuring element
What is the average atomic mass of magnesium?
ISOTOPE ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCE ISOTOPIC MASS
Mg - 24 78.99 % 23.98501417 u
Mg - 25 10.00 % 24.98583692 u
Mg - 26 11.01 % 25.98259292 u
A = (IM X FA)Mg-24 + (IM X FA)Mg-25 + (IM X FA)Mg-26
A = (23.98501417 X 0.7899) + (24.98583692 X 0.1000) + (25.98259292 X 0.1101)
A = 24.30502986 u A = 24.31 u
 Calculate the atomic mass of potassium given the following:
K-39 isotopic abundance- 93.12% isotopic mass- 38.964 u
K-41 isotopic abundance- 6.88% isotopic mass- 40.962 u
A = (IM X FA)K-39 + (IM X FA)K-41
A = (38.964 X 0. 9312) + (40.962 X 0.0688)
A = 39.102 u A = 39.1 u

Use the atomic masses of each of the two isotopes of chlorine along with
their isotopic abundances to calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine.
chlorine-35: atomic mass = 34.969 amu and % abundance = 75.77%
chlorine-37: atomic mass = 36.966 amu and % abundance = 24.23%
A = (IM X FA)Cl-35 + (IM X FA)Cl-37
A = (34.969 X 0.7577) + (36.966 X 0.2423)
A = 35.457 u A = 35.46 u
 ELEMENTAL IONS: charged particles
• ELEMENTAL IONS ARE PARTICLES THAT
RESULTED FROM THE LOSS OR GAIN OF
ELECTRON.
• WHEN AN ATOM LOSES ELECTRON IT WILL
BECOME POSITIVELY CHARGED (CATION).
• Na has 11p, 11e-, and 12n. When one of its electron is
transferred to another atom, it will become positively
charged. The number of p and n are the same but the
number of electron becomes 10. The charge of the this ion
can be determined by subtracting the number of electrons
from the number of proton. Charge = p – e- = 11 – 10 = 1
• Na atom  Na+ ion
• WHEN AN ATOM GAINS ELECTRON IT WILL
BECOME NEGATIVELY CHARGED (ANION).
• Cl has 17p, 17e-, and 18n. When one electron is accepted by
Cl , it will become negatively charged. The number of p and n
are the same but the number of electron becomes 18. The
charge of the this ion can be determined by subtracting the
number of electrons from the number of proton.
• Charge = p – e- = 17 – 18 = -1
• Cl atom  Cl- ion
 PARTICLE p e- n

F fluorine atom 9 9 10
O oxygen atom 8 8 8
N nitrogen atom 7 7 7
S sulfur atom 16 16 16
PARTICLE p e- n

F- fluoride ion 9 10 10
O2- oxide ion 8 10 8
N3- nitride ion 7 10 7
S2- sulfide ion 16 18 16
 ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
The electron configuration of an atomic species (neutral or ionic)
allows us to understand the shape and energy of its electrons. Many
general rules are taken into consideration when assigning the
location of the electron to its prospective energy state, however
these assignments are arbitrary and it is always uncertain as to
which electron is being described. Knowing the electron configuration
of a species gives us a better understanding of its bonding ability,
magnetism, and other chemical properties.
 ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
The arrangement or distribution
of electrons in shells or orbitals
of any atomic species.
The protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus
of an atom, while the electrons are constantly moving
around the nucleus. The nucleus and the electrons
interact to form the most stable arrangement
possible, the ground state, which requires the least
amount of energy.

There are four main concepts that must remembered

in electron configuration. These are the energy levels,
the enrgy sublevel, the orbitals, and number of
electrons per sublevel.
Energy Levels and the Atomic Model
The concept of energy levels is one part of the atomic model that
is based on a mathematical analysis of atomic spectra. Each
electron in an atom has an energy signature that is determined
by its relationship with other negatively charged electrons in the
atom and the positively charged atomic nucleus.
An electron can change energy levels, but only by steps or
quanta, not continuous increments. The energy of an energy level
increases the further out from the nucleus it is. The lower the
number of a principal energy level, the closer together the
electrons are to each other and to the nucleus of the atom.
During chemical reactions, it's more difficult to remove an
electron from a lower energy level than from a higher one.
 Rules of Principal Energy Levels
A principal energy level may contain up to 2n2 electrons, with n being
the number of each level. The first energy level can contain 2(1)2 or
two electrons; the second can contain up to 2(2)2 or eight electrons;
the third can contain up to 2(3)2 or 18 electrons, and so on.
PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVEL. n SHELL LETTER MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ELECTRONS, 2n2
1 K 2n2 = 2(1)2 = 2(1) = 2
2 L 2n2 = 2(2)2 = 2(4) = 8
3 M 2n2 = 2(3)2 = 2(9) = 18
4 N 2n2 = 2(4)2 = 2(16) = 32
5 O 2n2 = 2(5)2 = 2(25) = 50
6 P 2n2 = 2(6)2 = 2(36) = 72
7 Q 2n2 = 2(7)2 = 2(49) = 98
ENERGY SUBLEVELS/ENERGY SUBSHELLS
Each energy level, or shell, is divided into sublevels. The
terms sublevel and subshell are used interchangeably. The
sublevels are represented by the letters s, p, d, and f. Each
energy level has certain sublevels.
ENERGY ENERGY Energy levels that are higher
LEVELS SUBLEVELS than four would contain
n=1 s additional sublevels such
as g and h. No known atom, in
n=2 s, p its ground state, would have
n=3 s, p, d electrons that occupy those
n=4 s, p, d, f sublevels.
 ORBITALS
Each sublevel is made up of orbitals. Each sublevel has
a different number of orbitals.
Orbitals are classified by their
ENERGY ORBITALS shape. s orbitals are spherical
SUBLEVELS in shape.
s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7
Orbitals found in the p subshell are dumbbell, or figure-eight, shaped.
Remember, in each p subshell there are three orbitals, so there are
three dumbbell shapes. Atoms are three dimensional objects, and the
orbitals are oriented around the different axes. The image below
shows the three p orbitals and the complete p sublevel containing all
three orbitals.
 The first principal energy level has one sublevel that contains one
orbital, called the s orbital. The s orbital can contain a maximum of
two electrons.
The next principal energy level contains one s orbital and three p
orbitals. The set of three p orbitals can hold up to six electrons. Thus,
the second principal energy level can hold up to eight electrons, two
in the s orbital and six in the p orbital.
The third principal energy level has one s orbital, three p orbitals, and
five d orbitals, which can each hold up to 10 electrons. This allows for
a maximum of 18 electrons.
The fourth and higher levels have an f sublevel in addition to the s, p,
and d orbitals. The f sublevel contains seven f orbitals, which can each
hold up to 14 electrons. The total number of electrons in the fourth
principal energy level is 32.
 PRINCIPAL NUMBER OF ORBITALS NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
ENERGY LEVEL, n ORBITALS PER ORBITAL

1 1 s 2
2 2 s p 2 6
3 3 s p d 2 6 10
4 4 s p d f 2 6 10 14
Electron Notation
The notation used to indicate the type of energy level and the number of electrons in
that level has a coefficient for the number of the principal energy level, a letter for
the sublevel, and a superscript for the number of electrons located in that sublevel.
For example, the notation 4p3 indicates the fourth principal energy level, the p
sublevel, and the presence of three electrons in the p sublevel.
 An orbital diagram helps to determine the electron
configuration of an element. An element’s electron
configuration is the arrangement of the electrons in the
shells. There are a few guidelines for working out this
configuration:
1. Each orbital can hold only two electrons. Electrons that occur
together in an orbital are called an electron pair.
2. An electron will always try to enter the orbital with the lowest
energy.
3. An electron can occupy an orbital on its own, but it would rather
occupy a lower-energy orbital with another electron before occupying
a higher-energy orbital. In other words, within one energy level,
electrons will fill an s orbital before starting to fill p orbitals.
THE BUILDING-UP PRINCIPLE
The Aufbau principle determines an atom’s electron
configuration by adding electrons to atomic orbitals following
a defined set of rules.
Although the nucleus of an atom is very dense, the electrons around it
can take on a variety of positions which can be summarized as an
electron configuration. An element’s electron configuration can be
represented using energy level diagrams, or Aufbau diagrams. The
Aufbau principle (from the German Aufbau meaning “building up,
construction”) describes a model-building method in which an atom is
“built up” by progressively adding electrons. As electrons are added,
they assume the most stable shells with respect to the nucleus and the
electrons already present.
 Filling in an Aufbau Diagram
The order in which orbitals are filled is given by the Madelung rule. The
rule is based on the total number of nodes in the atomic orbital, n + ℓ,
which is related to the energy. In this context, n represents the
principal quantum number and ℓ represents the azimuthal quantum
number. The values ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3 correspond to the s, p, d, and f labels,
respectively. According to the principle, electrons fill orbitals starting
at the lowest available energy states before filling higher states (e.g., 1s
before 2s).

The Madelung rule defines the order in which

atomic orbitals are filled with electrons. Electrons
fill orbitals starting at the lowest available energy
state before filling higher states.
Filling in an
Aufbau
Diagram
The following steps detail how to draw an Aufbau diagram
1. Determine the number of electrons that the atom has.
2. Fill the s orbital in the first energy level (the 1s orbital) with
the first two electrons.
2. Fill the s orbital in the second energy level (the 2s orbital)
with the second two electrons.
3. Put one electron in each of the three p orbitals in the
second energy level (the 2p orbitals) and then if there are still
electrons remaining, go back and place a second electron in
each of the 2p orbitals to complete the electron pairs.
4. Continue in this way through each of the successive energy
levels until all the electrons have been drawn.
 Limitations to Aufbau
The Aufbau principle is based on the idea that the order of
orbital energies is fixed—both for a given element and
between different elements. This assumption is approximately
true—enough for the principle to be useful—but not physically
reasonable. It models atomic orbitals as “boxes” of fixed
energy into which at most two electrons can be placed.
However, the energy of an electron in an atomic orbital
depends on the energies of all the other electrons of the atom.
In general, the Aufbau principle works very well for the ground
states of the atoms for the first 18 elements, then
decreasingly well for the following 100 elements.
 Electron Configuration Standard
Notation
A special type of notation is used to write an
atom’s electron configuration. The notation
describes the energy levels, orbitals, and the
number of electrons in each. For example,
the electron configuration of lithium is
1s22s1. The number and letter describe the
energy level and orbital, and the number
above the orbital shows how many electrons
are in that orbital. Using standard notation,
the electron configuration of fluorine is
1s22s22p5.
 Electrons will fill the lowest energy orbitals first and then
move up to higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy
orbitals are full.. Although the implications are clear for
orbitals of different principal quantum number (n), which are
clearly of different energy, the filling order is less clear for
degenerate sublevels. For example, for boron through neon,
the electron filling order of the 2p orbitals follows Hund’s Rule.

Hund’s Rule states that:

Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital
is doubly occupied.
All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same
spin.
Diamagnetism
Any time two electrons share the same orbital, their spin quantum
numbers have to be different. In other words, one of the electrons has
to be “spin-up,”, while the other electron is “spin-down,” This is
important when it comes to determining the total spin in an electron
orbital. In order to decide whether electron spins cancel, add their spin
quantum numbers together. Whenever two electrons are paired
together in an orbital, or their total spin is 0, they are called
diamagnetic electrons.
Paramagnetism
Electrons that are alone in an orbital are called
paramagnetic electrons. Remember that if an electron is
alone in an orbital, the orbital has a net spin, because the
spin of the lone electron does not get canceled out. If even
one orbital has a net spin, the entire atom will have a net
spin. Therefore, an atom is considered to be paramagnetic
when it contains at least one paramagnetic electron. In
other words, an atom could have 10 paired (diamagnetic)
electrons, but as long as it also has one unpaired
(paramagnetic) electron, it is still considered a
paramagnetic atom.
 Periodic Trends
- Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the
periodic table that illustrate different aspects of a certain
element, including its size and its electronic properties.
- Periodic trends, arising from the arrangement of the periodic
table, provide chemists with an invaluable tool to quickly predict
an element's properties.
- These trends exist because of the similar atomic structure of
the elements within their respective group families or periods,
and because of the periodic nature of the elements.
Electronegativity
can be understood as a chemical property
describing an atom's ability to attract and bind
with electrons. Because electronegativity is a
qualitative property, there is no standardized
method for calculating electronegativity. However,
the most common scale for quantifying
electronegativity is the Pauling scale, named after
the chemist Linus Pauling. The numbers assigned
by the Pauling scale are dimensionless due to the
qualitative nature of electronegativity.
Electronegativity values for each element can be
found on certain periodic tables.
From left to right across a period of elements, electronegativity increases. If the
valence shell of an atom is less than half full, it requires less energy to lose an
electron than to gain one. If the valence shell is more than half full, it is easier to
pull an electron into the valence shell than to donate one.

From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases. This is because

atomic number increases down a group, and thus there is an increased distance
between the valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic radius.
 Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble gases,
lanthanides, and actinides. The noble gases possess a complete
valence shell and do not usually attract electrons. The lanthanides
and actinides possess more complicated chemistry that does not
generally follow any trends. Therefore, noble gases, lanthanides,
and actinides do not have electronegativity values.
As for the transition metals, although they have electronegativity
values, there is little variance among them across the period and
up and down a group. This is because their metallic properties
affect their ability to attract electrons as easily as the other
elements.
Ionization Energy
- is the energy required to remove an electron from a
neutral atom in its gaseous phase. Conceptually,
ionization energy is the opposite of electronegativity.
The lower this energy is, the more readily the atom
becomes a cation. Therefore, the higher this energy is,
the more unlikely it is that the atom becomes a cation.
Generally, elements on the right side of the periodic
table have a higher ionization energy because their
valence shell is nearly filled. Elements on the left side of
the periodic table have low ionization energies because
of their willingness to lose electrons and become
cations. Thus, ionization energy increases from left to
right on the periodic table.
 The ionization energy of the elements within a period generally increases
from left to right. This is due to valence shell stability.

The ionization energy of the elements within a group generally decreases from top
to bottom. This is due to electron shielding.
The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because of their full valence shells as
indicated in the graph. Note that helium has the highest ionization energy of all the elements.
 Electron Affinity
- is the ability of an atom to accept an electron. Unlike
electronegativity, electron affinity is a quantitative measurement of
the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a neutral
gas atom. The more negative the electron affinity value, the higher an
atom's affinity for electrons.
- Electron affinity increases from left to right within a period. This is
caused by the decrease in atomic radius.

- Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a group. This is

caused by the increase in atomic radius.
 ATOMIC RADIUS
- While the atomic radius can be defined in a number of different ways, the
general atomic radius trend across the periodic table holds true. The
atomic radius for atoms of an element tends to go up as you move down a
group of elements in the table. The atomic radius increases as you move
down a column because for every new row of the table a new electron shell
is added to the atom.
- Atomic radius decreases from left to right within a period. This is caused by
the increase in the number of protons and electrons across a period. One
proton has a greater effect than one electron; thus, electrons are pulled
towards the nucleus, resulting in a smaller radius.
Atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused
by electron shielding.
 Melting Point
- is the amount of energy required to break a bond(s) to change the solid
phase of a substance to a liquid. Generally, the stronger the bond between the
atoms of an element, the more energy required to break that bond. Because
temperature is directly proportional to energy, a high bond dissociation energy
correlates to a high temperature. Melting points are varied and do not
generally form a distinguishable trend across the periodic table.
Metals generally possess a high melting point.
Most non-metals possess low melting points.
The non-metal carbon possesses the highest melting point of all the elements.
The semi-metal boron also possesses a high melting point.
The Metallic Character
- of an element can be defined as how readily an atom can
lose an electron. From right to left across a period,
metallic character increases because the attraction
between valence electrons and the nucleus is weaker,
enabling an easier loss of electrons. Metallic character
increases as you move down a group because the atomic
size is increasing. When the atomic size increases, the
outer shells are farther away. The principal quantum
number increases and average electron density moves
farther from the nucleus. The electrons of the valence
shell have less attraction to the nucleus and, as a result,
can lose electrons more readily.
Metallic characteristics decrease from left to
right across a period. This is caused by the
decrease in radius of the atom that allows the
outer electrons to ionize more readily.

Metallic characteristics increase down a group.

Electron shielding causes the atomic radius to
increase thus the outer electrons ionizes more
readily than electrons in smaller atoms.

Metallic character relates to the ability to lose

electrons, and nonmetallic character relates to
the ability to gain electrons.
 ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
BY MAIN
ENERGY LEVEL
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION BY
MAIN ENERGY LEVEL
THE DISTRIBUTION OR ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS
IN THE ATOM’S SHELL.
ELECTRONS ARE DISTRIBUTED STARTING FROM THE
INNERMOST SHELL.
THERE ARE SEVEN SHELLS OR MAIN ENERGY LEVELS
WHICH ARE REPRESENTED BY EITHER SHELL LETTER
OR SHELL NUMBER.
 1
I KNOW AN ATOM
WHOSE ATOMIC
NUMBER IS 38.
 1
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s2
K SHELL 1s2 2 e-
L SHELL 2s2 2p6 8 e-
M SHELL 3s2 3p6 3d10 18 e-
N SHELL 4s2 4p6 8 e-
O SHELL 5s2 2 e-
PERIOD 5 GROUP IIA METAL Sr
 Psych e-
Fills MEL
2
I KNOW AN ATOM
WHOSE ATOMIC
NUMBER IS 33.
 2
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p3
K SHELL 1s2 2 e-
L SHELL 2s2 2p6 8 e-
M SHELL 3s2 3p6 3d10 18 e-
N SHELL 4s2 4p3 5 e-

PERIOD 4 GROUP VA NONMETAL As

 3
I KNOW AN ATOM
WHOSE ATOMIC
NUMBER IS 20.
 3
1s22s22p63s23p64s2
K SHELL 1s2 2 e-
L SHELL 2s2 2p6 8 e-
M SHELL 3s2 3p6 8 e-
N SHELL 4s2 2 e-

PERIOD 4 GROUP IIA METAL Ca

 4
I KNOW AN ATOM
WHOSE ATOMIC
NUMBER IS 17.
 4
1s22s22p63s23p5
K SHELL 1s2 2 e-
L SHELL 2s2 2p6 8 e-
M SHELL 3s2 3p5 7 e-

PERIOD 3 GROUP VIIA

NONMETAL Cl
 5
I KNOW AN ATOM
WHOSE ATOMIC
NUMBER IS 11.
 5
1s22s22p63s1
K SHELL 1s2 2 e-
L SHELL 2s2 2p6 8 e-
M SHELL 3s1 1 e-

PERIOD 3 GROUP IA
METAL Na
 6
I KNOW AN ATOM
WHOSE ATOMIC
NUMBER IS 10.
 6
1s22s22p6
K SHELL 1s2 2 e-
L SHELL 2s2 2p6 8 e-

PERIOD 2 GROUP VIIIA

NOBLE GAS Ne
 7
I KNOW AN ATOM
WHOSE ATOMIC
NUMBER IS 3.
 7
1s22s1
K SHELL 1s2 2 e-
L SHELL 2s1 1 e-

PERIOD 2 GROUP IA
METAL Li
 GIVE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF THE
FOLLOWING ELEMENTS, GIVE
THE PERIOD NUMBER AND
GROUP NUMBER TO WHERE IT
BELONGS THEN DETERMINE
WHETHER IT IS A METAL OR A
NONMETAL
 OXYGEN O 2, 6 P 2 G VIA
BERYLLIUM Be 2, 2 P 2 G IIA
IODINE I 2, 8, 18, 18, 7 P 5 G VIIA
SULFUR S 2, 8, 6 P 3 G VIA
BARIUM Ba 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 P 6 G IIA
CARBON C 2, 4 P 2 G IVA
POTASSIUM K 2, 8, 8, 1 P 4 G IA