of Predat Its on ·, "'"I tit;..

_
Producers ors. th •• Ch hi~.
Bottom-up co ~roposes thatioP· e ablJ
ntrol (Plants) dov,n !\Qar-t,.
T o p -d o w n co limited b Pl
n tr o l] y herb · ant b·IOll)-
¼ritrc.1 •
herbivores ivores a ass I~
Predators. are rirn . r\C! th·
Thus, th e t oP-down co n tr o l p o st u la ,tf!d b,I :t
te s th a t th e co
. n tr o l o f each
main 1y pre dation th a t controls th e . . tr o p h ic level co
a cc u m u la tio n me f
. h . tu rn lim it o f b io m
wh 1c in plants, which . .
in tu rn lrmrt n . a ss a t lo w e r tr o p h ic leve s rom the tr0
ls b
ich th e o ry is correct?
u tr ie n t levels
th ro u g h ecause PredaPhic IE:l 1_,
So, Wh ·1 th e ir up ta ke d . e c~~,
emphasize th a
Whr e recognrz . rn
. g th d .f f tors hrn,th. i:. ~.
t both b o tt o m e I erences etw b unng gr owth
-u p and to p -d een these two •~1;.,.~
o w n co n tr o l f t and
regulatory cont
rol. There is ev re p re se n t e xt re ac .
ors It is I rE:pr0~ ""'""'
. id en ce fr o m m a n y m e s along a co t· ' w~
but th a t neither ecosystem stu a so irnPcj"- .
control 1s co m n in
p le te . Because d ie s th a t bo th controls are uurn of 1. IGi.tt:i
we must unde b o th o f these Operat1.ng rnPortc-~ ,.
rstand th e re la co n tr o ls are operating to so
tiv e im p o rt a n in any syst •~.-
behave or chan ce o f each co
ge u n d e r d if fe n tr o l in o rd e r rr ~~
ern at any t1rr ""I -~
re n t circumsta to help us to pr
nces, such as edict h
in th e face o f
a changing clim ow an eco •e,r~(;
ate. SVstc~ ~
5.5 Types o f Ecosy
stems
Ecosystems ar
e o f d iff e re n t
types. These
can be a rt ifi ci
A. Natural ec a lly categorized
osyste as ·follows:
m
1. T er re st ri al ec
os ys te m , such
as forest, gras
A forest is an sland, desert.
ecosystem with
a high density
A grassland is o f trees and o
an ecosystem th e r woody ve
w he re the vegetation getation.
plants. Grassla is dominated by
nds occur in re grasses and ot
herbaceous pl gions th a t are her herbaceous
ant canopy th too dr y fo r fore (non-woody)
a t is lacking in st s b u t th a t have
~eserts.. sufficient soil w
ater to support a
 rt is an ecosystem that rec .
dese e1ves an
A owth of most plants. Deserts a extrerne1y low [coloµy 63\
tile gr re defined arnount of
·irrneters per year, or as areas Where as areas With Precipitation, less lha
rt1~ more Water I an average a n enough Lo support
tic ecosystem, which may be furth s lost by evapot nnual precipitation of less than 250
p.qua er distlng I ransplrauon th r
z. - .. water ecosystem (such as lake u shed on lhe ba an alls as precipitation .
fres" ' P 0nd ) has ve 1
s s or salt conte
rine ecosystem (such as ocean, estuaries) h ry low salt content (0 s nl as.
r,1a as very high · PPL or less) .
. salt cont
•ficial or domes t 1cated ecosystem ent (35 ppl or less)
p,.rtl I •
8- are maintained artificially by ma b
,llese -- . n y the addition
. field etc., where man tries to control th . . of energy, Fo
nee e b1ot1c communit r example croplands llke maize wheat
Y as well as th h . , ,
e p ys,co-chemical environment.
Aquatic ecosystem
5,5.l
atic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a b d
An aqu . o Y of water Aquat'
sis of whether the water is_moving (streams, rivers) .. ,c ecosystems are commonly categorized on the
ba ..-- . t or still (ponds I k -
,hrackish. Aquatic ecosys ems are generally divided . . , a es) and whether the water ,s fresh, saline
o~ . into two maJor ty b . . - -
tile freshwater ecosystem. Manne ecosyst 2.:_s ased on salinity - the marine ecosystem
an d~..:.:,.:;;;;.;..--- - ems cover over 70 -
~ c e c ~ s of the Earth. Freshwater e percent of the Earth's surface and ar~ e s t
~ .., --~· cosystems include .
r about 2 percent of the Earth's surface Th lakeS, ponds, rivers, streams and springs and
cov~ - · ese ecosystems ca b ct· • . .
0¥1n COotra :::;:;; as la~ond) and lotic ecosystems (flow· n e ,v,ded into lent1c ecosystems (still water
~ ing water such as a river).
Poses~
ity limits~
'Whlch1n
Marine ecosystems
abundarQ Marine ecosystems are aquatic ecosystems whose waters possess h. h
ncontroi . a 19 sa 1t content. Out of all of the types of
ecosystems on the planet, m_anne ecosystems are the most prevalent 5 · t· t h
lomass~ . . c1en 1s s ave c1ass,'fi ed manne
. ecosystems
into different categories such as open ocean ecosystem , ocean floor ecos ys t
and that em, es t uary ecosystem; however,
by categories aren't always clearly defined, so some categories may overlap or envelope other categories.
Oceans represent the largest and the most diverse type of ecosystem. Oceans can be divided into numerous regions

iclev~alxrt!.h
limit~
-
depending on the physical and biological conditions. Ocean environment is generaliy classified on the basis oTiight
penetration (euphotic, disphotic and aphotic zones), distance from shore and water depth (littoral or inte~,
neritic and oceanic zones) and whether it is open water (pelagic zone; zone neither close to the bottom nor near
-
and reprodlKtDt the shore) or bottom (benthic zones).

alsoim~ID The littoral zone (or inter-tidal zone) is the shoreline between land and ocean. The neritic zone is the shallow water

of importara ' ~over the continental shelf, a wate; depth of about 200 meters. The oceanic zone is the deep-water zone beyond
th e continental shelf. The open ocean is called the pelagic zone. Th; pelagic zone is further subdivided into nve
gtosome~
....,11¢
atanyb11.., _, ~ zones. From the s~ace to about 200 meters is the epipelagic zone (or sunlight zone).crlu,s is the region
where the photosynthesis most commonly occurs and therefore contains the largest biodiversity; From 200 to 1000
an~
meters is the mesopelagic zone (also known as twilight zone or midwater zone), where little light penetrates. Below
lhe mesopelagic, water depth from 1000 to 4000 meters is the bathypelagic zone (also known as midnight zone
0rd
ark zone), where darkness is virt~lly complete. After bathypelagic zone is abyssopelaglc zone (simply as the
:~Yss), down to a water depth of 6000 meters. The water temperature is near freezing, and there Is no light at
· Water deepe th f d . d p trenches is termed the hadalpelaglc zone. It represents the
de r an 6000 meters, oun in ee ,
epest p -
- arts of the ocean.
lhe benthic zone d . h extending from the shoreline to the deep seaftoor. The benthic
loo escnbes the bottom oft e ocean,
e rnay includ t s below water surface or may be at the more than 6000 meter
~o e areas that are only a few me er
rn Water surfa . . . . b d on their depth from the shallowest to the deepest - nearshore
loo ce. It 1s d1v1ded into zones ase
~- es (littoral a d . ( to 2 1 ooo
meters, abyssal zone (2,000 to 6,000 meters) and
·ioc1a, n sub-littoral), bathyal zone 200
zone (
over 6,000 meters deep).
 632 Ecology
Poluglc 10111,
r - - - -

Ht9h wfltC'f:--.,
, ---,,
Llttor.:il zone Ncnllc zone
--,
Oco111,1c 101w

Lplpolnolc ,onr ( <,1111/111/11 ·on,•)

Nearsho re zone ........ •......... •·•• 100 Cu~t,,,1,.
Mt'50IH' I0(1 I l ,unu ( /W//ly/11 J'OIIO) ...... "- 'tl<\o

D,,Pl\()\I{,
Bathyal zone
............. ··~ IOQ•
,,,,._ '~
Datl1ypclaglc 10ne (Mldnlg/Jt ?on,:,)

........ . ...................... 4000 ., ,. Ap%llc '°'1<!

Abyssal zone pe
Abyssopelaglc zone (Abyss)
co~
I ree
cora d
sl'a\\O.,,, d
es
speO r
(:Or3\S,
Fgure 5 9 zonation in marine ecosystem according to depth and the light availability. The benthlc zon d
r • . e escrlbes the co•~""\s a
bottom of the ocean, extending from the shoreline to the deep seafloor. ~own•
Ea'" so
Hot hydrothermal vents ~e\eto
Hot hydrothermal vents are found on the ocean floor, in regions where the ocean floor is spreading and are associated ,eef-bU
with gradual upwelling of mineral - rich fluid from the Earth's interior. Moving Earth's crust creates cracks and crevices blli\diO
in the ocean floor. These cracks allow the sea water to percolate downwards. Seawater that percolates downward ossues
toward the hot molten rock is heated and driven back upward, carrying minerals leached from the hot rock. On depths
ocean floor, these minerals solidify as they cool, forming chimney-like structures. or col
There are two main types of chimneys or hydrothermal vents - Black smokers and white smokers. Black smokers tile C
(emit a cloud of black materials) are chimneys formed from deposits of mainly iron sulfide, which is black. White tiast
smokers (emit a cloud of white materials) are chimneys formed from deposition of barium, calcium and silicon, tihen
which are white. A temperature gradient is set up, from more than 350°C near the core of the vent, down to 2-3°c the d
in the surrounding ocean.
Estu
Sea An E

bod
Black smoker
and
sa\1
fre
+-- Chimney made from
precipitated minerals Sa
th
Oceanic crust

Magma
700-1200°C

. d th hot molten rock upwelhng

Figure 5.10 A hot hydrothermal vent in the ocean floor. Water percolates down towar e Is
. . . d f m the hot rock. M1nera
from the Earth's interior and is heated and driven back upward, carrying minerals leache ro
. . . . t up from more than 350
oc
prec1p1tate from the water as It cools, forming a chimney. A temperature gradient is se ' . . t d'fferent
. I of organisms, thriving a i
near the core of the vent, down to 2-3°C in the surrounding ocean. Different c asses b t 1 so 0 c,
t t mperatures up to a ou
temperatures, live in different neighborhoods of the chimney. Close to the vent, a e
various chemoautotroph1c species of bacteria live, directly fuelled by geochemical energy.
 Mun Y types of organism
various chemoa s coexist ne-
t emperatures and utotrophf c species i:.lr
or the. h YcJrothcrmu1 v,. 1, ,,logy 633
vent ecos . . pressures lo buc.t(:rln live . ntu, Clo•,IJ to the""
0

YSlem, the specl ' Xie minerals . ' cllrcclly fu,'if,,d b· ·nt, i,t tcmp,•raturcs up tn about 1 so c,
The basl s o f the ecosy t es llvlng t hcrp ar" 'lliJnd lack' or sunlloht· th ·I geochr•r 1
· n1r.:J cn,!rg / , oesp,te the e.1,treme
u e, to prod s ems Is chemoaut - 1rfvlng · <ll charKl
' uri,cd th'.! d'.!cp-s'!a hydrothermal
S 'fid
uce organic - . otrophic b·
under the crust, Is brou materials (carboh uctcrlo . ThPst• b<1ctt•rl<1 u ,.
could not exist p Qht up In the Vc>nt ydratcs) by lhP Pro • L sulfur c.ornpllunds, partlcular1/ h1drogen
giant tube · rlmary consumers In thwater'.· With out these b· C'!S5 l or chem o"ynthc•sls.
r
Hydrogen sulftde, found
. worms (Rift/a Pachyptlfa) h c eco system depend ac crla ' the,,..nure cco-;y~trm of htdrothermal vents
th e bac t erra for en ergy. Giant t u be worm ave col onles of th _ on these b·uct er1a for food Mc,n'/ animals, lilt'.! the
s have no mo th ese bacteria Ins Id c their body c,nd use the sugars made by
u or stomach th
Coral reefs ecosystem 'so ey ace fully dependent on the bacte'1•-

Cora/ reefs are a special su btype of oc

shallow depths,
cies de d coral reefs are among the eanmost
floor ecosyste m. Found only In warm tropical waters and at relative\'{
sPe pen on coral r ee f s for food sh It productive ecosystems on the planet. About one-quarter of marine -
corals, reefs are often ca 11 ed the 'rain~o' e er or both · Because of the diversity found In the habitats created by
rests of the '
Corals are marine invertebrat . sea.
known. Most structures that w es in the
, class Anth ozoa of phylum Cnidana. More than 6 000 species of coral are 5
e call coral' are . ,
Each soft-bodied polyp secretes h ' in fact, made up of hundreds to thousands of tiny coral pol f P •
skeletons of other polyps Altha h
·
a ard outer skelet
.
f
°
-
on calcium carbonate that attaches either to rock or the ea
d d
ug vanous types of 1 00
reef-building corals are gene f cora scan be found from the water's surface to depths of 60 rn,
bullding corals is their mut rar 11 Y. ound at depths of Iess than 45 m. One fascinating feature of shallow water, ree th
f-
. f b . ~a 'st'c relationship with photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae, which live in eir
. . - ullding corals have a symb1ot1c
t issues. 8 ecause ree • - relationship with algal cells, their distribution is hmited
· · to
.
depths where sufficient solar radiation · is avai·1able to support photosynthesis. Deep-sea corals occur in much deeper
or colder oceanic waters and lack zooxan th e11 ae. The coral provides the algae with a protected environment · an d
the compounds they need for photosynthesis. In return, the algae produce oxygen and help the coral to remove
wastes. Precipitation of calcium from the water is necessary to form the coral skeleton. This precipitation occurs
when water temperature and salinity are high and carbon dioxide concentrations are low. These requirements limit
the distribution of reef-building corals to the shallow, warm tropical waters (20°C to 28°C).

Estuary
An estuary (from Latin word means tide) is a transition area between river and sea. It is a semi-enclosed coastal
body of water where freshwater from land runoff mixes with seawater. These areas of transition between the land
and the sea are driven by tides but sheltered from the full force of ocean wind and waves. When freshwater meets
salty seawater, both water combines into a brackish mixture. At estuary, salinity is intermediate between salt- and
fresh water. However, salinity varies spatially within estuaries, from nearly that of freshwater to that of seawater.
Salinity also varies with the rise and fall of the tides. Estuaries are among the most productive ecosystems in

th e world and are home to unique plant and animal communities that have adapted to brackish water. However,
estuar' es are not only found where freshwater from rivers
· an d sa It wa t er f ram the ocean meet and mix. There
1
· ·1 ar characteristics to the traditional
are also several types of entirely freshwater ecosystems th a t h ave many s1m1
· a Iso prov1.d e many o f the ecosystem services and funct·
brackish water estuaries These freshwater estuaries
that bra . · 10ns
ck,sh estuaries do.

Freshw
I ater ecosystem
nfreshwat
lakes . .
er, the average salinity is 0.5 ppt or less 1.e., very low salt content. It exists . .
~
, nvers . . in vanous forms s h
as II rnnoro' P0nds and wetlands. The study of the physical, . biological propert",es of freshwater . uc
. chemical and f as
9Y. Freshwater ecosystems include both running water (lot1c ecosystem) or still . water (lent·,c is re erred
ecosystem).
634 [ colufW
ern (also ctillcd t110 rlvl'rlno ccosy'> l uin) c; 111 bO
A 1otlc ecosys t .iny I< Incl ol 111
. 1 A lentlc ecosystem (also Culled llw IU CU&lrln ov1n11 W1tl.
channel o, strean . o •~ro'lystorn) ('Ill ti II ,, u bocl,.,, sue.ti o11 , lv~r s
as pond or lake, Yor r.tc1nc1in ti W,ttcr
' Prlnq,
•
• U{h

Lake . nd body of standing water that Is usually larger and deepe lh

A lake 1s an 1n1a r i.1n u pond
. arate zones which are defined by their distance from the sh · Ultc un ocec.1n I11 k
divided into sep , ore. The lltto ' " is ats0
Is host to a wide variety of rooted plants species due to Its warm h ral £one, Which Is
to the s ore, . , s allow cnviro closest
h the species diversity Is concentrated rn the littoral zone near th h nmcnt. In lake
ponds, muc h Of ' e s ore. The llmne . s anel
. the open water farther from shore and Is dominated by planktons · The deeper region of a tic 2onc (Pela 91c
zone 1s 1
)
. tc zone is called the profundal zone which contains only heterotrophs. The 2 one at the bottoake below the
1mne I
I m ofTha lake rs
t ermed benthic. The benthic zone is occupied by communities of organisms collectively call ed t he benthos
benthic and benthos are derived from .the Greek for depths of the sea, but the terms are a1so used in ·fresh e terms
biology to refer to the zone and organisms at the bottom of freshwater bodies. water

Lakes are divided into photic and aphotic zones. on the basis. of . penetration
. light . . The photic 20 ne ( euphotic zone or
sunlight zone) is the uppermost layer of water
. rn a lake that 1s illuminated with sunlight. The depth of th e phot1c
. zone
depends on light intensity and water .clarity. The portion of a lake where
. there is little or no sunlight penetrates is
called aphotic zone. It is formally defined as the depths beyond which less than 1 % of sunlight penetrate S. L'1ght IS
a primary factor limiting primary productivity in aquatic ecosystems. Intensity of photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) declines exponentially with water depth in the photic zone. Hence, photosynthetic rate (production) by
photosynthetic organisms declines with depth in photic zone, whereas, rate of respiration (light independent process)
is relatively constant with depth. The depth of photic zone at which photosynthetic rate is equal to respiration rate
(P/R = 1) is called the compensation depth. Above compensation depth, photosynthetic rate is greater than respiration
rate (P/R > 1), whereas below compensation depth respiration rate is greater than photosynthetic rate (P/R < 1).

.. . .
Photic zone
(Lighted portion
] of a lake)

Benthic zone

Figure 5.11 The zones In lake water are det ermined by gradients of light from the water surface to the bottom.

Life-forms in a lake ecosystem Incl ude producers cons I

types · rooted or large floating t ' umers and decomposers. The producers may be of two ma n
I s (macrophytes)
Pan 11
usually algae called phytoplankt di genera Y growing In shallow water; and minute floating plants,
on, strlbuted throughout the lak
Life-forms In a lake ecosyste e as deep as light penetrates.
m can aIso be categorized as la .
organisms, such as fish), benthos (botto -d P nkton (free-floating organisms), nekton (free-swimming
m welling organism)
float on the top of the water, epineuston I' . ' neuSlon (the collective term for the organisms that
Or ive right under the surf .
attached to submerged surfaces). ace, hyponeuston) and periphyton (organisms
 tratlflcatlon 1, , ,I, •KY h \'\
1115
cf111 rt,e temperature profile with deptt 1
111 es 111 , n on uquou
t19 e regions generally become lhurm c syc,\un, ,1tu ml
Cf1 8.,,,perat d 1119 summer has I Olly SllOlfflud clue l ll'LI //Jr,11n.1/ •,l1111//1r111/on I tr",hW<1lcr l11kc~
fft
•' erate Ia1<e ur A du nyeroffrc c Y clrculolfnn Otflflc:1"nli1II
I 1 ,a,.tfnq ,11111 r0Oll11q /\ well i;tr,1tlfl•~d
,11P t,e epfllmn Ion . secon lnyer Culled "w,11 n, 'illl f ' ic t• W1Jll'1 with ~.,nnlf t1•111p1 r.ilurn 9rn<J1enl
ti? fl as t t h motollninlon (
~ no'~ e ,n te n,perature, sepnra es l c more u n irormly wa, o, t11 011110 cl/ ,w, ) which 1,. thur.itlP1l/f'll by;, st,.r•p
ei;l1fl
o r,irO fayer Is the hypollmnlon, a dee P, cold layer of d~ m upper loy<,r r.I om mo, r uniformly rnlcl dl'ep,., w.it<•rs ,
,,. r
,,,e c1,ne checks the mixing of water b etween eplllm cnse w,:ilc, wh ere
, no lrmpN,1lurt qrnc1I,•nl Is evident .
I
,,,- ,al0 tratr Fi c at,on ,s not observed ·
~f1r, n on ond hypolf mn 1on. In lre•,hwalor lotlc cc.o'",ystcms,
5
t~e(11

Temperature (•C) 1
Density (kg/m )
0 5 10 15 20 1000 999 1')<;)8
Eplflmnion
Warm, low-density, surface waters
Wnrm,
low-donslty wn11,r
Thermocline
Zone of rapid temperature change -;:-
~
.,
E
C
.;::.

Hypolimnion
-s.,
Q.

Cold, high -density deep waters C Cold,

hlgh•dcnslly wntcr

(a) (b}

.
figure 5· 12 Temperature and density profiles with water depth for a temperate lake during summer. (a) The region
oft he vertical depth profile where the temperat ure dec 1·mes most rapidly Is called the thermocllne. The thermocline
.,s oc ated between an _upper ..
_ layer of warm ' less dense wa t er called the ep1l1mnion and a deeper layer of cold, denser
1
water called the hypoltmnion. (b) The rapid decline in temperature In the thermocline results In a distinct difference In
water density in the warmer epi_limnion as compared to the cooler waters of the hypolimnlon, leading to a two-layer
density profile-warm, low-density surface water and cold, high-density deep water.

seasonal changes in water temperature

The temperature profile of a deep-water lake of temperate region changes from one season to the next and creates
acyclic pattern. Due to seasonal variation in the input of solar radiation to the water surface give rise to seasonal
changes in the vertical profile of temperature.
Let us begin with spring season. Aher the ice melts on a lake, the lake water is generally has the same temperature
~om the surface to the bottom. It allows circulation and mixing of the lake water. Surface water can be pushed to
the lake bottom and bottom water can rise to the surface. This circulation pattern allows large amounts of oxygen
to reach the bottom of the lake. The mixing of the lake water at this time of year is called spring overturn.
As air temperature rises in summer, heat from the Sun begins to warm the lake. The layer of warm water at the
surface of the lake is called the epilimnion. The cold layer below the epilimnion is called the hypolimnion. These
two layers are separated by a layer of water which rapidly changes temperature with depth. This is called the
ermoc/ine (or metalimnion). Stratification during the summer acts as a deterrent to complete lake mixing. Wind
rculates the surface water, but the warm water of the epilimnion is unable to move through the cold, dense water
·
. As a result, the water is only mixed
f the hyp 011· mnion. ·in the epi·1·imnion.
·

ttumn (fall) approaches and temperature decreases, the epilimnion begins to decrease in depth. Eventually, th
''ninion gets so shallow that it can no longer be maintained as a separate layer and the lake loses its stratification
· the spring, the lake water in the autumn has genera 11 Y urn'f orm t empera t ures an d wind
us, as ,n · can once agai
roughly mix the lake water. In addition, surface water, which is in direct contact with the cold air, gets cool
 nd again more oxygen
faster tt1an the waler below. This cold, dense w.ilcr c:,lnkc:, .:ind further helps to mix the lake, a
and nutrients a, e rcph!nished throughout the lake I hi'> proces!. Is called autumn overturn.
As winter approaches, the surface wJte, Is eventually cooled below 4°C, As water temperature at the Surface
reaches 0°C, tee begins to cover the surface of the take. During the winter, Ice cover prevents wind from mixing
the lake water. Again, stratification occurs but the pattern Is reversed (inverse stratification); cold water rests over
warm water. A layer of water colder than 4°C I but warmer than 0°C forms just under the ice. Below this waterI th e
remainder of lake water is usually near 4°c.
Due to the relatively constant input of solar radiation to the water surface throughout th e year (the absence of
seasonality), the thermocline is a permanent feature of lakes present in tropical regions. Similarly, ponds often
show little thermal stratification during the summer due to their shallow depth, which facilitates wind-mediated
water circulation.

- 22°c
Epllimnion - 20°C

Thermocllne

- 4°C

(c) Summer stratification

\
(b) Spring overturn, No stratification
(d) Autumn overturn, No stratification

l
Ice cover /
(a) Winter stratificati on

Figure 5.13 The seasonal cycle of water temperatu re (In oc) I

along with temperature profiles with depth for each season. (a~ ;h::~erate take. Cross section of a temperate lake
melts in the spring, the cold water again sinks and mixes the lake. (c) In :h surface freezes In winter. (b) When the ice
surface, and water temperature decreases with depth. (d) Cold air te e summer, the warmest water occurs at the
and this dense cold water sinks, thoroughly mixing th e Iake. mperatures In the autumn cool the upper layers

Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodi es h -~

. . ' sue as takes, ponds r . ----------
nitrogen and phosphorus contain ing compounds) that ti ' eceive excess inorgani .
. . s mu ate excessive I
1 c nutrients (mainly
the population of algae tn an aquatic system Is called P ant and algal growth A . .
. . an aIgal bloom. Algal bl · rapid increase in
as marine environments. Eutrophication can be natural
. . or cu 1tural eutrophication
0
ms may °
occur • f
in reshwater as well
Natural eutroph1cat1on: It Is a natural ageing process It ·
. . .
occurs as lakes a d
jiments. It 1s a process that occurs in all lakes over time as th
'
n POnds age and
e weathering of ro k
.
are filled m with sed-
L_ _____________________ _____ c. and 5 soils f
rom the surrounding
- -
 ieads to an uc
cu mu lal lon or
!l'enl are<! tcr nu tri en ts ,rn d
bo die s, the na ll'. .So cln tcd sc
[(fl 11e wa tur al ag ing of dir nc nt! I In th
e wa ler . O~ pe
Cl o wa ter bo dy
.ireo fl ca t1 ~ · It oc cu rs du mo y sp on hu nd
re ds of ye arn
nd lng on c.l lm
ate ,
~ · ~I cutr<>P 111 o .. • e lo ex ce ss ive .
tri en dls c.h arq c of
1tu'' . 1es Nu ts ca n co me fro lnor9<1nlc. nu tri en
CU ct11 1 m ma ny so ur ce s, ts Int o th e v1
""'11 8 1 t • rgc s. Ex ce ss ive su ch as fcr t,II
Le rs ap pll ed to
llt .. r boo1es
- du e to
!"JI'.- ,11 1 plan t dis ch a alg al gr ow th
ev en tua ag rlc .ul tur al fle
tii'~ d ox yg en In the wa te r De pe nd ing lly lea ds to de ath ldr . an d t.e v,a
an d de co mp os ge
tit3 d.s,501ve on th e de gr ee itio n of alg ae
~ - ch as anox1. an d se ve re re du cti on s In of eu tro ph lca
llo n su bs eq ue wh ich rc -
a aq ua tic an im , nt ne ga Uv e en
tl~~u al po pu lat ion
s ma y oc cu r. vir on me nt al

\e1larids th at ar e inu nd at
1 ed or sa tu ra te
_.,,ndS are area 5 nd d by su rfa ce or
'l\·ei~ and th at u er no rm al co nd iti on s do gr ou nd wa te r at
su pp or t, a pr ev a fre qu en cy an
to su PpO rt, al en ce of ve ge d du ra tio n su ffi
. cond .
itio n
s' ta tio n ty pi ca lly cie nt
wrated 501 1 ad ap te d to life
,n
s-l co st ms in wh ich th e la nd su rfa ce
iands are e sy e is sa tu ra te d or
,e
1 l
These ec osystems ar e tra ns iti on
al be tw ee n te rre
co ve re d wi th st
an di ng wa te r ei
easonallY• st ria l an d aq ua th er pe rm an en
rJ s near the su rtace or th e la nd is co ve re tic sy st em s wh tly
ually at or d by sh al lo w wa er e th e wa te r ta bl e Is .
uS or brack1.s h . Brackish wa te r ha s m or te r. Th e wa te r
fo un d in we
1reshwater e sa lin ity th an fre tla nd s ca n be sa ltw
. hlp es of we sh wa te r, bu t no at er ,
f ur tla nd s: m ar sh , t as m uc h as se
niere are O rnaJor ,, sw am p, bo gs
an
a wa te r.
re hydro Iogy, typ e of ve ge ta tio d fe n. Th re e m aj or fe
~etlands a n an d ty pe of at ur es us ed to
so il. Hy dr ol og de sc nb e th e
ent of water.. d'r ect pr ec ip ita tio
n, flo od in
y ha s tw o co m
po ne .
nt s. On e in vo lve
f\10vein I g an d gr ou nd wa te r. Th
. fre quency and se e ot he r co m po . s ph ys ica l
\ves duration, ason of flo od in ne nt Is th e hy dr .
~vo g. op en od , wh ich
are the mos t pr od uc tiv e we tla nd s
i,1arshes. ch ar ac te riz ed
by m in er al so
dfloating-leave d plants. sw am ps ar e fo re ils an d ar e ty pi
ca lly do m in at
an st ed we tla nd s ch ed by gr as se s
d ·na
f,ooded, and om1 ted by tre es . Th us , ar ac te riz ed by
gr as se s do m in m in er al so il, se
at e m ar sh es , as on al ly or pe
wh ile tre es do rm an en tly
sogs and fens are organic soil we tla nd m in at e sw am ps
s. Or ga ni c so il .
is pr od uc ed by th e ac cu
\llese weti an ds are referred to as pe at /a m ul at io n of pl
nd s du e to th ei an t m at er ia ls .
\llat develop in relat r ab ilit y to fo rm Ge ne ra lly ,
ively cool bu t we pe at . Bo gs ar e
groundwater. lt depe t cli m at es . Bo gs ac id ic, un pr od
nds on ra in wa te re ce ive wa te r ex clu siv el y uc tiv e we tla nd s
r fo r th ei r su pp fro m ra in fa ll,
has ver y po or nu tri en t lev el. Th ly of nu tri en ts . Si nc e ra in wa no t fro m st re am s or
009 e do m in an t sp
ec ie s in bo gs ar te r ha s ve ry lit
r?Ceivmg water mostl e m os se s. Fe ns tle nu tri en t co
y fro m su rfa ce nt en t
an d gr ou nd wa ar e al ka lin e ra
te r so ur ce s . th er th an ac id
ar ea s
( Box. 5.1 Bioaccumulatio
n, bi oc on ce nt
ra tio n an d bi om
ag nl fic at io n
Btoaccumulation, bio
concentration an
d bi om ag ni fic at
accumulation of a ch io n ar e di st in ct
emical in an or ph en om en a. Bi
ga ni sm by all oa cc um ul at io n
dermal absorption an ro ut es of ex po is th e in ta ke an
d dietary ab so rp su re in clu di ng d
tio n. Bi oc on ce nt ra tio tra ns po rt ac ro ss re
only through its resp n is th e in ta ke an sp ira to ry su rfa ce
iratory and de rm d ac cu m ul at io n s,
al su rfa ce s. of a ch em ica l 1r1
Siomagnification is an or ga m sm
the bio ac cu m ula
~ve trophic levels It tio n of ch em ica
ls in or ga ni sm
9l'ien tro . · _ occurs w hen . . s in in cr ea sin gl
y hi gh er co nc
phic level th e ch em ica l Is en te re d m . en tra tio ns at su
trO\lh' _ is to th e fo od ch am . cces-
pr
ic 1evels ingest a oduced fro m a m uc h la . lt oc cu rs be ca
~sues Bl . 'fl . rg er bi om as s in ge st us e th e bi.om as s
signi ca nt bi om ed fro m th e le at an y
· om as s pr es en t at ve l be lo w. Co
lhat harmed agnificatio • lo we r le ve ls, al
on
ns um er s at hi
gh er
n oc g wi th th e fa t so
\ii top-level earn curs In bo th aq ua tic an d te rre lu bl e po llu ta nt
s st or ed in th ei
ra1 Pests . st ria l ha bi ta ts
. An in fa m ou s r
fJS • One of the fir ivo re s m vo lve d DDT, a ca se of bi ol og ica
Preys and ea st . ch em ica l us ed l m ag ni fic at io n
signs th at DDT to co nt ro l In se ct s su ch
ki\erj gI wa s a se rio us as m os qu ito es .
ered With thes, birds th t f en vi ro n m en ta an d ag nc ul -
_ a ee l pr ob le m wa s a de
J lltthe e deposition f d at th e to p of fo od we bs clm e in th e po
pu la tio ns of
Parents brok O 1· · . Th e ac cu m ul
ca ciu m 1n - at io n of DDT
e the sh ells of th ei r eg gs he lls . W he n th In th e tis su es
~c of th es e bi rd s
t e ff d eg gs ,
es e bi rd s tri ed
to In cu ba te th
re su ltm g in ca ei r eg gs , th e we
ta st ro ph ic de cli ig ht
ne s in re pr od uc
tio n ra te s.
- -~ - - -- ~ -
 6.\S h
• I ., o~p (l•l\1
,
n•rrr:itri.t '· t re round onl y on lon d.
c;}. .. thOSC ll\tl D The ~cy to th
• <) 5tt111s nro
'OIIV mco ns ony thln g occ urri ng on lan (l tneantn
rcrr strtal e-.~
c , ~hlCh gcnci
•tcrrtstnnl,'
_...4
d "l'"L
' ' 11
g 01 tc 1,
tM ,W' " ,, , n,odc up
of living org ani sm s and
non -liv ing obJe,..~"ref or e, -u~...,
n tcroct ng S).-Sh.:n t terr est rial .. \.:) OCcu I
lcr rt~ ~
to tf\C , rf oCC belongs o eco sys tem s. r.a ~
of tr,t (:3rttl'S SU tr rtg On la~ I
Ck , 'h
~
· t -o, \ !il(' fll
h,n ·, t 1.. •' '
15 8
eomptex ecosys tern which is predom inantly com posed of trees
A fore~ h cta and shrubs
ore ttian o. 5 e res wit h trees higher t han 5 m et ers and a ca nop
sponntn9 m . · It
does not mdu e
d land t hat is pre dom ina .
ntly und er agn cul tura t or • Y cov er of rn • ts defi:
- ~ as.
FAO). It urb a °,e than
f . 1
~a l ecosys tem o Earth and are dis trib ute d across t he glo be. Forests n anci use F0
a
10 Pe: ~., ·.c
a · rests are
te!T'E?5 E rth's biosphere and con t ccount for 75% ..._ ~
roductw lty of the a ain 80% of the Ear th's pla
nt bio .. ie ~
P mass. Based of th~ g·oss ~.
can be very den se forest (all lands with tree cov er of can opy den sity O ti:":-
of 70% and bo
t ee
(all lands w,t h r cover of canopy density bet wee n 40% and 70% a ve) mOndec:a aouy ~er, ,~iay
abo ve) and op ,
d nsit
of can opy e y between 10% and 40% ). For est typ es diff er wid
. ' rate
en ,orest (all la ds ty-detise 'Ore ~
. d ely det erm ined b
tt
per atu re rainfall pat tern s and . n Wi~ 1t;...
altltu e, tern ' sotl compos1t1on . Clim ate ' Y factors ind . .__., Q>,e.,
. (tem per atu
h are the mai n factors tha re and rainfall) ud "'9 la~ ~
ropogra p Y t det erm ine the typ e of
fore st. There are three
forest, temperate forests and . ' so
trop ical fore sts . maJor tvoes o' ' I tviler, a·~ o.i
. forest (con iferous fore
Ta,ga · •Oiest _ tc~a
st or bor eal fore st) is loc
ate d at hig her lati tud es
d min ated by needle-leav close t th
ed, dro ugh t tole ran t, eve
o rgre en tree s. The taiga or ' o e polar r
Win ter is long and ver y cold . bor eal forest h eg on a~.a is
and sum me r 1s sho rt and cool. Prec1p1tat . . _
40- 100 cm annually. ion occurs prim . asa .
sub arctc cf. ... ~-
an 1Y tn the form c'
•~-c..
Temperate forests are fou • snow,
nd in the tem per ate clim
atic zone (be twe en the trop
Northern and Southern Hem ics and bore .
isp here. The y ma y also be a1 reg ions ) in bo~:,.,
call ed 'fou r-season fore sts'
four distinct seasons. In the . . .
bec ause rh f " u~
tem perate reg ion , win ters . . u ,ese orests exoener.c
are mtl d and ra infa ll s mo e
mix of deciduous, bro ad- lea . 1 derate . Tempe t f
ved and con ifer ous ev erg
. ree n tree s . The y are sim ple r in stru ctu re ra e ores ts are a
and support a lesser num than tr
ber of tree specie s. Tem op,cal forests
pera t e forests ca n be furt
and geographical fe atu res h er distinguished by weath
tha t fav our th e pre dom ina er pattoc.s
nce of cer tain kin ds of tree
evergreen forests, tem per s. It can be temperate conL
ate bro ad/eat fo res ts, tem 'ero:..s
per ate deciduous forests
forests, consist of tree s th ( a sub group of temperate
at lose the ir lea v es ev ery broa o·ea'
yea r) and tem per ate ra info
and high humidit y). rests (typ ical ly have heavy
raln;'c
Tropical forests are fore st
ed lan dsc ape s in t rop ica
l reg ion s, occ urri ng at low
within 23.5° lati tud e of the alti tude zon es nea r the equ
equ at or) . Tro pical fore sts ator (found
are ma inly eve rgr een rain
includes oth er forests like forests and moist forests
a season al tro p ica l fore lt a'so
st : ( also kno w n as mo ist
tropical mixed or mo nso on dec idu ous , semi-ev ergreen
fo rests) and ma ngr ove seasona1,
fore sts . Tro pical rain fore
rainfall, with annual rain sts are forests characteriz
fall in t he case of tro p ed by htgh
ica l ra info res ts exceeds
temperature is between 20- 200 cm and high temper
2 5° C). ature (ave rage

Grassland ecosystem
Grassland ecosystems are
dom ina ted by per enn ial
- . gra ss species . Grasslands • h · ry productivity and
relatively low biom have a hig pnma
ass. Grazing has a sig nifi ,
can t infl uen ce on the stru · ·
and tends to ma inta in hig ctu re and com pos itio n° f g rassland commun ities
h species div ers ity. The . . d
tem per ate grasslands
re are two maJor typ es of grass Ian d ec osYstems - Tropical an
. ·
Tropical grassland (Sa van
nas ) is gra ssla nd wit h sca .
tter ed tnd1.v1d
.
ual tree s. Savann as are always found tn
- warm
or hot cl ima tes whe re the
ann ual rain fall is bet we
en 30- 50 cm per yea r. It d' f ct wet and dry season. The
d ry season com has a is tn
es dur ing win ter. Sav ann . h long drv
a rec eiv es all .its ratn
• d ·
unn g sum me r· Plants are adapted to t e
per iod s. Many pla nts are
xer oph ytic in nat ure .
 9

remperate grasslands have hot summers and cold w· &:ology 63

O
in savannas. Temperate grassland is found .m all confinters and the amount of rainfall (25 t 75 cm) .1s less-·
ecosystems are found in Africa ' South Amenca
. Northments
Am except
. Antarctica. However' a vast maJO'li'f
. of u'leso
u1an
the vefdts.of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary,' the pampas
encaf and Russia.
. Temperate grasslanos a=- ,_,,own
~- . as _-
O
soviet Union and the plains and prair,·es of central North Ame . Argentina and Uruguay ' the steppes of me farmer
nca.

Desert ecosystem
A desert is a region that receives very little precipitarion (an average annual prec·I 1·t f fI
10 inches).
. . The amount. of evaporation in a desert often greatly exceeds the annualPrainfall.
a ion°Alless than are
deserts 250arid
mmand
or
. . . · um1 1Y water vapour in the air) is near zero in most
there 1s little water available for plants and other organisms H ·d·t (
, curs very rare1y. Many desert dwellers re\y on
deserts. Rain Is usually the main source of water in a desert but it oc
· 1 or o er prec1p1 a 10n, 1 e snow or a1.
groundwater, stored in aquifers below the surface Groundwater comes from ra·n th · ·t t· 1·k h ·1

5.6 Biomes
The 'biome concept' was introduced by F.E. Clements and V. E. Shelford (1939) for broad-scale distribution of
world vegetation and associated animals. A biome is a distinct ecological community of plants and animals living
together in a particular climate. Each biome has characteristic appearance and distributed over wide geographical
area defined largely by regional climatic conditions (mainly mean annual temperature and precipitation). 'Biome' is
a broader term than 'habitat'; any biome can comprise a variety of habitats. It is the largest geographical biotic unit.
,._,nor ,inrlasS.Qciated climatic conditions rather than by the
Two.r~jQQ$