A

Seminar Report
On
“Power Factor Controller”

Submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in

Electrical Engineering

Session: 2023-2024

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Department of Electrical Engineering Ruchika Jain
20ESKEE114
VII SEM

Department of Electrical Engineering

Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur (RAJ.)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There are always some key personalities whose roles are vital for the successful completion of
any work. The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any work
will be incomplete unless I mention the names of these people who made it possible, whose
valuable guidance and encouragement served as a beacon light and crowned the efforts with
success.

I sincerely acknowledge my seminar in-charge Mr. Tarun Naruka for his technical insights,
support for literature, critical review, and constructive criticism and above all the moral
support. He provided me all stages of this endeavour, without which it would not have been
possible to prepare this seminar. Much appreciation is due to Dr. Sarfaraz Nawaz (Head of
Department of Electrical Engineering) for providing me moral support to go ahead with my
seminar work.

I wish to thank the other faculty members of Electrical Engineering who gave directly or
indirectly precious guidelines for my Seminar. This advice, suggestions and questions will
continue to enhance my knowledge and understanding.

Last but not the least, I sincerely express my deepest appreciation to my family for their
wholehearted support and the encouragement to take up this course.

Ruchika Jain
20ESKEE114
VII-EE-C

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 CONTENTS

Main Page i
Acknowledgement ii
Contents iii
List of Figures v
Abstract vi

Chapter No. Chapter Name Page No.

1 Introduction to Power Factor 01
1.1 Introduction 01
1.2 Power Factor 01
1.3 Causes of Low Power Factor 03
1.4 Effects of Low Power Factor 05
1.5 Need for Power Factor Improvement 06
1.6 Methods for Improving Power Factor 06
2 Solar PV System 09
2.1 What is Solar PV System? 09
2.2 Working of PV System 09
2.3 System Components 11
2.4 Control Configuration for PV System 13
2.5 Factors Affecting Solar PV System Efficiency 14
3 Bidirectional EV Charger 15
3.1 Introduction 15
3.2 Bidirectional EV Charging 15
3.3 EV Charger Control 18
3.4 DC link Capacitor Modelling 19
3.5 LC Filter Modelling 20
3.6 Advantages of Bidirectional Charging 20
4 Master PF Controller 22
4.1 Overview of the Industrial Plant 22
4.2 Capacitor Bank Control 22
4.3 Master PF Controller 24

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 4.4 Results and Discussion 25
Conclusion 28
References 29

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Name of Figure Page No.
Fig.-1.1 Power Factor Meter 01
Fig.-1.2 Lagging Power Factor 02
Fig.-1.3 Leading Power Factor 02
Fig.-1.4 Unity Power Factor 02
Fig.-1.5 Power Triangle 03
Fig.-1.6 Load Variations 04
Fig.-1.7 Capacitor Bank 07
Fig.-1.8 Synchronous Condenser 08
Fig.-2.1 On-Grid PV System 10
Fig.-2.2 Off-Grid PV System 10
Fig.-2.3 Solar Panels 11
Fig.-2.4 Battery Bank 12
Fig.-2.5 Flow Diagram of the Designed Solar PV System 13
Fig.-2.6 Detailed Control Configuration for Designed PV System 14
Fig.-3.1 Bidirectional EV Charging 15
Fig.-3.2 V2G Charging 16
Fig.-3.3 V2H Charging 17
Fig.-3.4 V2L Charging 17
Fig.-3.5 V2V Charging 18
Fig.-3.6 Designed EV Charging System 18
Fig.-3.7 Configuration of LC Filter 20
Fig.-4.1 Framework of Designed Industrial System 22
Fig.-4.2 Flow Diagram for Capacitor Bank 23
Fig.-4.3 Master PF Controller Process 24
Fig.-4.4 Simulation Result-1 25
Fig.-4.5 Simulation Result-2 25
Fig.-4.6 Simulation Result-3 26
Fig.-4.7 Simulation Result-4 27

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 ABSTRACT
The case study in this paper is based on an industrial system with renewable energy sources
and electric vehicle charging station connected. The integration of renewable energy sources
reduces energy consumption from the grid; it consecutively reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
However, the integration of renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic operating at
unity power factor results in a reduction of the industry’s power factor. A classic method to
overcome this issue was by installing reactive power compensator devices, such as the
synchronous condenser, static Var compensator and static synchronous compensator.
However, neither the reactive power compensator devices nor the solar photovoltaic with a
control system can regulate the industry’s power factor to an intended value throughout its
operation. Thus, this paper presents a simple, relatively cost-effective design of a master power
factor controller that can regulate the industry’s power factor to an intended value throughout
its operation with a single preset reference. Also, the electrification of the transportation sector
is significantly contributing to a lesser carbon footprint. The twenty-first century saw the rapid
development of EV technology, where some EVs were shown to have a better performance
than regular internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) in terms of energy conversion
efficiency, maximum torque and distance covered per full charge. Hence, the projection of EV
to replace the ICEV in the nearest future is quite inevitable.

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 CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION TO POWER FACTOR

1.1 Introduction
The concept of power factor is an important parameter for the calculation of active and reactive
power in an AC circuit. It has significance only for AC circuits and its value is always 1 for
DC circuit. It is needed for measuring power efficiency in an AC circuit. It can be lagging,
leading or unity depending upon the nature of load. This chapter deals with introduction to
power factor, causes of lagging power factor, need for improving power factor and methods to
improve it.

1.2 Power Factor

Power factor is the measure of how effectively the incoming power is used in an electrical
system. It is denoted as pf and for an AC circuit, 0≤pf≤1. A high power factor indicates that
the power supplied to the electrical system is effectively used. A system with low power factor
doesn’t effectively consume the incoming electric supply and results in losses.

In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of
the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit. Real power is
the average of the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of
the electricity for performing work. Apparent power is the product of RMS current and voltage.

Fig.-1.1 Power Factor Meter

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Ideally, in AC circuits, the phase difference between voltage and current is zero. But,
practically there exists some phase difference between the two. Mathematically, power factor
is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and current.

Fig.-1.2 Lagging Power Factor

Fig.-1.3 Leading Power Factor

Fig.-1.4 Unity Power Factor

The power triangle represents the active power, reactive power, and apparent power of the AC
circuit in the right-angle triangle. The three sides of the right-angle triangle show the
relationship between all three powers. A power triangle is a useful tool for calculating the
power- active, reactive, and apparent power in an AC circuit if two out of three power is known.

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 Fig.-1.5 Power Triangle

1.3 Causes of Low Power Factor

Low power factor has several disadvantages in power system. The main effect of low power
factor is to increase the current and hence increase losses. This reduces overall system
efficiency. Low power factor is thus not desirable from economic point of view. In this section,
we will discuss some of the main causes of low power factor.

1. Harmonic Current
Harmonics are non-linear distortions of the electrical waveform that can occur in systems with
electronic loads, such as computers and other electronic Harmonics are non-linear distortions
of the electrical waveform that can occur in systems with electronic loads, such as computers
and other electronic equipment. These distortions can cause an increase in reactive power and
reduce the power factor. The presence of harmonic current reduces the power factor in the
system.

2. Improper Wiring
Due to improper wiring or electrical accidents, an imbalance in the 3- phase power occurs
which causes low power factor. Undersized wiring (especially in motors windings) can cause
voltage drops and increase the reactive power in the system, which can lower the power factor.

3. Variation in the Power System Loading

The load demand in the modern power system is not constant throughout the day. The demand
is high during the morning and evening hours and the light during the rest of the day. When

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the system is loaded lightly, the voltage increases, increasing the magnetization current demand
of the machine. This causes a poor power factor in the system.

Fig.-1.6 Load Variations

4. Inductive Load
90% of the industrial loads consist of induction motors. Such machines draw magnetizing
current and set up a magnetic field for its proper working and hence work at a low power factor.
The current drawn by inductive loads is lagging and results in poor power factor.

5. Increased demand of reactive power

If at any point in the system, there is a balance between reactive power demand and generation
then the power factor at that point will be unity. Inductive loads like Induction Motor draw
lagging current and hence reactive power for the generation of magnetic flux in its air gap.
Thus, inductive loads require reactive power. To meet this requirement, they draw very
lagging current from the system and hence causes for the low power factor.

6. Long Distribution Lines

Long distribution lines can cause voltage drops and increase the reactive power in the system,
which can lower the power factor.

7. Capacitive Load
Capacitive loads, such as capacitors, generate reactive power and can improve power factor.
However, if the capacitance is too high, it can cause overcompensation and lead to a leading
power factor. The power factor in a pure capacitive load is zero.

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1.4 Effects of Low Power Factor
A low power factor in an electrical system can lead to several negative consequences,
impacting efficiency, cost, and equipment lifespan. Here are some disadvantages of low power
factor:

1. Large Copper Losses

The copper losses are directly proportional to the square of the line current and the line current
is inversely proportional to the power factor of the circuit. Combining these two relations, we
understand that the copper losses will be inversely proportional to the square of power factor.
When the power factor is low, the line current will be high, and consequently, the copper losses
will be higher. This results in low efficiency of the power system.

2. Reduced System Efficiency

With a low power factor, the electrical system’s efficiency is compromised as more reactive
power is drawn from the source, leading to higher energy consumption and utility bills. A low
power factor also means that a larger portion of the electrical system’s capacity is consumed
by reactive power, leaving less capacity for active power, which is responsible for performing
useful work. Improving the power factor can increase the system’s efficiency and reduce
energy costs.

3. Large kVA rating

Electric machines such as transformers are rated in kVA. The relationship between the power
factor and the kVA rating of the machine is given by the formula below:

kVA = kW/ CosФ

From the formula, we know that the power factor of the machine is inversely proportional to
its kVA rating. Larger kVA rating makes the equipment costly and heavier in size.

4. Poor Voltage Regulation

We already know that poor power factor results in a larger line current to be drawn by the
electrical equipment. As a result, a large current at a low lagging power factor causes a higher
voltage drop in transformers and alternators. This results in the decreased voltage available at
the supply end of equipment and hence poor voltage regulation.

5. Equipment Stress

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A low power factor can cause increased stress on electrical equipment such as transformers,
generators, and motors, reducing their lifespan and efficiency. High current flow due to a low
power factor generates excessive heat, which can lead to premature aging, insulation failure,
and other issues in electrical equipment. Maintaining a high power factor can help protect
equipment from unnecessary stress and prolong its service life.

6. Increased Utility Cost

Most utility companies charge industrial and commercial customers for low power factors, as
they increase the amount of current required to deliver the same amount of active power. This
additional current can strain the utility’s infrastructure, leading to higher costs for the utility
company, which are then passed on to customers. By improving the power factor, businesses
can reduce their energy costs and avoid penalty charges.

1.5 Need for Power Factor Improvement

A high power factor is generally desirable in a power delivery system to reduce losses and
improve voltage regulation at the load. Compensating elements near an electrical load will
reduce the apparent power demand on the supply system.

Real power is given by P = VIcosφ. The electrical current is inversely proportional to cosφ for
transferring a given amount of power at a certain voltage. Hence higher the pf lower will be
the current flowing. A small current flow requires a less cross-sectional area of conductors, and
thus it saves conductors and money. The size and cost of the machine are also reduced.

It will boost the efficiency of the distribution system. It will correct the linear loads with a
passive power factor correction capacitor. Also, the non-linear loads will deform the power
drawn from the system. Apart from that, a good power factor will boost the longevity of your
electrical devices.

This is why the electrical power factor should be maintained close to unity – it is significantly
cheaper.

1.6 Methods for Improving Power Factor

The power factor correction can be done by the following three methods:

• Power Factor Correction Method using Capacitors

• Power Factor Correction Method using a Synchronous Condenser
• Power Factor Correction by Phase Advancers

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1.6.1 Power Factor Correction by Capacitor Banks

• A capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to the load provides this reactive
power. They act as a source of local reactive power, and thus less reactive power flows
through the line.

• Capacitor banks reduce the phase difference between the voltage and current.

• In a three-phase system, the power factor is improved by connecting capacitors in star

or delta.

• The capacitance needed in a star connected three-phase transformer is equal to three

times the capacitance required per phase when the capacitors are connected in delta.

• The working voltage of the star connected bank is 1/√3 times the delta connected bank.

Due to the above observations, the capacitors are connected in the delta in a three-phase system
for power factor improvement.

Fig.1.7 Capacitor Bank

1.6.2 Power Factor Correction by Synchronous Condenser

Synchronous condensers are specially designed induction motors. When connected in parallel
to the load, the synchronous condenser absorbs and generates the reactive power (Var) by
varying the excitation of the motor field winding. Synchronous Condenser, however, has some
disadvantages such as it is costly and its installation and maintenance is not easy.

Synchronous condensers are 3 phase synchronous motors with no load attached to their shaft.
The synchronous motor has the characteristics of operating under any power factor leading,

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lagging, or unity depending upon the excitation. For inductive loads, a synchronous condenser
is connected towards the load side and is overexcited.

Synchronous condensers make it behave like a capacitor. It draws the lagging current from the
supply or supplies the reactive power.

Fig.-1.8 Synchronous Condenser

1.6.3 Power Factor Correction by Phase Advancers

This is an AC exciter mainly used to improve the PF of an induction motor. They are mounted
on the shaft of the motor and are connected to the rotor circuit of the motor. It improves the
power factor by providing the exciting ampere turns to produce the required flux at the given
slip frequency.

Further, if ampere-turns increase, it can be made to operate at the leading power factor.

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 CHAPTER – 2
SOLAR PV SYSTEM

2.1 What is Solar PV System?

A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power
system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an
arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight
into electricity, a solar inverter to convert the output from direct to alternating current, as well
as mounting, cabling, and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also
use a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and include
an integrated battery.

PV systems can vary greatly in size from small rooftop or portable systems to massive utility-
scale generation plants. PV systems can operate by themselves as off-grid PV systems, or
systems connected to the utility grid, or grid-tied PV systems.

2.2 Working of PV System

The light from the Sun, made up of packets of energy called photons, falls onto a solar
panel, and creates an electric current through a process called the photovoltaic effect. Each
panel produces a relatively small amount of energy, but can be linked together with other panels
to produce higher amounts of energy as a solar array. The electricity produced from a solar
panel (or array) is in the form of direct current (DC). Although many electronic devices use
DC electricity, including your phone or laptop, they are designed to operate using the electrical
utility grid which provides (and requires) alternating current (AC). Therefore, for the solar
electricity to be useful it must first be converted from DC to AC using an inverter. This AC
electricity from the inverter can then be used to power electronics locally, or be sent on to
the electrical grid for use elsewhere.

A solar PV system consists of modules, which are linked together to form an array on the roof
of a structure or pole mounted on the ground. The modules are comprised of crystalline silicone
cells, either mono or poly crystalline, that are linked together by a semi-conductor material
across the face of the cell. The cell is produced with two layers – an n-type layer on top, which
contains an atom with an additional electron, and a p-type layer on the bottom, which contains

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an atom with one less electron. When photons of light, whether direct, diffused, or indirect,
strike the panel it causes a movement of electrons. These electrons then travel through the
conductive material and form electricity.

Fig.-2.1 On-Grid PV System

Fig.-2.2 Off-Grid PV System

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2.3 System Components
1. Solar PV Panels
Solar photovoltaic panels take in sunlight and convert it into direct current electricity. A solar
panel consists of many solar cells with semiconductor properties encapsulated within a
material to protect it from the environment. These properties enable the cell to capture light, or
more specifically, the photons from the sun and convert their energy into useful electricity
through a process called the photovoltaic effect. On either side of the semiconductor is a layer
of conducting material which "collects" the electricity produced. The illuminated side of the
panel also contains an anti-reflection coating to minimize the losses due to reflection. Most
solar panels produced worldwide are made from crystalline silicon, which has a theoretical
efficiency limit of 33% for converting the Sun's energy into electricity. Many other
semiconductor materials and solar cell technologies have been developed that operate at higher
efficiencies, but these come with a higher cost to manufacture.

Fig.-2.3 Solar Panels

2. Inverter, Charge Controller and System Meter

The inverter inverts the DC current from the solar panels into usable AC current. An inverter
is an electrical device which accepts electrical current in the form of direct current (DC) and
converts it to alternating current (AC). For solar energy systems, this means the DC current
from the solar array is fed through an inverter which converts it to AC. This conversion is

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necessary to operate most electric devices or interface with the electrical grid. Inverters are
important for almost all solar energy systems and are typically the most expensive component
after the solar panels themselves.

The charge controller regulates the current to keep the batteries from overcharging. The system
meter keeps track of the whole PV/battery system.

3. Battery Bank
The battery bank is the system of batteries that stores energy generated from the solar panels
or other sources to be used a later time.
A solar battery bank is simply a battery bank used to store excess solar electricity that is surplus
to the power needs of your home at the time it is generated. Solar batteries are important
because solar panels only generate electricity when the sun is shining. However, we need to
use power at night and at other times when there is little sun. Solar batteries can turn solar into
a reliable 24x7 power source. Battery energy storage is the key to allowing our society to
transition to 100% renewable energy.

Fig.-2.4 Battery Bank

4. Backup Generator
A backup generator can be used to provide power during periods when the solar/battery system
cannot generate enough power typically because of bad weather, power outage or high
household demand. One of the best ways to put a solar PV system with battery backup to good
use is to charge up the batteries during peak photovoltaic times and then use the stored
electricity when the sun is down.

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 Fig.-2.5 Flow diagram of the designed solar PV system

2.4 Control Configuration for PV System

The DC link voltage reference (Vdclinkref) should not be too low and too high, respectively,
for an admirable dynamic control and to avoid redundant switching losses. The Vdclink and
PF controller was constructed based on the dq control structure due to easy controlling and
filtering accomplishment. Initially, the instantaneous three-phase phase-to-ground voltages
(Vabc) and three-phase phase-to-ground currents (Iabc) output of the solar PV system was
obtained by tapping at the AC side after passing the LC filter. The Vabc and Iabc were
converted into a three-phase active power (PPV) form.

The PPV and PFrefPV then undergo a mathematical transformation to obtain current
quadrature reference (Iqref). Meanwhile, the instantaneous three-phase phase-to-ground
voltages were obtained at the grid side (Vgabc) and sent to the phase-locked loop (PLL) device
to get the Vgabc phase angle (ωt).

In this control system, the PLL device was used for synchronizing the grid phase signal and
the solar PV system phase signal. The phase angle was then used in Park and inverse Park
transformation. Park transformation is a process of simplifying the fundamental equation,
whereas inverse Park transformation is vice versa. In this solar PV system control process, the
Iabc was simplified to be a direct and quadrature current (Id and Iq). The instantaneous Vdclink
was obtained by tapping at the Cdclink. It was then compared to the DC link voltage reference
(Vdclinkref) to get the current direct reference (Idref). Next, the Id and Iq were compared to
the Idref and Iqref, respectively.
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The output of these comparisons goes through the PI controller to reduce the offset. It becomes
a current direct control (Idcontrol) and a current quadrature control (Iqcontrol) before
undergoing the inverse Park transformation and finally, Sine Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
process. Finally, the output of SPWM was fed to the DC/AC converter switches (S1-S6). The
instantaneous PFrefPV and the instantaneous PPV will determine the amount of instantaneous
Q delivered from the solar PV system (QPV) to the industrial system.

Fig.-2.6 Detailed Control Configuration for designed PV System

2.5 Factors Affecting Solar PV System Efficiency

The performance and efficiency of solar PV systems is affected by following factors:

• Sunlight Intensity
• Temperature
• Maintenance
• Shading

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 CHAPTER – 3
BIDIRECTIONAL EV CHARGER

3.1 Introduction
The electrification of the transportation sector is significantly contributing to a lesser carbon
footprint. The sales of electric vehicles (EVs) are increasing, where more on-road EVs are
predicted in the foreseeable future. The twenty-first century saw the rapid development of EV
technology, where some EVs were shown to have a better performance than regular internal
combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) in terms of energy conversion efficiency, maximum
torque and distance covered per full charge. Hence, the projection of EV to replace the ICEV
in the nearest future is quite inevitable.

The electric vehicle landscape is rapidly changing as both technology and interest evolve, and
the coming years will see many more EVs take to the roads, seas, and skies.

3.2 Bidirectional EV Charging

Bidirectional charging, also referred to as two-way charging, is a cutting-edge technology that
enables electric vehicle batteries to both receive and deliver energy to and from an external
power source.

This marks a significant improvement over the conventional charging process, where EVs can
only receive energy from an external power source. By allowing for more versatile and efficient
use of EV batteries, bidirectional charging has the potential to provide significant advantages
for both EV owners and the energy grid.

Fig.-3.1 Bidirectional EV Charging

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Bidirectional charging works by using a specialized charging system that enables energy to
flow in both directions between an EV battery and an external power source. When the EV
battery is connected to the external power source, it can either charge the battery or discharge
the battery and send energy back to the power source. This process is typically controlled by
specialized software that manages the energy flow and ensures that the battery is not
overcharged or discharged beyond safe limits.

Different types of two-way charging are vehicle-to-home, Vehicle-to-grid, Vehicle-to-load and

vehicle-to-vehicle. Each type of bidirectional charging offers unique benefits and can help to
make EVs even more versatile and efficient.

3.2.1 Vehicle to Grid(V2G)

Vehicle-to-Grid charging allows energy to flow in both directions between an electric vehicle
and the power grid. This means that an EV can not only be charged using the grid, but it can
also send energy back to the grid during high-demand periods, providing a valuable service to
the energy system. This can help to reduce peak demand on the grid and provide additional
revenue streams for EV owners.

Fig.-3.2 V2G Charging

3.2.2 Vehicle to Home(V2H)

Vehicle-to-Home charging enables an EV to be used as a backup power source for a home
during a power outage. This type of charging allows an EV to discharge energy back into the
household circuit, powering lights, and appliances. V2H charging can also be used to shift
energy demand away from peak rate periods, reducing energy bills for homeowners.

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 Fig.-3.3 V2H Charging

3.2.3 Vehicle to Load(V2L)

Vehicle-to-Load charging allows an EV to be used as a portable power source powering
devices like laptops, speakers, or other electrical devices during camping or fieldwork. V2L
charging is becoming increasingly common, as more and more EVs are equipped with
bidirectional charging capabilities.

Fig.-3.4 V2L Charging

3.2.4 Vehicle to Vehicle(V2V)

Vehicle-to-Vehicle charging is a special application of V2L charging, allowing energy to be
passed from one EV to another through a dedicated V2V connector. This is a valuable way to
deal with the problem of range anxiety, as it allows EV owners to share energy between
vehicles when needed.

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 Fig.-3.5 V2V Charging

3.3 EV Charger Control

The designed EV charging system comprises three bidirectional I-controlled half-bridge non-
isolated DC/DC converter and a Vdclink and PF-controlled DC/AC converter. The Vdclink
and PF control system used in the designed EV charging system is identical to the control
system used in the designed solar PV system. The advantages of a bidirectional half-bridge
non-isolated DC/DC converter are the high-efficiency, low active component and relatively
cost-effective. The PF reference for the designed EV charging system (PFrefEV) was set to
unity. The designed EV charging system can single-charge EV battery with a maximum DC
power transfer of 62.5 kW with 125 A of current transfer (IEV) based on CHAdeMO 1.1
standard charging protocol. It can cater simultaneous charge up to three EVs.

Fig.-3.6 Designed EV Charging System

The Cdclink and LC filter are two vital components in the solar PV and EV charging system.
The Cdclink is typically utilized to reduce the ripples of Vdclink and for providing Q support.

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Oversized and undersized Cdclink will result in over expenditure and system failure,
respectively. An LC filter is used for smoothening the AC signal. Improper LC filter design
will lead to low system power quality.

3.4 DC link Capacitor Modelling

The Cdclink is an intermediary electronic component located between the DC/DC converter
and the DC/AC converter. The QmaxPV is the maximum limit of the amount of Q(Qmax) that
Cdclink can support. The mathematical steps to calculate the sizing of Cdclink based on Qmax
start with the three-phase apparent power (S) equation as per equation:

𝑆 = ξ3 𝑉𝐼* …3.1

Since only alternating current (AC) is involved, the resistance (R) is replaced with impedance
(Z) by using Ohm’s law.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍 …3.2

ξ3𝑉 2
𝑆= …3.3
𝑍∗

By considering Q only, the impedance is replaced by capacitor reactance (XC) as per equation:

ξ3𝑉 2
𝑄= …3.4
𝑋𝐶

Finally, the size of the capacitor (C) in terms of Qmax and Vdclink derived by equation:

…3.5

3.5 LC Filter Modelling

An LC circuit, also called a resonant circuit, tank circuit, or tuned circuit, is an electric
circuit consisting of an inductor, and a capacitor, connected. The circuit can act as an
electrical resonator, an electrical analogue of a tuning fork, storing energy oscillating at the
circuit's resonant frequency. The LC filter is also known as the low-pass second-order filter. It
was installed at the AC side of the designed solar PV system and EV charging system. It can
block high-frequency signals and allow only low-frequency signals to pass through it.

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 Fig.-3.7 Configuration of LC Filter

The switching frequency (fsw) is 10 kHz. The cut-of frequency (fc) of the LC filter is the
allowable frequency signals upper limit, and it should be less than 1/10th of fsw. Finally, the
size of LC filter is calculated as per equation:

…3.6

3.6 Advantages of Bidirectional Charging

Electric vehicles equipped with bidirectional charging capabilities can offer significant benefits
to both drivers and businesses. As mentioned, there are different types of bidirectional
charging, and they all have different benefits.

1. Make money by selling electricity back to the grid (V2G)

With vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, EV owners can sell excess energy back to the grid and
receive feed-in tariffs. This system allows EV owners to earn money by helping to maintain
grid reliability and stability. However, it's important to note that not all states in the US offer
such a policy, so it's important to check local regulations and policies.

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2. Reduce Energy Costs (V2H)
Bidirectional charging can help EV owners reduce energy costs by turning their cars into an
efficient power source for their homes or businesses. Using smart-charging technology and
bidirectional charging, owners can also let them charge their EVs at home during off-peak
hours or when renewable sources are available, then use that energy to power their home during
the day.

3. Emergency Power Source During Blackouts (V2H)

V2H charging also provides a reliable backup power source during blackouts or other power
outages. The typical electric car battery holds about 60 kilowatt-hours of electricity, enough to
power a home for roughly two days. This feature can be especially valuable for homeowners
and businesses in areas that experience frequent power outages.

4. Portable Energy Source (V2L, V2V)

Another benefit of bidirectional charging is the ability to use EV batteries as a portable energy
source for camping, construction appliances, and other devices. With vehicle-to-load (V2L)
and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) charging, EV owners can use their car batteries to power various
devices on the go or even provide energy to another EV in need.

5. Emergency Power Supply

In case of a power outage, a bidirectionally-charged EV can act as an emergency power supply
for a home or a business, providing electricity for essential appliances and devices.

6. Financial Incentives
Eventually, we could see UK utility companies offer financial incentives to EV owners who
use vehicle-to-grid charging, providing an additional source of income or credit towards their
electricity bills.

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 21

 CHAPTER – 4
MASTER PF CONTROLLER

4.1 Overview of the Industrial Plant

This case study was formulated based on a typical Malaysian 11-kV industrial system
integrated with a PF-controlled 400 kWpk solar PV system and a bidirectional I-controlled
EV fast-charging system with three charging ports. The installation utilized an 11-kV/ 400 V
transformer for connecting to the solar PV system and EV charging system. There are three
EVs in total, which act as flexible and dynamic loads. Each of them receives approximately
50 kW with 125 A current transfer during charge mode. The proposed master PF controller
was connected to the industry’s current transformer (CT), voltage transformer (VT) and the
PF-controlled DC/AC converter of the solar PV system.

Fig.-4.1 Framework of Designed Industrial System

4.2 Capacitor bank control

The capacitor bank (Cbank) with a control system is reliable and capable of regulating PFind
to an intended value. The size of the Cbank varies according to the load and the intended PF.

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 22

The industrial load was installed with a 600 kVAr Cbank to improve the PFind from 0.8 lagging
to 0.95 lagging. The industrial load reference (PFrefload) was set to 0.95 lagging because it is
more than 0.85 lagging and includes an additional safety margin. The designed Cbank
comprises thirty fixed stackable and switchable 20 kVAr capacitors. The amount of Q needed
to attain PFrefload, and the number of 20 kVAr capacitors that need to be operated (Cbankneed)
is the base calculation of this PF control. A too large and fixed capacitor size was not preferred
as it can cause the PFind to be in over and under correction.

Fig.-4.2 Flow Diagram for Capacitor Bank

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 23

4.3 Master PF Controller
The proposed master PF controller is specialized for regulating the PFind to attain an intended
value by using a single preset reference. The control process is based on the trigonometric
power theory calculation. The master PF reference (PFmref) was preset to 0.95 lagging because
of the same reason stated in industrial load’s capacitor bank section. The industry’s CT and VT
sends the total instantaneous currents and voltages received by the industrial system and
converted into active power (Pind), reactive power (Qind) and PFind forms. The proposed
controller had used the PFmref, Pind and Qind to get the amount of Q needed to achieve PFmref
(Qneed). Then, the Qneed was converted into PF form and fed to the PF-controlled solar PV
system (PFneedPV) regarding control of the QPV. In short, in this master control process, the
value of Qneed is the same as QPV.

Fig.-4.3 Master PF Controller Process

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 24

4.4 Results and Discussion
The Matrix Laboratory/Simulink software was used to simulate each of the designed
equipment. One second in simulation presented as an hour.

Fig.-4.4 Simulation Result-1

Fig.-4.5 Simulation Result – 2

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 25

These results are computed before and after installing Master PF Controller. The fluctuations
occurred in between the 9th and 13th second are because of the Cbank switching alternately on
and off. The total harmonic distortion current (THDi) of the solar PV system is measured at
the point of common coupling. The THDi percentage for the solar PV system should be less
than 5% to avoid low power quality.

Fig.- 4.6 Simulation Result – 3

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 26

 Fig.-4.7 Simulation Result - 4

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 27

 CONCLUSION
The main contribution of this paper is the design of a master PF controller, which can regulate
the power factor of industries to an intended value. The proposed master PF controller design
is simple, correspondingly cost-effective. The power factor control of an industry is necessary
to reduce power factor penalties in the industries, increase load carrying capabilities and
increase energy efficiency. A bidirectional EV charger was also designed in this case study
using the vehicle-to-grid concept. Bi-directional charging is an excellent technology that lets
electric vehicle owners use the power from their car battery to power their homes and other
applications. It can save money on utility costs, reduce the load of the grid, use renewable
energy sources, provide backup power during extreme weather conditions, and create a
portable power source.

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT M&G, Jaipur Page 28

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