Anatomy And Physiology with

Pathophysiology
CHAPTER 6: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

SKELETAL MUSCLES SMOOTH MUSCLE

● Skeletal muscle fibers: packed into the organs
called skeletal muscles that are attached to the
body’s skeleton.
● Huge, cigar-0shaped, multinucleate cells (many
nucleus in one cell)
● Largest of the muscular fiber types
● Striated cells (voluntary)
● Smooth Muscle (Visceral, nonstriated,
involuntary)
● No striation and is involuntary
● Found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral
organs

SKELETAL MUSCLES (SKELETAL, STRIATED, VOLUNTARY) SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS

● Striated muscle and voluntary muscle ● Spindle-shaped, single nucleus and are
● Speed of contraction: slow to fast surrounded by scant endomysium
● Each muscle fiber is enclosed in a delicate ● Two layers: one running circularly and the other
connective tissue sheath called endomysium one longitudinally
(between fibers) ● Speed of contraction: slow and sustained
● Sheathed muscle fibers are then wrapped by a
coarse fibrous membrane called perimysium to
form a bundle of fibers called a fascicle
● Fascicles are bonded together by an even
tougher “overcoat” of connective tissue called an
epimysium, which covers the entire muscle.

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CARDIAC MUSCLE
● Cardiac, striated, and involuntary
● Found only in the heart- serves as a pump,
propelling blood into the blood vessels and to all
tissues of the body
● Striated and involuntary
CARDIAC CELLS
● Cushioned by small amounts of soft connective
tissue ( endomysium)
● Arranged on a spiral or figure 8- shaped bundles
CARDIAC MUSCLE FIBERS
● Branching cells joined by special junctions called
intercalated discs (In cardiac muscles of the
heart, connections between neighboring cells
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are formed by the intercalated discs. To enable
the heartbeat, the intercalated disc is highly
specialized and allows for coordinated
function of the heart cells.)
● Speed of contraction: very slow
MUSCLE FUNCTION
1. Producing movement- a common
function of all muscle types
2. Maintaining posture and body position
3. Stabilizing joints
4. Generating heat
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
● Sarcolemma- plasma membrane in muscle cells;
beneath are many oval nuclei
● Myofibrils- long ribbon- like organelles which
nearly fill the cytoplasm; pushes the nuclei aside
➔ With striped appearance; alternating light (I)
and dark (A) bands
Light I band has a midline interception,
a darker area called the z- disc.
Dark A band has a lighter central area
called the H zone- M line in the center of
the H zone contains a tiny protein rod
that holds adjacent thick filaments
together.
➔ Chains of tiny contractile units called
sarcomeres- aligned end to end along the length
of the myofibrils
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Myofilaments: within sarcomeres that actually

THE NERVE STIMULUS AND THE ACTION POTENTIAL (NERVE
produce the banding pattern.
● Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)- specialized
smooth endoplasmic reticulum; store and
release calcium- provides the final “GO” signal
for contraction.
IMPULSE)
● Also called nerve impulse
● Movement of ions that cause some membrane
of the neuron.
● Cell membrane of neurons contains thousands
of tiny molecules known as channels- allows
sodium and/or potassium ions to pass through.
● Generally the channels of the neurons are
closed and the membrane is set to be in a
resting state, in this state the charge of the
inside of the cell membrane is more negative
from the outside.
● Inside of the neurons is -70 mV (millivolts)
● A nerve impulse starts when pressure or other
sensor or input disturbs a neuron’s plasma
membrane to the point that the potential
difference reaches the threshold voltage of
about -55 mV.

POLARIZATION, DEPOLARIZATION, REPOLARIZATION,

SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY (SPECIAL FUNCTIONS)
HYPERPOLARIZATION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL
1. Excitability- also termed responsiveness;
ability to receive and respond to a
●
Polarization pertains to the act or process of
stimulus
producing a positive electrical charge and a
2. Contractility- ability to shorten (forcibly)
negative electrical charge such that between a
when adequately stimulated
nerve cell internal electrical charge, which is
3. Extensibility- ability of muscle cells to be
negative, and the surrounding environment of a
stretched
nerve cell, which is positive.
4. Elasticity- ability to recoil and resume
● Depolarization pertains to the movement of a
their resting length after being stretched.
cell’s membrane potential to a more positive
value.
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● Repolarization is a stage of an action p[otential

in which the cell experiences a decrease of
voltage due the efflux (material that is flowing
out) by potassium (K+) ions along its
electrochemical gradient. This phase occurs
after the cell reaches its highest voltage from
depolarization.
● Hyperpolarization is a change in a cells’
membrane potential that makes it more negative
(opposite of depolarization)
EVENTS THAT RETURN THE CELL TO ITS RESTING STATE
INCLUDES:
1. Diffusion of potassium ions (K+) out of
the cell
2. Operation of the sodium potassium
pump- active transport mechanism that
moves the sodium and potassium ions
back to their initial position.

THE NERVE STIMULUS AND THE ACTION POTENTIAL

MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION: THE SLIDING
● Motor unit- one neuron and all the skeletal FILAMENT THEORY
muscle cells it stimulates
● Nerve fiber or Axon- long, threadlike extension
● The sliding filaments theory is a suggested
of the neuron
mechanism of contraction of striated muscles,
At the muscle, it branches into a number
actin and myosin filaments to be precise, which
of axon terminals, each of which forms
overlap each other resulting in the shortening of
neuromuscular junctions with the
the muscle fiber length Actin (thin) filaments
sarcolemma of a different muscle cell-
combined with Myosin (thick filaments)
contains vesicle filled with chemical
conduct cellular movements.
referred to as a neurotransmitter.
● According to the sliding filament theory, a
● Acetylcholine, or ACh- specific neurotransmitter
muscle fiber contracts when myosin filaments
that stimulates skeletal muscle cells
pull actin filaments closer together and thus
● Synaptic Cleft- gap between nerve endings and
shorten sarcomeres within a fiber, when all the
the muscle cells’ membrane;filled with tissue
sarcomeres in a muscle fiber shorten, the fiber
(interstitial) fluid.
contracts.
● Muscle cell will contract to its fullest extent when
it is stimulated adequately; it never partially
contracts

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● Whole muscle reacts to stimuli with graded

responses or different degrees of shortening.
1. By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation GRADED MUSCLE RESPONSE
2. By changing the number of muscle cells being
stimulated at one time. ● A graded muscle response allows variation in
muscle tension

CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE AS A WHOLE: GRADED

RESPONSE
WARE SUMMATION
● The frequency of motor neuron stimulation
❖ A single action potential from a motor ● Also called temporal summation
neuron will produce a single contraction ● Phenomenon seen when another stimulus is
in muscle fiber of its muscle unit- this applied to a muscle before the previous
isolated contraction is called a TWITCH relaxation period is incomplete, resulting in a
❖ A tension produced by a single twitch stronger contraction
can be measured by Electromyography
(EMG)- measure muscle response or
electrical activity in response to a nerve
stimulation of the muscle. INCOMPLETE TETANUS/ UNFUSED TETANUS

● The muscle goes through quick cycles of

EACH TWITCH UNDERGOS 3 PHASES
● Latent Phase- a short delay (1-2 msec) from the
time when the action potential reaches the
muscle until tension can be observed in the
muscle.
● Contraction Phase- is when the muscle is
generating tension and is associated with cycling
of the cross bridges
● Relaxation Phase- time of the muscle to return
to its normal length.
contraction with a short relaxation phase for
each.
COMPLETE TETANUS/ FUSED TETANUS
● If the stimulus frequency is so high that the
relaxation phase disappear completely,
contraction become continuous in a process
called complete tetanus

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Product: 2 ATP per glucose, lactic acid

CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE AS A WHOLE: GRADED
RESPONSE c. Aerobic Pathway- Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Energy Source: Glucose, pyruvic acid, free fatty
1. Muscle response to increasingly rapid acids from adipose tissue; amino acids from
stimulation protein catabolism
● Muscle twitches (single, jerky contraction)- not
the way our muscles normally operate Oxygen Use: Required
● Most types of muscle activity, nerve impulse are
delivered to the muscle at a very rapid rate Products: 32 ATP per glucose, CO2, H2O
● Muscle is stimulated so rapidly that no evidence
of relaxation is seen and the contractions are Duration: Hours
completely smooth and sustained, the muscle is
said to be in fused or complete, tetanus or in
tetanus contraction- until this point is reached ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)
muscle is said to be exhibiting unfused or
incomplete tetanus.
● ATP is the only energy source that can be used
directly to power muscle activity.
CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE AS A WHOLE:
PROVIDING ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE AS A WHOLE: MUSCLE
a. Direct Phosphorylation- coupled reaction of FATIGUE AND OXYGEN DEFICIT
creatine phosphate (CP) and ADP.

Energy Source: CP ● Muscle Fatigue: when the muscle is unable to

Oxygen Use: None Products: 1 ATP per CP, contract even though it is being stimulated
creatinine Major Factor: Oxygen Deficit- happens
Duration of Energy: 15 seconds when a person is not able to take oxygen
fast enough to keep the muscles
b. Anaerobic Pathway- Glycolysis and lactic acid supplied with all the oxygen they need.
formation
Energy source: Glucose
Oxygen Use: None
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1. Aerobic or endurance: result in stronger, more

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
1. Isotonic Contractions (‘same tone” or tension):
myofilaments are successful in their sliding
movements, the muscle shortens and movement
occurs.
2. Isometric Contraction (“same measurement” or
length): contractions in which the muscles do not
shorten
MUSCLE TONE
● State of continuous partial contractions
Result of different motor units, which are
scattered through the muscle, being
stimulated by the nervous system in a
systematic way.
Flaccid: soft and flabby
Atrophy: “waste away”
flexible muscles with greater resistance to
fatigue
Blood supply to the muscles increases and the
individual muscle cells form more mitochondria
and store more oxygen
Does not cause the muscle to increase much in
size
● Resistance or isometric: key is forcing the
muscles to contract with as much force as
possible
Increased muscle size and strength- due
mainly to enlargement of individual
muscle cells and amount of connective
tissue that reinforce the muscles also
increases.
TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
● Origin: attached to the immovable or less
movable bone
● Insertion: attached to the movable bone

When the muscle contracts, the insertion moves

towards the origin
EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLES
1. Flexion- small angle
● Muscle inactivity always leads to muscle 2. Extension- increasing the angle
weakness and wasting 3. Hyperextension- angle of extension that is
● Regular exercise increases muscle size, more than 180 degrees
strength and endurance 4. Rotation- movement of a bone in longitudinal
axis

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5. Abduction- moving a limb away from the

median NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES
6. Adduction- moving a limb closer to the median Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria:
7. Circumduction- a combination of reflexion, ● Direction of the muscle fibers
abduction and adduction ● Relative size of the muscle
● Location of the muscle
● Number of origins
SPECIAL MOVEMENTS ● Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
TOES ● Shape of the muscles
1. Dorsiflexion- toes up ● Action of the muscles
2. Plantar Flexion- toes down
3. Inversion- going medial toes (in)
4. Eversion- foot going lateral (out)
HAND ARRANGEMENT OF FASCICLES
1. Supination- turning backward
2. Pronation- turning forward A. Circular (orbicularis oris)
B. Convergent (pectoralis major)- fascicle moves
towards a single fascicle tendons
C. Fusiform (Biceps brachii)
INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN THE BODY D. Parallel (sartorius)
E. Multipennate (deltoid)
● Prime mover: muscles that has the major F. Bipennate (rectus femoris)
responsibility for causing a particular movement G. Unipennate ( Extensor digitorum longus)
● Antagonists: muscles that oppose or reverse a
movement ( prime movers of their own rights)
● Synergists: help prime movers by reducing
undesirable movements GROSS ANATOMY: HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
● Fixators: specialized synergists- holds a bone
FACIAL MUSCLES
still or stabilize the origin of a prime mover so all
● Frontalis- covers the frontal bone; raise your
the tension can be used to move the insertion eyebrow and to wrinkle your forehead
bone Origin: cranial aponeurosis
Insertion: skin of the eyebrows
● Occipitalis- covers the posterior aspect of the
skull and pulls the scalp posteriorly
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● Orbicularis Oculi- run in circles around the
eyes; close your eyes, squint, blink, and wink
● Orbicularis Oris- “kissing” muscles; circular
muscles of the lips; closes the mouth and
protrudes the lips
● Buccinator- flattens the cheek; compresses the
cheek to hold the food between the teeth during
chewing.
Origin: maxilla & mandible near molars
Insertion: orbicularis oris
● Zygomaticus-”smiling” muscles; raises the
corners of the mouth upward
Origin: zygomatic bone
Insertion: skin & muscle at corner of lips
● Platysma- single sheetlike; covers the
anterolateral neck; pull the corners of the mouth
inferiorly ( the sad clown face)
Origin: connective tissue covering of
superior chest muscles
Insertion: tissue around mouth
● Sternocleidomastoid- paired; two headed
muscles, one found on each side of the neck_
one arises from sternum and the other arises
from the clavicle; both muscles contract
together, they flex your neck- “prayer muscles”
Torticollis or Wryneck: one of the
sternocleidomastoid muscles may be injured and
develop spasms in some births.(Shortened neck
muscles)

CHEWING MUSCLES
TRUNK MUSCLES
● Masseters- covers the angle of the lower jaw;
closes the jaw by elevating the mandible ● Pectoralis major- large fan-shaped muscle
Origin: temporal bone covering the upper part of the chest, forms the
Insertion: mandible anterior wall of the axilla, adduct and flex the
● Temporalis- fan- shaped muscle synergist of the arm
masseter in closing the jaw Origin: sternum, clavicle & 1st to 6th ribs
Origin: temporal bone Insertion: proximal humerus
Insertion: mandible ● Intercostal Muscles- deep muscles found
between the ribs; lie deep to the external
intercostals, depress the rib cage, helping to
move air out of the lungs when you exhale
NECK MUSCLES forcibly

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External Intercostals: important in
breathing- raise the rib cage when you
inhale
● Rectus Abdominis- paired straplike; most
superficial muscles of the abdomen; flex the
vertebral column; compress the abdominal
contents during defecation and childbirth and are
involved in forced breathing
origin : pubis
Insertion: sternum & 5th and 7th ribs
● External Oblique- paired superficial muscles
that make up the lateral walls of the abdomen;
flex the vertebral column; rotate the trunk and
bend it laterally
Origin: lower & ribs
Insertion: iliac crest
● Transversus abdominis- deepest muscle of the
abdominal wall; fibers that run horizontally
across the abdomen; compresses the abdominal
contents
Origin: lower six costal cartilages & iliac
crest
Insertion: symphysis pubis
● Trapezius- most superficial muscles of the
posterior neck and upper trunk; diamond or kite
shaped muscle mass; extend the
head(antagonists of the sternocleidomastoids);
elevate, depress, adduct, and stabilize the
scapula
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Origin: occipital bone and all cervical & thoracic
vertebrae
Insertion: scapular spine & clavicle
● Latissimus Dorsi- two large, flat muscles that
covers the lower back; extends and adducts the
humerus
Origin: lower spine and iliac crest
Insertion: proximal humerus
● Deltoid- fleshy, triangle-shaped muscles that
form that rounded shape of your shoulders; bulk-
favorite injection site when relatively small
amounts of medication; prime movers of arm
abduction
Origin: scapular spine and clavicle
Insertion: humerus (deltoid tuberosity)
● Erector Spinae- deep muscles of the back;
prime mover of back extension; powerful back
extensors (‘erectors”) & provide resistance that
helps control the action of bending over at the
waist
Consist of three muscle column
(longissimus,iliocostalis and spinalis):
coll;ectively span the entire length of the
vertebral column
● Quadratus Lumborum- form part of the posterior
abdominal wall
Acting separately, each muscle of the
pair flexes the spine laterally
Acting together, they extend the lumbar
spine
Origin: iliac crest, lumbar fascia
Insertion: transverse processes of upper
lumbar vertebrae
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