T w o kinds of charges: + ve and - ve Continuous charge

Quantization of charge Linear, surface, volume

Electric charge is always an integral muliple Electric charges are detected by gold d i s t r i b u t i o n

of e. It is known as quantization of charge leaf electroscope.

S.I. unit is Coulonmb (C) Force between two
Q=tn.e Here, n=integers LIke charges repel each other while charged particles
Onservation rge
of charge
-.72
unlike charges attract each other
Charges can neither be
E. A created nor be destroyed
F-4TCE
EAcos0
Dimensional formula Squomo aD1OJ here, 4TE 9x10' N.m/C
[ML'TA] eg is called
Gauss's Electric
theoremn charges permittivity of free space
Electric field due to an infinite by Eg8.85x10"C/N.m
longline of charge, E=N2n E Electric flux Effect of medium
Electric field due to plane sheet,
a

Coulomb's law
F-4TtK
E = o/25,, [o = Here K=dielectric constant
Field due to charged conducting Applications of
Electric Changes Coulomb's law in vector form,
F-4,9
plate, E= o/6, Gauss's law &Fields ATEO
Field inside a conductor=0 Principle of
superposition
Electric field due to a thin
spherical shell -FatEst.
Outside the shell,E=Q/4T8
Inside the shell, E=0
Electric field 1n
On the surface, E= Q/4Te, R
Electricf i e l dl i n e s
Electric dipole, p= qd
Electric field lines
variation of

spherical
E
vs

shell
lectri field 21 Here, d= 21

Are imaginary lines. Graphical thin due to P-4.2-gd

Never form closed loop Electric field due to dipole at axial
Never intersect each other
Always normal to conducting surface
r
for

pointe point,

Electric field due to dipole at

equatorial position,
E)=E6)+ Ea(r) t..E,C)
E-
E-N/C) Torque o n an electric dipole placed
in an electric field

E-0 E- T=pxE pEsine

47CEi
Trace the Mind Map
Third Level
First Level Second Level
 N

V-Q/4r Blectric
to point poten tial due Dielectrics are the materials those

chargelue
a are very poor conductors of
electric current. They are basically
Potential due to a insulators and contain no free Conductors Insulators
syst of charges I t is defined as the work done per unit electron. Dielectrics can be easily Such a material which Such a material
4T61 test charge by an external agent in polarised when an electric when placed in an in which electrons
moving the test charge from reference field is applied to it. electric field, the are tightly bound,
point to the desired point S.I. unit J/C These can be classified into two
t
to
a dipole free electrons move and when exposed
V= Pcose due
d u e
a or Volt (V categories: Polar and Non-Polar in a direction opposite in an
Potential
tial electric field
to the field electrons do not
Where,P= qd move ie, having no
0-LAON free electrons

At 6-0,V= axial position] Dielectrics Difference between A

insulators and conductors a,=P.n
Electric potential
At,8 90, V =
0
[equitorialposition] Free charged density,

Induced charge o,eE+p). i=D

.Potential is same at all density (op) duet Here, D is electric displacement
polarisation p
points of the surface.
.Components of electric field
F-D-E-lk-1) -E
Here, 1-o(K-1) is the electic
parallel to an equipotential Equipotential Electuastatic Patentia,
surface is zero. surface Patential Enengy &
susceptibiity

Equipotential
S11irtace Capacitance Capacitance of a parallel plate capaditor,
ield
C= KeAd, K=dielectric constant
Electric potential Capacitance when material slab
energy Capacitance, C= inserted between them,
I tis defined as the work done by the electric
Potential energy C= AyK
force as the configuration of the of a dipole E n e r E
Kd-t)+t
where,t =Thickness of the slab
system changes. It is negative.

Ur, -Ur,= -W =h4

4TEg
dU= pEsinede
Energy stored in a capacitor

u-cv ov
herical shape inserted

Capacitance of a spherical capacditor,

I f the separation between charges is ,
Ifit is rotated through angle 0 -4n
then x Joule against the torque
Series grouping of capacitors
For isolated sphere,
1
Potential difference Cn C=4me,R
Ug-Ugg pEsin 6de
Parallel grouping of capacitors,
- pEcos= -p E CC
For two, CC+C C=C+ Ca + C3t Ca
- =Changein potential energy If we choose potential energy For two, C=G+G
of dipole to be zero when
9 Test charge
0 90° Trace the Mind Map P
First Level Second Level Third Level
 Ai
= GE
In 1827,Georg Simon Ohm
Ascos Rate of flow of charge
As= area of through an area.
gave his complete theory
of electricity in his book
emf-E--V-
cross-section
=Angle between area i do "The Galvanic Circuit BMF It is equal to the
potential
difference between the
vector and current flow Investigated Mathematically"
g=Conductivity i-J.d terminals when the terminals
are not connected
externally.
It is a device which maintains
Current
density a potential difference V-V E- ir
Here,J = A
Drift between its two terminals. r=Internal i
velocity ce resistance of the cell
Electric
Current
To know Internal resista
Mobility Electric cell parallel grouping E= E4j=
T=Average collision time j= oE
V-I characteristics linear for Ohmic or Ohm's law R+h
conductor and non-linear for V=IR
Resistance Grouping of Cell
non-Ohmic conducutor
fortwo
Resistivity
Electric Cuwvent iR()
i= Terent
R-p ne2At Series grouping i+R
nE cells
Conductivity
n-Number of cell having
p-Om-- =J/E
Kirchhoff s law
function law same E

Electrical Algebraic sum of all the

energy and lemperature Currents directed towards
power dependence Potentiometer a point (junction) is zero
ot resistence
law The algebraic sum
of all the potential I=0
E--PRT Meter bridge
difference along a 4++i=ii+5
P V R Wheatstone closed loop is zero.
nxPxtxTT Forsemconduo bridge
V-iR
Forconduc
luctor

Commercial unit 1000 w

Here, P-in watt, tnumbers of hours/day
T-Total days, n-numbers of appliances

Bridge is balanced Comparison ofemí,

R= Rg [1+a (T- To)l
P=Pta (T- T)] R2 R4 Unknown resistance

S= L 0 - ) Internal resistance()= R
T
V.= Vp l = Balancing length yg are lengths
of null point
No current through G
R=Known resistance
Trace the Mind Map lemperature T>
Second Level Third Level
First Level
 It is a region around a magnet or current In April, 1820, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that flow of current
in a wire could deflect a nearby magnetic compass needle.
carrying conductor or a moving charge in
which its magnetic effect can be felt.
SI unit is Tesla (7)= weber/mn where, i total current crossing
=

the area bounded by closed curve

1 Gauss = 10 Tesla T = 4 T m

qB Ve
Ampere
s law Magnetic field at a point inside
U= qBR/M Solenoidd
due to a long solenoid, B = ani
F- qo KE =mu2 And at point on one end,B =
Magnetic field B where n = number of turms per unit
qvB sin8 (qBR)2 length along the length of solenoid
For -0, F= 0 along the magnetic field 2m
For 6=90, ie, if charge's velocity is Here, R in the +
toroid
-B= HNi N=Total number offturns
perpendicular to field direction, force is radius of D's field
d u e

2m7
perpendicular to both field and velocity Magnetic i=Curent in toroid
T r e n t c a r T y n gc o n d u c t o r

F=qvB = 7U current c
dF =idx B, F=iB sine
Magnetic force on
a

moving charge o n

Force between parallel

curre
mv = Radius of the circle in which
Force

charge rotates
carrying wires
F-ba
27um
Maving Changes Torque exper
uniceperienced by a loOP

.Timeperiod (T) =

qB
in uniform magnen
in field =mB sind n mxB
=

MeT & Magnetiom

v (frequency) =
=T g5
21m
Definition of A
o n of Ampere If two parallel wires kept 1 m apart,
and experienced force

Mathematical1
Magnetic field due to
straight wire current

Symbolic field F i e l d
at the centre
Converrseisoionn of
of ggaalSlvvaeannnosimtevtietry F 2x10-7N, then current = 1A in each

Current

Outside
Field due to a
-NBAK
In side B Hoi Circular Current

dB-bidix 6 =Angle between dl and 7

2a
Voltage
4T
d B H o idlsin
0Drection of
field will be
perpendicular to plane
containing current element
B =o (Sine,- Sin6,)
4Ttr
Where, 0, and 0, are the angles
nto voltmintoete ammeter
and the point of observation. corresponding to the
where Po lower and upper ends respectively.

=
47T x 107 TmA Here,c
Field due to a long i.e., 6, = 0, 6,= i.e. for d>>>a
B= Hpia
R- -
straight wire current B=o

4TtY
B=
2(a+ d33 B 2d

Trace the Mind Map

First Level Second Level Third Level
 Current loop of area A= t r carrying In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss and Angle between magnetic Angle made by earth's
current I may be replaced by meridian and geographic
a
magnetic Wilhelm Weber invented the first magnetic field with
dipole of dipole moment m=NAI
Electromagnetic telegraph.
meridian..
Declination horizontal

Circular lo p Earth is a natural magnet having

magneticC north pole at geometric
inclinationorCu
d i p

Revolvingelectro ectron south pole and magnetic north

T-LA= X= evr2 Revo pole at geometric south pole.
2tr in circular loop B-Bcos
To know
- 2me orizontal
BEH-0atpole
onent Bis maxdmum at equator
r=Radius of circular orbit
Earth's
e =Charge on electron Imaginary lines which continucusly
magnetic
Speed ofelectron; Dipole field represent the direction of magnetic feld
moment
l =Angular momentum H=NIA, Two lines of force never
me= Mass ofelectron N = Number of turns Magnetiom and intersect each other
Matter
I=Current
A = area Magnetic
.End-on-position field Lines paramag Sulbstane Magnetic permeabiity is
slightly higher than 1
Magnetic substance
--P Bar magnet
Fesubstr omaancegneeticti, Magnetic susceptibility is

Diamagnetic suktbstan
positive and very low
d>>>l Terms related
Magnetic field Electromagnets
to magnet
intensity Magnetic permeabilityis
very high, around100000
Broadside -on Position Time period of
Torque Magnetic susceptibilityis
B H47 (d-Pp Magnetic oscillating
bar magnet
positive and very high

-EE intensity
For d>>> Magnetic permeability is slightly less than 1.
Intensity of
B Hom/4n d Magnetic Magnetic susceptibility is positive and very low
permeability magnetization

Magnetic Magnet in which the magnetic field is

susceptibility produced by an electric current. Magnetic
of
field disappears when current is turmed
H- Ber
tmxB=mB sine
B= Magnetic field Trace the Mind Map
T=2n First Level Second Level Thind Level
HoC1+m)
 1. In voltange regulators for TV,
Step-down transformer
Fist law refrigerator, air comditions,ete.
-Whenever Bux of magnetic field N,<N, 2. In the induction furnac
through the area bounded by a
dlosed conducting loop changes, Step-up transformer piicadons 3. For welding porpose
4. in transmission of ac. ove
an emf is produced in the loop.
In 1831, Michael N.>N, AP
long distances
Second law Faraday discovered
-The emf is given by e=-do/dt electromagnetic induction and James -n=Output power input power
Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it.
where = Bds -99% efficiency can be easily schierved
is the fux of the magnetic field It is used to obtaina
Eticiency of a transtors
through the anea high AC voltage from a
low voltage AC source
Lenz's law
The direction of the induced current
or vice versa
Transformation atbe
is such that it opposes the changes
Contribution
that has induced Faraday's Law of
electronmagnetic
induction and
Lenz's law
Transformer
Binergy lose s 1. HHysteresis loss
2.Copper loss
3. Eddy curmenit los

Mutual inductance 4.Fluoe loss

I- 1 de Induced -Mi Coxcial long solencid

Rdt Current

Electua-magnetic de-M
dt
Jnduction
I-BolV(R+
otional EMR Induced
EMF
Self inductance Emf induced in an AC generator, E -NBAfa sin ot

E- dt Rectangular Eddy
current
r=Resistance of rod moving loop
with velocity p in a uniform [ META
magnetic field B Eddy currents are currents Ifa solenoid of Nturms, the tux through
ina which circulate in conductors eachturn=9=|Bd
8 Conducto
induced R-v
like
stream.
swirling eddies in
They are induced by
a
Self inductance
of long solenoid EMF induced betweenthe ends
of coil-E--NBd--N
changing ma8netic tields

-Bal
o t a t i n gc O

E M F

and fow in closed loops, Self inductance L-a

perpendicular to the plane
of the magnetic field.
emf induced
E= DBI Trace the Mind Map
Magnetic force on the loop Level Thind Level
DBI L= HoNA/l = HorAL Pirat Level Secand
i-- F=B /R
length-
per unit
=Force required to move n= Numberofturns
the loop with constant r=Radius of each loop ofsolenoid
velocity ()
 Trace the Mind Map
meo/V2 First Level Second LevelThird Level
VomVoN2
RMS val e A device which generates alternating
Of
Here, Io and Vo is the peak
current and voltage.
squareare value rOot In 1883, Nikola Tesla constructed
the first induction motor at the
current having elements-magnet, armature
and graphite brushes

Mean value or Averao

mean age of 27 years only. Induced emf-NBA o sin ot
i = E/R= NBA o sin ot/R
Direction of current
mean 21/T value changes alternatively
i = isinot
www
Etamal dirult
mean216/t
V=Vsinøt
Contribution Em cos
The ratio of emf applied and the
AC current
A.C. generator
P=
s
current produced in an AC circuit i=
Z= E/l Ohm
isin(ot - )
Power in
Z=R -XU
Impedance AC circuit Z-R+X
It is the hindrance offered by inductance Alteunating X= X-X
or capacitance or both to the flow of AC Cuwent
denoted by ) Ohm L-C-R circuit
-
- oL
Reactance
tan=

Resona ce
i-isin of ACcircuits

Phase difference between

When aL=
Vand I, = n/2
I n d u c t i v e ( L )c i r c u i t R-L circuit Impedance minimum
Power factor
cos () =0
Capacitive(C)circuit 3ApsIsay (morp L-C circuit current becomes maximum,
Resonant frequency LG

Voltage leads current by w2 i= isin(ot +)

P=0
Z= R+X
i= isin(at-9)
Atresonance Z-yR-
I =sin(ot) X = 1/oC i isin ot+ XL=Xc
X = al
i=isin at =0° tand =
1/0 CR

= w2 or-w2 cos o=1 i=/Z

X= X-Xe
T2
oLC 1
tan= alR
-5/2
cos=0 P=Vb/2 Power factor,cos= os/2LC
Power factor = 0, Either voltage Power factor
= RZ
Power (P =0 Current and voltage both
Current is leading
R+X or current leading
Voltageis leading
are in same phase.
Current leads the voltage by w2
 The current due to flow If there exists an electric current
as well as a
of charge is often called changing electric field,
conduction current.
thee it results in magnetic field and Radio waves:). >10 nm
causes displacement current. Use: radio,
TV signal
i doE
dt Microwaves 10 nm-10 nm
Use: microwave oven, radar
Infrared:10P nm-700 nm
Use: night vision
Visible light:700nm- 400 nm
Use: to
Conduction observe world
Displacement .UV rays:400 nm-10nm
current current
Electromagnetic Use: destroying bacteria
spectrumn X-rays:10 nm -0.01 nm
Use: detect bone break
Contribution Y rays:0.01 nm >h
Use: to treat
In 1886 Henrich cancer
Hertz became the
first person to transmit Electramagnetic Energy
and receive controlled Wawes density
radio waves. U- +E
Ho
energy per unit volume
U y Over a long time
Characteristics of
Definition
electromagnetic waves
4 Ho

-
las c= E,/B, and pes-
D o not need any material
medium for propagation 1B
2 Ho
Travels with speed (0) =
Combination of mutually
perpendicular electric and VHo
magnetic fields is referred Produced by accelerated charge
Transverse in nature
to as an electromagnetic wave.
Trace the Mind Map P
Oscillating electric and magnetic fields First Level Second Level Thind Level
are in the same phase and their ratio
is constant (c) = E/B,
 Pole is taken as origin.
Principle axis as the X-axis Li-Lr
All distanoes measured from
Incident ray, reflected ray and Angle of deviation, 5 - i+i-A
origin (or pole). normal to the reflecting surface
All distances measured in the direction Orminieam(4-1)A, if A is small1
are coplanar
of indident ray is taken+ ve.
*All distancesmeasured in the direction
Sin m
oPposite to the incident ray is taken-ve. 7TITTTTTTT
Sin AD Light scattered ie., redirected in
different paths when interacts

-and R-2 Sign convention with particde matters e.g, colour

of sunset, colour of sun1rise, blue
aAjsSzadsiq aMod colour of sky. Amount of scattering -
erical mir or
Scattering o f
light

Lateral Magnification
Microscope
m=1+ [image at near point
sini-V
Sinr N N Refraction of light m-D/f image at infinite
D
Realdepth
Apparernt depth B
B Ray Optico & Compound
Totalinternalreflection Optical
ar-1-Ima shift
n
Optical Inotuumento Instruments microscope
M-- normal
adijustment
hericalsurface
When a ray of light passes from optically
Criticalangle
ms

Refractive index
for multiple I Tel scope
esCoDe
For final image at least distance
denser to rarer medium if incident
angle ( is more than (@) critical angle,
entire light is reflected to the denser uo
eoLiauds Power of
a
medium, is called TLR. It is used in
lens
u
m=- mage at near point]
optical fibre.
114-41
[image at infinite)
4 X 4 1 -1
Incident angle (B) for which angle
of refraction is 90
ie, sin e =1/g R
Lateral Magnification,

When ray passes from optically

m=h,/ho = lens formula)
For combination of lens
f u
denser to rarer medium. R-
R-u LateralMagnification= h,/hg = P- +
If two lenses are separated
by a distance 'd
Trace the Mind Map P
Second Level Third Level
First Level
 Two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of
anmplitude,
A =

a2+a2+2a142 cosp
and I =
I1+la+2|1lh cosp
For constructive Interference,
Locus of all particles (p 2m1, m=0,1,2..)
vibrating in same phase Amax AtAg and Imax =
(7+LY
For destructive, [p (2m-1)T, m=12,3]
=

For spherical wavefront,

Wavefront interference,Amin= (Ar-A) and Imin=( - 2

I dsin 9= ni (dark fringe)

Each point on the primaryy Huygen's Linear width of central maxima
wavefront is the source principle
A of a secondary wavelets. Interference
of light
Angular width-2D2
Diffraction of light

Fringe-width
by single slit dsin9-n+1)
(for maséima bright fringe
Young's double
slit experiment Coherent source
is a distance between Two sources of light are
two consecutive
Wawe Optics said to be coiherent if the
bright or dark fringe. 30uai 1ou8y inital phase difference
between the waves
emitted by the sources
remains comstant in
Distance between time, otherwise they
nth bright fringe are called incoherent
source of light.
and central fringe Restriction of vibration of light in a
Polarisation particular direction perpendicular
d
D=Distance between
to the direction of propagation.
Brewster's law tan&
source and screen

Polaroid Used in laboratory to analyse plane

Distance between nth dark For bright fringe, polarised light
fringe and central fringe n Used to eliminate the hear light
For dark fringe,
Tracethe Mind Map glares in motor cars
z,2 1 - 1 ) D
2d First Level Second Level Third Level
d= Distance between slits
 Light has both wave character as well as particle.

de-Brogierelation .=hlp
Interference explained by wave nature
Einstein, after an average academic
.When light is of suffciently low wavelength, it career put forward quantum h.=Wavelength assodiated
withparticde or de-Broglie
behaves as a particle. theory of ight in 1905 while
working as a grade III technical wavelength
Light particle having definite energy and definite linear officer in a patent office. p =Momentum
momentum called Pphoton or energy packets.

mK
Energy of each photon = hy = h c -

Momentum of each photon = hh = E/c All matter can exhibit

wave-like behaviour
e-g.,beam of electrons
can be difracted
Contribution like water wave.

Dual nature of Matter waves

radiation

Cathode Anode
Dual Nauwre of
When ight of sufficiently small Radiation& Matter
wavelength is incident on metal
surface, electrons are ejected Photoelectric
from the metal, the phenomenon effect Hertz and Lenard's
is called photoelectric effect. observation >V
Ejected electrons are Einstein's photoelectric
called photoelectrons.
Minimum energy equal to work
equation
ek-K
function (W) must be given to
an electron so as to bring it
Out of the metal.
Kynax E -
W= eVo .If = Kmax -
0,then
electron may just come out.
=-W V=Stopping potential I f 2>ho or
(o<v), then
no electron will come out.
KmaxMaximum kineticenergy
of ejected electrons If s h or (o>D), then

Here, hc/W Photoelectric effect takes place.

g:depends on metal used
oThreshold wavelength
Trace the Mind Map
Kmahe First Level Second Level Third Level

Krnaxh(V-Vo)
 a-particle bombarded on thin gold foil.
Most of a- In 1898, JJ Thomson proposed the
particles passed undeviated or with a small angle. first model of atom also known
. 1 out of 8000
a-particleswere deflected by scattering angle. as plum-pudding model.

N(O) o Number of a- particles

sin 8/2)K2 scattered by angle (8) Energy of electron in each stationary orbit is
where, Lyman series [U.V. region]
K: Kinetic energy given by E, 13.6eV
= -

Z: Atomic number of metal

Where, n = 1,2,3.. 1-1,n= 2,3A...
Z =
Atomic number of atom min912 A, ma1216 A
These Balmer series [visible region]
a-particle scattering stationary energy orbits are also called
experiment energy levels or principle quantum nunmber n=2, n= 3,4,5..
Impact parameter, When an electron jumps from a
higher energy homin=3648Á, maz =6563
Contribution
level to a lower energy level,it releases
b=Zcot 0/2 Paschen series |IR region
energy. - 3 , n4=4,5,6..
4Ttom AE=E,=E,=136 e min8208 A, m= 18761 Å
Postulates Rutherford's model
Brackett series [IR region)
4, = 5,6,7..
Energy level min 14592 A r = 40533 A
Atoms have a central, massive, p-fund [R region]
positively charged core called Doesn't explain the 1;=5, =6,7,8..
nucleus around which
stability of atom Atomo Hydrogen spectrum min=23850 À, max=74618 ÄA
electron revolves. Doesn't explain the
Size of nucleus atomic spectrum
1 fermi = 10m Total energy
Postulates Bohr model Kinetic energy TE=KE+PE.
Electron revolves around =-me/8P
the nucleus in stationary orbits. Limitations Potential
Radius of nth energy
Angular momentum ofelectron Velocity of electron
Bohr's orbit
n Bohr's orbit
mor= nx where, KE=me /8r?h-e
27t
n= Integer. It is also known
as principle quantunm number Fails to explain spectrum of
PE.=-me/4n'h*e
When an electron jumps from a higher complex atoms/ions of muli
electron system T4Tenh2 /4Tme Trace the MindMap
to lower orbit and viceversa, it releases First Level Second Level Third Level
or absorbs energy Doesn't explain Zeeman's
and Starks effect
AE=E-E;= hy A 12375 eV D,=2me/4TEgnh
 Same mass number (A) Same atomic number (Z)
Different atomic number (Z)
e.gv,C4N4
sotopes Different mass number (A)
Nuclei consists of protons
Common name of protons and
and neutrons
neutrons is
e.gC,C4 nucleons.
Isobars zX, A
A =
=Z+N =Mass
Atomic number
number
N = number of neutrons
Atoms whose nuclei
have same number Types of Nuclei Composition
of neutron (N) Isotone

egnNa, pMg4 In 1896, Henri

Becquerel
discovered Radioactivity
Contribution
Disintegration of heavy elements
into comparatively lighter elements
by emission of a , B,and yradiations. Mass of nucdeus
Nuclei Nuclear density
P
Volume of nucleus

-dN =JN Law of radioactivit Ax1.67 x10 kg

Radioactivity
dt
N=N, e
H a l f -l i f e
Properties
B and
Y
Size of nucleus
Tx
3 (1.2x10-5
2.0x 10" kgm3
xA

(independent of A)
0.693
M e alnite
Nuclear volume V=TR
Particle
A wave of high frequency, having

Y-Rays
no masS
N= N2
Least ionizing power
.Highest penetrating power
y-decay causes no change in atomic no.
Nuclear radius TRA
Voc A (Mass number)
and masS no.

-4/0.693 R =RqA
Negatively charged electron. R= 1.2 x 10 m
Moderate penetrating power (100 times A =Mass No.
Heavy doubly ionis ed helium ion
that of a-particle.)
Least penetrating power less ionizing power than a-particle.
Highest ionizing power Decay of one B-particle increases Trace the Mind Map
Decay of 1 a-particle decreases the
atomic number by 2 and mass number by 4
atomic no. by 1 and mass no. remains First Level Second Level Third Level
unchanged.
Proton and neutron are the constituent

particde of the nucleus. But mass of

Einstein showed that mass is an
nudeus is found to differ from the sum of
another form of energy and gave
the masses of proton and neutron. This
difference is mass is known as mass defect. a relation, E=Ame
Here, Am is the mass defect.
AM-[Zm,+(4-Z)m,-M
m,=Mass of proton, m,=mass of
neutron
M-Mass of nudeus

Mass defect Mass energy relation

Splitting of a heavy nucdeus into

two or more lighter nuclei,
UonBaK-3,n-200 MeV
Energy
Ex:-Atom bomb

BE-AM-Zm,+(A-Z}m,-Mxe Binding energy Nuclear fission

BE pernudeon Nuclean Enengy

Nuclear fusion
Nudear reactor

The main parts of a nucdlear reactor are

) Fuel: Fissionable materials likeUU are Combining two lighter nuclei to
used as fuel form a heavy nucleus
) Moderator: Heavy water, graphite are used.
Gii) Coolant: The cold water, liquid oxygen. H+H-H+0.42 MeV [energy
Gv) Control rods: Cadmiun or Boron rods Ex:-Hydrogen bomb
are good absorber of neutrons
and therefore
used to oontrol the fission reaction. Trace the Mind Map P
First Level Second Level Third Level
 In 1927, Walter Heitler
and Fritz London D-D- o- D D Half wave rectifier
1 (m)

discovered bands. OR AND NOT NAND NOR Rectifies only one 00

half cycle. RB

The energy band which are

completely filled with Valence band Contrib Device that converts
A.C to D.C Full wave rectifier
rectifies both the cteristics in
F 5
and

electron at 0 K
half cydes.
N charace -1.04
-15
The bands with higher Conduction and 1(uA)
energy above the A range of energies associated
valence band with the quantum states of p-n juncuon diod
Device made by a dlose
electrons in a crystalline solid. contact of n- typeand
F o r w a r db i a s e d
p-typesemiconductors
The difference between the
highest energy in a valence
band and lowest energy in Band ga
a p
or
Forbidden8 Semiconductor diode

+ve terminal to p-side

Keverse biase ased
-ve teminal to p-side
+ve terminal to s-Side

the conduction band. -ve terminal to n-side Diffusion. current

Diffusion current increases decreases
Depletion layer reduced -Depletion layer increases
Classification of metals,

Pplication
semiconductors and
insulators on the basis Electuonic Zenerdiode
Heavily doped p-n junction diode
of band theory. assigned to operate in reverse bias
Deuices
LightEmitting Diode/LED
emits light when forward biased 2
Photo diode
nicoKntridnsic A P-n junction whose function
is controlled by the light allowed

Eg =0 or least Eg 0.72 eV for Ge

nductor Transistor
Solar cell
to fall on it

Converts light
density of charge Bg =1.1eV for Si Pure semiconductor Impure or doped NPN X energy into
carriers is very 0< Eg < Insulator Charge carrier semiconductor
electrical energy
concentration
high
PNP
For electrons
ne=9x 10 m3
For Hole (n)
= 5x102 m
very low (e)
e-g, Si (Silicon)

Si or Ge doped with
10pnpuoO
semc CEEmode
m amplifier
Different mode
BE
input bpuOuput hput
Cuput
CE
Mode
MMode Mode
pentavalent
(PAs, Sb) element Si or Ge doped with
For--P 3
e=7x1015m3 For-p-type Eg = very high
Electrons are majority
trivalent (B, Al) element
Electrons are minority Tracethe Mind Map
charge carriers.
for Si doped Th1x 10'm 7eV charge cariers. Second Level Thind Level
Holes are minority Outpur First Level
with P for Si doped with Al Holes are majority charge Signal
charge carriers. input
carriers. lgnal