Session: 2023-24

Submitted by:
Tejas Choudhary
Class 12 ( Science) Under the guidance of:
Mrs. Ranjita Lanjewar
 Index
1. Certificate
2. Acknowledgement
3. Introduction
4. Bibliography
 USA VIDYA NIKETAN, TUMSAR

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Tejas Choudhary , Student of class XII has
successfully completed the research on project carried out in the
computer lab under the guidance of Mrs. Ranjita Lanjewar during the
year 2023-24 in partial fulfillment of computer practical exam
conducted by

Signature of Teacher Signature of Principal

Signature of External Examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people
have best owned upon me their blessings and the heart pleaged
support, this time I am utilising to thank all the people who have
been concerned with project.

Primarily I would thank God for being able to complete this

project with success. Then I would like to thank my Principal...
And physics teacher Mrs Ranjita Lanjewar whose valuable
guidance has been the ones that helped me patch this project and
make it full proof success her suggestions and instructions has
served as the major contributor towards the completion of project.

Then I would like to thank my parents and friends who have

helped me with their valuable suggestions and guidance has been
helpful in various phases of completion of the project.
 Transformers
Introduction
Transformer is static device which transfer power from one circuit to
another circuit without any change in frequency.
As transformer does not change the frequency of the system it can be
treated as constant frequency device.
As transformer transfer almost same amount of power from one circuit to
another circuit it can be treated as constant power device.
Transformer is an electromagnetic energy conversion device if internal
conversion process is considered however the complete transformer is not
an energy conversion device as the input and output are of electrical nature.
In transformer to windings are electrically isolated but magnetically coupled
hence transformer is couple circuits
Transformer can be treated as page shifting device since it of a
displacement of approx 180 degree between two circuits.
Transformer is single exit device since it requires only one external voltage
source to energise any number of finding placed on its core.

As the amount of flux is in transformer core is constant irrespective of

power transfer it can be treated as constant flux device.
Transformer is four terminal two port network.
Working Principle
The transformer work based on "Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction".
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever there is
a relatives space or time variation between magnetic field and set of
conductor and emf will be induced in the conductor.
Basic requirements to generate e.m.f
According to Faraday's law,
1. Magnetic field
2. Set of conductors
3. Relative variation in space or time between magnetic field and set of
conductor
there are two possibilities to generate EMF by using Faraday's law
Relative space variation
Relative time variation.

The EMF induced in set of conductor due to relatives space variation with
respect to steady magnetic field is called dynamically induced EMF
e.g. DC Generator

The EMF induced in set of stationary conductors due to relative time variation
with respect to magnetic field is called statically induced EMF
e.g. Transformer
1 Dynamically Induced e.m.f
Magnitude of dynamically induced EMF is found by flux cut rule.

Direction of dynamically induced emf

can be found by " Fleming right
B hand rule"

Direction of motion of conductor

θ
Direction of Flux
Direction of induced e.m.f

V m/sec

According to flux cut rule the magnitude of dynamically induced EMF is

E = Bl Vsinθ

Where θ = angle between B and V

B = Flux density in Tesla of steady magnetic field
V = Linear velocity with which conductor is being moved
l = Effective length of conductor
The length of conductor which cuts the flux is called active length or effective
length of conductor
Where θ = angle between B and V
B = Flux density in Tesla of steady magnetic field
V = Linear velocity with which conductor is being moved
l = Effective length of conductor
The length of conductor which cuts the flux is called active length or effective
length of conductor
2 Statically Induced e.m.f
Magnitude of statically induced EMF is found by Faraday's second law.
According to Faraday's second law, magnitude of statically induced
e.m.f is equal to rate of change of flux linkages.
flux linkages are required to generate statically induced e.m.f
Flux cuttings are required to generate dynamically induced e.m.f

Let N = no. Of turns in a coil and

i = I sin(ωt)
m
N

MMF = N i φ

= N I sin(ωt)
m

E s= -Nd φ i
dt
~Vi
'-' represents direction of statically induced e.m.f and it can be found by
Lenz's law.

. s= -Nd φ is the summarization of Faraday's law and Lenz's law

E
dt
 Lenz's Law
The direction of statically induced EMF is such that the current due to this
e.m.f will flow through a close circuit in such a direction that it which in turn
produce same flux according to electromagnetic theory and these flux must
opposes the change in main field flux which is the cause of production of
e.m.f as well as current
φ
Flux has two changes
1. 0 to x one change ( Magnitude of flux
0 ωt increases).
x y
2. x to y another change ( Magnitude of
flux decreases )

The diagrams show the direction of statically induced e.m.f in a coil

1.
φ Main flux
Stationary
φm conductors

0 ωt 0 to x only Es
x y
I
E direction is
same as current

=> Main flux increasing

Flux due to current in
the conductor
Flux φ c ( According to Lenz law)
 2.

φ Main flux
Stationary
φm conductors

0 ωt x to y only Es
x y
I
E direction is
same as current

=> Main flux decreasing

Flux due to current in
the conductor
Flux φ c ( According to Lenz law)

Lenz's law offered time displacement of 90° between two quantities.

Lenz's law sequence is a negative feedback sequence.

Types of statically Induced emf

1. Self Induced emf
2. Mutual Induced emf

N1 N2

i E Self Em

~V1
1 Self Induced e.m.f
Self Induced emf is the statically induced EMF in a coil due to time varying
nature of current through same coil.

ESelf= -d (Nφ)
1 => -N1 d φ
dt dt

where , di is the change in current. { }

=> - N1 d φ d i
dt dt

-N1 d φ = L = Self Inductance of a coil

di Self

Self inductance of a coil can be defined as rate of change of flux linkage w.r.t
time varying nature of current through same coil

L Self = -N1 d φ
di

E Self = L Self d i
dt

Whenever current in a coil changes, the flux linkages at same coil will be changed
then the property of coil is called self induction.

Self induced emf always opposes the changes in current in the coil to satisfy the
Lenz's law, so that the self Induced is always lag behind the flux or current
exactly by 90° . And also current flowing through coil opposes the change in
voltage source so that current lags behind voltage by 90°.

So that self Induced emf and applied voltage are displaced by 180° apart and they
opposes one another
2 Mutual Induced e.m.f
Mutual induced emf is statically induced emf in a coil due to time varying
nature of current flowing through another coil which is magnetically coupled
to first one

E = -d (Nφ)
2 => -N2 d φ
dt dt

{ }
=> - N2 d φ d i
dt dt
-N2 d φ = M = Mutual Inductance between the coils
di
Mutual inductance between two coils may be defined as rate of change of flux
linkage in a coil w.r.t time wearing nature of current through another coil which is
magnetic couple to first coil

Em = M d i
dt

Whenever current is in a coil changes flux linkage to another coil also changes
then the corresponding property is called mutual induction.
Mutual induced emf also opposite the changes in flux or changes in current
through the first coil to satisfy Lenz's law so that mutual induce emf also like
behind the flux or current exactly by 90° and is in face with self induced emf.
Observation
Transformer is basically a coupled circuit which operates on mutual induction
principle
 Types of Magnetic Coupling
The polarity of mutual induction can be decided based on type of
magnetic coupling.
Positive magnetic coupling (M is positive)
Negative magnetic coupling (M is negative)

The following figure illustrate the positive coupling and negative coupling

1. Sence of two coils same and direction of current in 2. Sence of two coils same and direction of current in
coil reversed two coils same
A B A B

φA φB
-ve φA φB
+ve
Starting

~ ~
Starting
Terminating

V1
Terminating

3. Sence of coil B reversed 4. Sence of coil B reversed

A B A B

φA φB φA φB
Starting
Starting

Terminating
~ Starting
Terminating

Terminating
~
The two coins are said to be positively coupled, if the flux produced by two coils
aiding one another in magnetic circuit
the two coils are said to be negatively coupled, if the flux produced by two coils
opposes one another in magnetic circuit circuit
 Constructional features of Transformer
Active parts of transformer are:
Transformer core
Transformer windings

Transformer core

Transformer winding

Transformer core: the basic material used for making Transformer core is silicon steel.
Silicon steel
Silicon steel is ferromagnetic material . This has superior magnetic properties.
It has high permeability and low reluctance to flow of flux.
it has low hysterisis coefficient.

where X is hysteresis coefficient and is in range of 1.5 and 2.5

x = 1.6 for steel
it has low hysterisis loss.
About 4-5% of silicon is added to steel , so that conductivity of Steel decreases.
Thereby Eddy current loss can be reduced.
Lamination technique is used to further reduce conductivity of Steel, so that Eddy
current losses are reduced further.
Silicon steel is having crystalline structure. The shape of Silicon steel crystal is body
centred cubic structure.

Note...
As the permeability in CRGO steel is higher than silicon steel, the
transformer core is generally made of CRGO steel.
 Magnetization curves:-
With CRGO steel higher flux densities can be achieved, so that size and weight of
transformer can be reduced..

CRGO steel
(B)
Silicon steel

Mild steel

Cast steel

Cast Iron

(H)
I e = constant Ie

Importance of Laminations:
The Transformer core is generally made of thin strips called laminations to reduce Eddy
current loss.
Insulating material between the laminations is required for electrical isolation so as to
reduce Eddy current loss.
Insulating material used between
laminations:
1. Oxide paint red oxide
2. Inorganic paints
3. Thin imprignated paper
Main adding Transformer oil the dielectric strength of
insulation will be increase and this process is called as
impregnated process

Types of magnetic circuits in single phase transformer

1. Core Type core
2. Shell Type core
1 Core Type core
It has two yoke and two limbs.
Both the limbs are provided with winding and core is being surrounded by windings
Windings are less protected by core.
Leakage flux is more hence power transfer capability is less.
Series magnetic circuit
Both the limbs have same cross sectional area.
More amount of copper is required for winding.
Requires less amount of insulating material.
Economical for high voltage, small KVA rating transformed.
Horizontal Yoke

Leakage flux

Limb
Fig: Core type

2 Shell type core

It has three limbs and to yokes
Only middle limb is provided with windings and windings are being surrounded by
core
Windings are more protected by core
Leakage flux is less and power transfer capability is more
Parallel magnetic circuit
Outer limbs cross sectional area is half of middle limb
Less amount of copper required for windings.
 Requires more amount of insulating material
Economically for low voltage large KVA rating transformers.

Step up Transformer
Step Down Transformer

A transformer is a piece of static electrical equipment which transforms electrical

energy (from primary side windings) to the magnetic energy (in the transformer’s
magnetic core) and again to the electrical energy (on the secondary transformer side).
A step-up transformer has a wide variety of applications in electrical systems and
transmission lines.
STEP UP TRANSFORMER
A step-up transformer is a type of transformer that converts the low voltage (LV) and
high current from the primary side of the transformer to the high voltage (HV) and low
current value on the secondary side of the transformer. The reverse of this is known as a
step down transformer.

Iron core
Primary coil Secondary coil

Output
Input

The HV windings contain a huge number of turns compared with the LV windings. An LV
winding wire has a bigger cross-section than HV wire because of the higher current value
on the LV side. Usually, we place the LV windings close to the transformer core, and over
them, we wound the HV windings.

The transformer turns ratio (n) for a step up transformer is approximately proportional
to the voltage ratio:
n= V = N
p p

V =N
s s

Where VP,S are voltages, and NP,S are the turns numbers on the primary (LV) and
secondary (HV) sides respectively. The primary side of a step-up transformer (LV side)
has a smaller number of turns than the secondary side (HV side).
That means energy flows from the LV to the HV side. The voltage is stepped up from the
primary voltage (input voltage) to the secondary voltage (output voltage).

This equation can be rearranged for the formula for the output voltage (i.e. secondary
voltage). This is sometimes referred to as the step up Transformer

V =N ×V
s s p

N p
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
A step-down transformer is a type of transformer that converts the high voltage (HV)
and low current from the primary side of the transformer to the low voltage (LV) and
high current value on the secondary side of the transformer. The reverse of this is
known as a step up transformer

Just as transformers can step down the voltage – going from a higher primary side
voltage to a lower secondary side voltage – they can also step up the voltage, going from
a lower primary side voltage to a higher secondary side voltage. These are known as
step-up transformers.

The transformer turns ratio (n) for a step down transformer is approximately
proportional to the voltage ratio:
n= V = N p p

V =N
s s

Where VP,S are voltages, and NP,S are the turns numbers on the primary (LV) and
secondary (HV) sides respectively. The primary side of a step-down transformer (HV
side) has a larger number of turns than the secondary side (LV side).

That means energy flows from the HV to the LV side. The voltage is stepped down from
the primary voltage (input voltage) to the secondary voltage (output voltage).

This equation can be rearranged for the formula for the output voltage (i.e. secondary
voltage). This is sometimes referred to as the step down transformer formula:

V =N ×V
s s p

N p
 Loss in transformer

The main causes for energy loss in transformers are as follows:

1. Copper loss. Some energy is lost due to heating of copper wires used in the primary
and secondary windings. This power loss (= 12R) can be minimised by using thick copper
wires of low resistance.

2. Eddy current loss. The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the
iron core which leads to some energy loss in the form of heat. This loss can be reduced by
using laminated iron core.

3. Hysteresis loss. The alternating current carries the iron core through cycles of
magnetisation and demagnetisation. Work is done in each of these cycles and is lost as
heat. This is called hysteresis loss and can be minimised by using core material having
narrow hysteresis loop.

4. Flux leakage. The magnetic flux produced by the primary may not fully pass
through the secondary. Some of the flux may leak into air. This loss can be minimised by
winding the primary and secondary coils over one another.

5. Humming loss. As the transformer works, its core lengthens and shortens during
each cycle of the alternating voltage due to a phenomenon called magnetostriction. This
gives rise to a humming sound. So some of the electrical energy is lost in the form of
humming sound.
It is due to yourself of magnetization of Transformer core whenever it is subjected to
alternating nature of magnetization force whenever magnetic material is subjected to
alternating magnetic to force the domain present in the magnetic material will change
their orientation after half cycle the power consume by the magnetic domains to change
their orientation after every half cycle when ever core is subjected to alternating nature
of magnetising force is called hysteresis loss.

MAGNETIZATION CURVE
The magnetic reversal of transformer core is
plotted by means of curve called magnetization
Curve

Resistivity:~
The property of magnetic material to retain
some flux i.e. even though the magnetising force
is zero.
Corsivity :~
The magnetization force required to bring the
residual flux to zero is known as coersive force.
This property of magnetic material is known as
corsivity

Hysterisis loss per one cycle = Area enclosed within one hysteresis loop
 Eddy current loss is basically I 2 R loss present in the core due to production of Eddy
currents in the core because of its conductivity.

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

EDDY CURRENT REDUCING METHODS:-

The Eddy current loss can be reduced by reducing conductivity of a core. the conductivity
of a core can be reduced without affecting its magnetic properties by using following
method

a) By adding silica content upto extent of 4 to 5 %

b) By using laminated core instead of solid core

The Eddy current loss can be reduced by

reducing thickness of Laminations

High frequency transformer are designed with

thin Laminations

Low frequency transformer are designed with

thick Laminations
 USES OF TRANSFORMER
Natural Language Processing (NLP): Transformers are widely used in NLP
tasks, such as language translation, sentiment analysis, and named entity recognition,
owing to their ability to capture contextual relationships in large text datasets.

Speech Recognition: Transformers are applied in speech recognition systems to

process and understand spoken language, facilitating applications like virtual assistants
and voice-operated devices.

Image Recognition: Transformers have been adapted for computer vision tasks,
demonstrating effectiveness in image classification, object detection, and image
generation, as seen in models like Vision Transformer (ViT).

Recommendation Systems: Transformers are employed in recommendation

algorithms to analyze user behavior and provide personalized suggestions, enhancing user
experience on platforms like streaming services and e-commerce websites.

Time Series Forecasting: Transformers are utilized for predicting trends and
patterns in time-series data, such as stock prices or weather conditions, due to their
ability to capture long-range dependencies.

Chatbots and Conversational AI: Transformers are integral to the development

of sophisticated chatbots and conversational AI systems, allowing for more natural
language understanding and generation in human-machine interactions.

Code Generation: Transformers can be utilized for code generation tasks,

automating the process of writing or summarizing code snippets, facilitating software
development and documentation.
 USES OF TRANSFORMER
Graph-based Learning: Transformers are applied to graph data, enabling tasks like
social network analysis, fraud detection, and recommendation in scenarios where
relationships between entities are essential.

Medical Diagnosis: In healthcare, transformers are employed for tasks like medical
image analysis, disease prediction, and patient record processing, leveraging their
capacity to handle complex and varied data.

Autonomous Vehicles: Transformers play a role in processing sensor data for

autonomous vehicles, aiding in tasks like object detection, lane keeping, and decision-
making based on the understanding of the surrounding environment.
Thank