UNIT 1

1. VARIOUS OPERATING FORCES

Deflecting Force (Td):

 Also called as operating force

 Makes the pointer to move from zero position to indicating position
 Zero position is when the instrument is disconnected from supply
 It converts the electric current or voltage into a mechanical force
 It is produced by (i) magnetic (ii) thermal (iii) electrostatic (iv) induction

Controlling Force (Tc):

 Pointer movement will be infinite when no opposing force

 This opposing force is called controlling force
 It is equal and opposite of the deflecting force
 Used to stop the pointer at the indicating position
 Under steady state, Td = Tc
 It also bring the pointer to zero when deflecting force is removed

Damping Force (Tdamp):

 It also opposes the deflecting force

 It is used to bring the pointer to rest quickly
 Otherwise the needle will oscillate for some time at indicating position
 Damping is divided into (i) under damping (ii) critical damping (iii) over damping

2. VARIOUS EFFECTS USED IN AN INSTRUMENT

MAGNETIC EFFECT

 Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

 This effect is used to create the deflecting force.
 A magnetic field is set up around a current carrying conductor.
 When two magnetic poles are brought near the conductor, a force acts on the
conductor
 Eg: PMMC meters

THERMAL EFFECT

 Current is passed through a small wire

 Heat is produced on it
 The heat effect is used to create the deflecting force using a thermocouple
 Eg: Thermocouple
ELECTROSTATIC EFFECT

 When two plates are charged, there is a force of attraction or repulsion

 This effect is used to create the deflecting force
 Eg: Voltmeters

INDUCTION EFFECT

 Aluminium disc is placed between the poles of electromagnet

 An EMF is induced in the disc which produces a current
 Interaction of induced current on magnetic field makes the disc to rotate
 This effect is used to create the deflecting force
 Eg: Energy meter

3. SPRING CONTROL

 Consists of two phosphor bronze

spiral springs
 One end is attached to the
spindle and other to a lever
 Springs wound in opposite
direction to each other.
 When the pointer moves, one
spring winds and other spring
unwinds.
 This produces the controlling
torque
 When the deflecting torque
stops, wind spring brings the
moving system back to zero
position
 Deflecting torque is proportional
to the current Td  I
 Controlling torque is
proportional to the angle of
deflection Tc  θ
 Under steady state Tc = Td i.e. θ
I
4. GRAVITY CONTROL  Two small weights are attached
to the moving system – control
weight & balance weight
 Position of the weight is
adjustable
 Control weight produces the
controlling torque due to gravity
 Balance weight balances the
moving system
 When the pointer deflects
through an angle θ°, weights also
moves θ°
 A component of the weight W sin
θ acts at a distance L producing
the control torque
 Controlling torque Tc = W l sin θ
 Tc  sin θ
 Controlling torque is
proportional to the sine of angle
of deflection
 Under steady state Td = Tc i.e. I
 sin θ

5. VARIOUS DAMPING SYSTEMS

AIR FRICTION DAMPING  It consists of a light aluminum

piston attached to the moving
system.
 The piston moves in a fixed air
chamber closed at one end.
 When the piston moves into the
chamber, the air inside is
compressed
 The pressure of air opposes the
motion of piston and hence the
pointer.
 When the piston moves out of air
chamber, pressure inside the
chamber reduces
 Outside air pressure opposes the
motion of piston and hence the
pointer.
FLUID FRICTION DAMPING
EDDY CURRENT DAMPING
6. COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Sl No DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
1 Indicates the value in decimal form
2 Has much greater accuracy
3 Relatively complex operation
4 Resolution of one part in several
thousand
5 No loading effect
6 Free from parallax error
7 Speed of reading is high
8 Cost is high
9 Wide range of measurements
10 Readings can be stored
 Oil is used in place of air.
 A circular disc is attached to the
pointer
 The disc is completely
submerged in oil
 When the pointer moves, the disc
moves in oil.
 This frictional force is produced
and provides the damping
 As the viscosity of oil is greater,
the damping force is also greater.
 When a conductor moves in a
magnetic field an emf is induced
in it.
 If closed path is provided, an
eddy current flows.
 The current interacts with the
magnetic field to produce an
electromagnetic torque which
opposes the motion.
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Displays the value in terms of
deflection of pointer on a scale
Accuracy of +/- 0.1 % on full scale
Simple parts and operate under wide
range of environment
Resolution of one part in several tens
May load the circuit
Gives parallax error
Speed of reading is low
Cost is low
Limited range of measurement
Readings cannot be stored
7. COMPARISON OF SPRING CONTROL AND GRAVITY CONTROL

Sl No SPRING CONTROL GRAVITY CONTROL

1 Cost is high Cost is less
2 Uniform scale Scale is not uniform
3 Fatigue present Fatigue not present
4 Can be used in any position Used in vertical position only
5 Accuracy depends on temperature Independent of temperature
6 Losses tension due to ageing Unaffected by ageing
7 Used as portable instruments Used for panel board meter only

8. FUNCTIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Indicating Function:
 If an instrument conveys the result of measurement as a deflection of a pointer,
it performs indicating function.
 Example: The deflection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the
automobile.

Recording function:
 If an instrument conveys the result of measurement against time in paper, it
performs recording function.
 Example: A strip chart recorder records the instantaneous value of temperature
on a paper chart

Controlling function:
 If an instrument uses the result of measurement to control the original
measured quantity, it performs controlling function:
 Example: Thermostats for temperature control, Floats for level control

9. APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Monitoring of process and operations

 In monitoring application, Measuring Instruments simply indicate the value
and they do not serve any control functions.
 Example: Ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter indicates the value at that instant.
Control of processes and opertions
 In controlling application, measuring system takes action to make the error zero
so that desired value of variable is achieved
 Example: Refrigerator system which employs thermostatic control
Experimental engineering analysis
 In experimental application, measuring system is used for solving engineering
problem. This has many uses such as:
 Testing the validity of theoretical predictions.
 Formulations of generalized empirical relationships
 Determination of system parameters, variables and performance indices.
 To find solutions of mathematical relationships.
10. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

A. ABSOLUTE INSTRUEMNTS
 These instruments give the quantity under measurement in terms of the
physical constant of the instrument
 Example: Tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh’s current balance

B. SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

 These instruments give the quantity to be measured with the help of graduated
scale.
 These instruments are calibrated by comparing with an absolute instrument..
 Example: volt meter, glass thermometer and pressure gauge.
 They are further classified as follows:

Indicating instruments

 Indicates the quantity at that time only

 Value is given by a pointer on a graduated scale
 Eg: Ammeter, Voltmeter

Recording instruments

 Gives continuous record of quantity over a period of time

 Makes use of a pen on a graph paper
 Instantaneous value can be read
 Paper rotates on a drum or disc
 Eg: Recording MD meters, Recording Pyrometers

Integrating instruments

 Gives total consumption of quantity over a time

 The value is the product of electrical quantity and time
 Eg: Energy meter, Ampere-hour meter

C. ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

 Instruments that indicate the quantity by a pointer on a continuous scale are

called analog instruments.
 Instruments that display the value of the quantity in discrete numerals are
called digital instruments
 3 MARK QUESTIONS
1. FUNCTIONS OF MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
 Indicating function
 Recording function
 Controlling function
2. APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
 Monitoring of process and operations
 Control of process and operations
 Experimental and engineering analysis
3. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
 Absolute instrument
 Secondary instrument
o Indicating instrument
o Recording instrument
o Integrating instrument
 Analog and digital instruments
4. TRUE VALUE
 It is the exact value or the perfectly
correct value
 It is the average of infinite values
 It is usually taken from laboratory
standard
5. ACCURACY
 Closeness with which the value
approaches the true value
 It is confirmative to truth
6. PRECISION
 Ability to give consistent reading
 Successive readings do no differ
7. ERROR
 It is the difference between the
measured value and the true value
 Error = Measured value – True value
8. ERROR CORRECTION
 It is the opposite of error
 It is the difference between the true
value and the measured value
 Error correction = True value –
Measured value
9. INSTRUMENT EFFICIENCY
 It is the ratio of measured quantity at
full scale to the power taken at full
scale
 Instrument efficiency =
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
10. ADV OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
 Simple in construction
 Simple in operation
 Cheaper in cost
 Portable
11. DIS ADV OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
 Lack of accuracy
 Resolution is low
 Parallax error
12. ADV OF DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
 Digital readings are obtained
 Readings can be adjusted to any
number of decimals
 Offer high input impedance and no
loading effect
 Readings can be stored in a memory
 Consumes less power