RUSSEL SOLOMON
STMOO7 MODULE 10
CYTOLOGY
 It is branch of science that deals the
structures and function of cells
CELL DIVISION
 accomplishes the increase in the number
of cells.
 Cell divides to give rise to new ones, to
replace those old and injured cells and to
promote growth of organisms.
CELL CYCLE
 is an orderly sequence of events that
describes the stages of a cell’s life from
the division of a single parent cell to the
production of two new cells daughter
cells.
INTERPHASE
 cells may appear inactive but they are
quite the opposite.
 This is the longest of the complete period
of the complete cell cycle during which
DNA replicates, the centrioles divide, and
proteins are actively produced.
INTERPHASE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO 4 STEPS:
GAP 0 PHASE (G0)
 are times when a cell will leave the
cycle and quit dividing.
 It means that if the cell does not receive
“go-ahead” signal, it will exit the cell cycle
and switch to a non-dividing stage which
is the Gap 0
GAP 1 PHASE (G1)
 also known as restriction point.
 cell increase in size, produce RNA and
synthesize protein
 it ensures that everything is ready for
DNA synthesis
SYNTHESIS PHASE OR S PHASE
 produce two similar daughter cells,
 the complete DNA instructions in the cell
must be duplicated.
 DNA replication occurs during this phase
 Is a checkpoint that determines if the cell
can now proceed to enter mitotic division
(mitosis phase).
GAP 2 PHASE (G2)
 the gap between DNA synthesis and
mitosis, the cell will continue to grow and
produce new proteins.
 ensures that DNA replication in S phase
has been successfully completed.
MITOSIS
 is the part of cell cycle that results in
identical daughter nuclei that are also
genetically identical to the original parent
nucleus.
NUCLEAR DIVISION
 also knowns as KARYOKINESIS
 is a continuous process but it is
conveniently divided into four different
stages, namely: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase.
4 PHASES OF MITOTIC DIVISION:
PROPHASE
 is marked by the condensation of
chromosome to form visibly distinct
chromosomes.
CHROMOSOME - is made up two sister
chromatids joined together at the
Centromere, structures within the nucleus
that are made up of DNA
METAPHASE
 in this phase, chromosomes are aligned in
a plane called metaphase plate, or the
equatorial plane, midway between the
two poles of the cell.
 The significant event occurred in
metaphase stage is the alignment of
chromosomes at the middle in plane
called metaphase plate.
ANAPHASE
 the centromeres divide and the two
sister chromatids move toward the
opposite poles of the spindle.
 The movement results from a pulling to
the poles by spindle fibers that are
attached to the centromeres.
TELOPHASE
 Starts when the chromosomes reach their
spindle poles
CYTOKINESIS
 is a process of the division of the
cytoplasm
In animal’s cell, cytokinesis starts with a
cleavage furrow
CLEAVAGE FURROW
 partitioning of cytoplasm
 is the indentation around the middle that
eventually pinches in, dividing the cell into
 two while on the plant cell is the
formation of cell plate.
STM007:MODULE 11
MEIOSIS
 reduces the chromosomes number of the
parent cell so that the four daughter cells
are produced
MEIOSIS I
 Is the reductional cell division,
 the chromosomes number is reduced by
half (from 46 to 23 chromosomes)
MEIOSIS II
 Is the equational cell division similar to
mitosis which maintains the chromosomes
number of organism (maintain 23
chromosome).
STAGES OF MEIOSIS I:
PROPHASE I
 the chromosomes have already
duplicated.
SUBDIVISIONS OF PROPHASE I:
LEPTONEMA
 where replicated chromosomes have
coiled and are already visible.
ZYGONEMA
 the homologous chromosomes begin to
pair and twist each other in highly specific
manner.
 The pairing iscalle the “synapsis”
Bivalent - the pair consist of four chromatids
PACHYNEMA
 chromosome become much shorter and
thicker
CROSSING OVER is a form of process of
physical exchange of a chromosome region
 is the exchange of chromosome segment
between homologous chromosomes
 it ensures genetic variability
DIPLONEMA
 where two pairs of sister chromatids
begin to separate from each other
CHIASMA where crossing-over is shown to
have taken place and the area of contact
between two non-sister chromatids become
evident.
DIAKINESIS
 where the four chromatids of each tetrad
are even more condensed and the
chiasma often terminalize or move down
the chromatids to the end
“At the end of prophase I, the nuclear envelope
disappears allowing the spindle to enter the nucleus”
METAPHASE 1
 the centrioles are at opposite poles of
the cell.
 The pair of homologous chromosomes
(the bivalents), now is tightly coiled and
condensed as they will be meiosis,
become arranged on a plane equidistant
from the poles called metaphase plate
METAPHASE PLATE plane equidistant from
the poles
ANAPHASE I
 begins when the two chromosomes of
each bivalent (tetrad) separate and start
moving toward opposite poles of the cell
as a result of the action of the spindle
TELOPHASE I
 At this stage homologous chromosome
pairs complete their migration to the two
poles as a result of the action of the
spindle.
 Now a haploid set of chromosomes is at
each pole, with each having two
chromatids
MEIOSIS II
 is the equational cell division similar to
mitosis which maintains the chromosomes
number of organism (maintain 23
chromosome)

STAGES OF MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE II
 there is formation of spindle apparatus,
and the chromosomes progresses toward
the metaphase plate
METAPHASE II
 each of daughter cells complete the
formation of a spindle apparatus.
 Single chromosomes align on the
metaphase plate, much as chromosomes
do in mitosis
 homologous pairs of chromosomes align
on the metaphase plate
 For each chromosome, the kinetochores of
the sister chromatids face the opposite
poles, and each is attached to a
kinetochore microtubule coming from the
pole
 KINETOCHORE is protein structure that
forms on a chromatid during cell division
and allows it to attach to a spindle fiber
on the chromosomes.
ANAPHASE II
 In this stage, the centromere separates,
and the two chromatids of each
chromosome move to opposite poles on
the spindle.
 The separated chromatids are now called
CHROMOSOMES
TELOPHASE II
 in this stage a nuclear envelope forms
around each set of chromosomes.
CYTOKINESIS
 is the division of cytoplasm in cells.
“At the end of the division, mother cell produces four
haploid cells”
STM007:MODULE 12
MITOSIS
 is is a mechanisms of cell division by which
the genetic and chromosome composition
of a cell is faithfully reproduced in each of
the daughter cells.
MEIOSIS
 is a special type of cell division occurs in
sexually reproducing cells.
 It is the process in which the
chromosomes number of the cell is
reduced to half its usual number from
diploid (2n) to haploid (n).
GAMETOGENESIS
 is the formation of sex cells or
reproductive cells also known as gametes.
 Happens in primary sex organ called
GONADS
GONAD – primary sex organ
TESTIS – male gonad
OVARY – female gonad
“Testis and Ovary both contains primordial germ
cells”
PRIMORDIAL GERM CELL
 are the common origins of spermatozoa
and oocytes, these cells are responsible
for the production of gametes
TWO COMPONENTS OF GAMETOGENESIS:
1. SPERMATOGENESIS
 is the formation of sperm cells located in
the seminiferous tubules of male gonad
SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
 are the site for germination, maturation
and transportation of the sperm cells
within the male testes.

SPERMATOGONIA
 is the most immature sperm cell
originated from primordial germ cel
 Through growth phase (mitosis) the
spermatogonia get converted into primary
spermatocyte which are diploid cells (2n=
46 chromosomes). They undergo meiotic
cell division, initially the meiosis I results
in the formation of secondary
 spermatocyte and through meiosis II they
form spermatids.
SPERMATIDS
 are haploid (n=23 chromosomes) in
nature and by process of spermiogenesis
they get differentiated into cells called
spermatozoa.
SPERMIOGENESIS
 is the transformation of spermatids into
functional spermatozoa
SPERMATOZOA
 male mature sperm cells
2. OOGENESIS
 is the formation of ovum located in the
female gonad called ovary.
 This process happens inside the primordial
germ cells and it’s start from oogonium
OOGONIUM
 Is the immature female germ cell
 Through mitosis the oogonium get
converted into primary oocyte which are
diploid cells (2n=46 chromosomes).
 They undergo meiotic cell division, first
the meiosis I which results in the
formation of secondary oocytes and the
first polar body
 Second process is the meiosis ll which
results in the formation of ootid which
contain haploid cell (n=23 chromosomes)
and formation of second polar bodies
from primary polar body.
OVUM
 The matured egg cell
GLYCOLIPIDS
 are located on cell membrane surfaces
and have a carbohydrate sugar chain
attached to them.
 They help the cell to recognize other cells
of the body
B. CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
 are exterior to and connected to the
membrane by interactions with other
proteins.
INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
 Portions of these transmembrane proteins
are exposed on both sides of the
membrane.
STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
 help to give the cell support and shape
RECEPTOR PROTEINS
 help cells communicate with their external
environment through the use of
hormones, neurotransmitters, and other
signaling molecules.
 TRANSPORT PROTEINS - transport
molecules across cell membranes through
facilitated diffusion.
GLYCOPROTEINS
 have a carbohydrate chain attached to
them.
 They are embedded in the cell membrane
and help in cell to cell communications
and molecule transport across the
membrane.

STM007:MODULE 13

A. CELL MEMBRANE LIPIDS

PHOSPOLIPIDS
 are lipid bilayer which is semi-permeable,
allowing only certain molecules to diffuse
across the membrane.
CHOLESTEROL
 molecules are selectively dispersed
between membrane phospholipids.
 This helps to keep cell membranes from
becoming stiff by preventing
phospholipids from being too closely
packed together.
 Cholesterol is not found in the membranes
of plant cells.
MODULE 14
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELL MEMBRANE:
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELL
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
 refers to the collection of mechanisms that
regulate the passage of solutes such as ions
and small molecules through biological
membranes, which are lipid bilayers that
contain proteins embedded in them.
DIFFUSION
 is the natural movement of molecules from
area of high concentration to low
concentration.
 Occurs when particles spread
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 refers to a process whereby a substance
passes through a membrane without the aid
of an intermediary such as a integral
membrane protein.
OSMOSIS
 type of diffusion where molecules are moving
from high concentration to an area of less
concentration by passing through a semi-
permeable membrane,
 a type of membrane that selective allow
which substance will enter through it.
EQUILIBRIUM
 molecules are moving from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration until it attains a uniform
distribution.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE
 is one of the great multi-taskers of biology
 It provides structure for the cell, protects
cellular contents from the environment, and
allows cells to act as specialized units.
TRANSPORT
 means moving something from one area to
another by passing through a gate or a
membrane.
TYPES OF MEMBRANE TRANSPORT:
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 can be simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 can be primary active transport and
secondary active transport.
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 small non-charged molecules or lipid soluble
molecules pass between the phospholipids to
enter or leave the cell, moving from areas of
high concentration to areas of low
concentration (they move down their
concentration gradient).
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide and most lipids
enter and leave cells by simple diffusion.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 is a process whereby a substance passes
through a membrane with an aid of an
intermediary or a facilitator.
FACILITATOR
 is an integral membrane protein that spans
the width of the membrane.
GLUCOSE
 is simple sugar used by the brain and other
organs of the body so we can feel better

MODULE 15
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 is the movement of molecules across a cell
membrane from a region of their lower
concentration to a region of their higher
concentration—in the direction against some
gradient or other obstructing factor (often a
concentration gradient).
 Is the process by which dissolved molecules
move across a cell membrane from a lower to
a higher concentration.
GLUCOSE
 is the simplest sugar being used by the brain
cells for its function,
SODIUM
 is used to balance the water level in the body,
POTASSIUM
 is needed for effective muscle function
especially the heart
VESICLES
 small membrane-wrapped containers
 forms when the membrane bulges out and
pinches off.
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
 is the predominant mechanism for exchange
of proteins and lipids between membrane-
bound organelles in eukaryotic cells.
TWO TYPES OF VESCICLE TRANSPORT:
1. ENDOCYTOSIS
 is the case when a molecule causes the cell
membrane to bulge inward, forming a vesicle.
TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS:
PHAGOCYTOSIS
- is the type of endocytosis where an entire
cell is engulfed.
PINOCYTOSIS
- is when the external fluid is engulfed.
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
- occurs when the material to be
transported binds to certain specific
molecules in the membrane.
ENDOCYTOSIS
 is the process of capturing a substance or
particle from outside the cell by engulfing it
with the cell membrane.
TWO MAIN KINDS OF ENDOCYTOSIS:
1. PHAGOCYTOSIS
- Also known as the cellular eating
- occurs when the dissolved materials enter
the cell.
- The plasma membrane engulfs the solid
material, forming a phagocytic vesicle.
2. PINOCYTOSIS
- Also known as the cellular drinking
- occurs when the plasma membrane folds
inward to form a channel allowing
dissolved substances to enter the cell.
2. EXOCYTOSIS
- describes the process of vesicles fusing
with the plasma membrane and releasing
their contents to the outside of the cell.
- occurs when a cell produces substances
for export, such as a protein, or when the
cell is getting rid of a waste product or a
toxin.

MODULE 16
CARBOHYDRATES
- are biological molecules that provide the
body with energy
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES:
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
- include sugars found in foods such as
fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products.
- sugars coming from the foods that we eat.
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
- into sugars from pasta, bread, cereals and
baked products.
CARBOHYDRATES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THREE
SUBTYPES:
1. MONOSACCHARIDES (ONE SUGAR UNIT)
2. DISACCHARIDES (TWO SUGAR UNITS)
3. POLYSACCHARIDES (MULTIPLE SUGAR UNITS)
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES:
 Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose.
 Sparing the use of proteins for energy.
 Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis.
 When the body does not have enough glucose for
energy, it burns stored fats instead.
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF CARBOHYDRATES:
Composed of CARBON, HYDROGEN, and OXYGEN
such as GLUCOSE, with the formula C6H12O6
GOOD CARBOHYDRATES
- Foods rich in complex carbohydrates and
fiber.
BAD CARBOHYDRATES
- Foods rich in white flour and added sugars
DIABETES OR HYPERGLYCEMIA
- a rapid rise in blood sugar level and it will
eventually damage the body resulting to a
condition.
HYPOGLYCEMIA
- other type of diabetes is lowering blood
sugar, it all resulted from consuming so
much sweets and fats.
STRUCTURE OF CARBOHYDRATES
- As to its structure, carbohydrates can be
represented by the formula (C:H2:O)n,
where n is the number of carbons in the
molecule. Therefore, the ratio of carbon
to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in
carbohydrate molecules. One Carbon
atom per two Hydrogen atom and one
Oxygen atom composes a carbohydrate.
The origin of the term "carbohydrate" is based on its
components: carbon ("carbo") and water ("hydrate").
Common monosaccharides include:
A. Glucose (C6H12O6)
B. Galactose (C6H12O6)
C. Fructose (C6H12O6)
DISACCHARIDE ( TWO SUGARS)
- When two monosaccharide rings join (by
dehydration synthesis, no less) to form a
bigger sugar.
EXAMPLE:
Sucrose, or table sugar,
LACTOSE - is a disaccharide composed of
glucose and galactose.
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE - the digestive
system lacks the enzymes Lactase that
digest milk sugars, if a person has this
condition, he will suffer from stomach
ache every time he takes in food with milk
or cream
POLYSACCHARIDES
- are also used for structural support. If
carbohydrates are just carbon, hydrogen,
 and oxygen, or CHO, packed into little
units and strung together
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES:
 Carbohydrates serve as a major source of energy
in animal body.
 They are stored as glycogen, excess of
carbohydrates in the diet is converted into fat and
stored in the fat depot.
 These are reserve energy materials of the body
in liver and muscles of animals and starch in
plants. Fat people usually have big tummy
because the excess carbs are stored in liver just
below your nipple line.
 The role of carbohydrates is to provide energy, as
they are the body's main source of fuel, needed
for physical activity, brain function and operation
of the organs.
 All the cells and tissues in your body need carbs,
and they are also important for intestinal health
and waste elimination.
 Supplying energy to the body.
 help with fat metabolism.
MAJOR FUNCTION:
 Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose.
 Sparing the use of proteins for energy.
 Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis.
KETOSIS
- is a normal metabolic process. When the
body does not have enough glucose for
energy, it burns stored fats instead; this
results in a build-up of acids called
ketones
Good Carbs sources are:
  Vegetables: all of them.
  Whole fruits: apples, bananas, strawberries,
etc.
  Legumes: lentils, kidney beans, peas, etc.
  Nuts: almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts, macadamia
nuts, peanuts, etc.
  Seeds: chia seeds, pumpkin seeds.
  Whole grains: choose grains that are truly
whole, as in pure oats, quinoa, brown rice, etc.
Unhealthy high carbohydrate
- foods include sugary cereals, crackers,
cakes, pies, spaghetti, cookies, flours,
jams, preserves, bread products, refined
potato products, and sugary drinks.
Healthy high carbohydrate
- foods include vegetables, legumes
(beans), whole grains, fruits, nuts, corn,
beans, potatoes, and yogurt.
Carbs are good for you to lose weight
  Whole-Wheat Pasta, Whole wheat Bread
  Acorn squash and Green peas.
  Whole-Wheat Bread.
  Black Beans.
  Oatmeal and Quinoa
  Barley
Low carbs food
  Eggs (Almost Zero) Eggs are among the
healthiest and most nutritious foods on the
planet. ...
  Beef (Zero) Beef is highly satiating and loaded
with important nutrients like iron and B12. ...
  Lamb (Zero) ... and Chicken (Zero) ...
  Pork, Including Bacon (Usually Zero) ...
Sausages (Usually Zero) ...
  Salmon (Zero) ... and Trout (Zero)
Complex Carb Foods or Polysaccharides are not too
sweet like...
  Oatmeal and Yams (almost same as sweet
potatoes)
  Brown rice (love basmati, a long grain rice)
  Sweet potatoes and white potatoes with skin
  Multi grain hot cereal (mix or barley, oats, rye,
triticale, and a few others)
  100% whole wheat bread.