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Contents
A Personal Note to Students YJJ
Preface for Instructors YJJJ
PA R T O N E
THEORY AND RESEARCH IN
CHILD DEVELOPMENT
chapter 1
History, Theory, and Research Strategies
The Field of Child Development

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Basic Issues

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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Resilient Children
Historical Foundations

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Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories

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Recent Theoretical Perspectives

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SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Family Chaos Undermines Children’s
Well-Being 28
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Comparing Child Development Theories 
Studying the Child

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a
New Land 37
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Summary 
Important Terms and Concepts 
PA R T T W O
FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
chapter 2
Genetic and Environmental Foundations 50
Genetic Foundations

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Reproductive Choices

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SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Pros and Cons of Reproductive
Technologies 62
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10 Environmental Contexts for Development

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SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Worldwide Education of Girls:
Transforming Current and Future Generations 70
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CULTURAL INFLUENCES The African-American Extended Family 78
Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity
and Environment

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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Smoking During Pregnancy
Alters Gene Expression 87
Summary 
Important Terms and Concepts 
chapter 3
Prenatal Development 90
Motivations for Parenthood

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vi CONTENTS

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 The Transition to Parenthood


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Prenatal Environmental Influences
 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Parental Depression and Child
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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Prenatal Environment and 4JOHMF.PUIFS
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Health in Later Life 103 1BSFOU
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SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Nurse–Family Partnership: Reducing Important Terms and Concepts 
Maternal Stress and Enhancing Child Development Through Social
Support 114
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PA R T T H R E E
BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Prenatal Iron Deficiency and
Memory Impairments in Infants of Diabetic Mothers 116 INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD:
Preparing for Parenthood
 THE FIRST TWO YEARS
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Summary 
Physical Development in Infancy
Important Terms and Concepts 
and Toddlerhood 158
Body Growth

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Birth and the Newborn Baby 122
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The Stages of Childbirth
 Brain Development

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 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Brain Plasticity: Insights from
Research on Brain-Damaged Children and Adults 166
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Approaches to Childbirth

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping
Arrangements 170
Medical Interventions

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 Influences on Early Physical Growth

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 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH U.S. Public Policy Changes Improve Infant
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 Feeding Practices in Low-Income Families 174
Birth Complications
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Learning Capacities

SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH A Cross-National Perspective on Health $MBTTJDBM
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Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 138 0QFSBOU
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The Newborn Baby’s Capacities  Motor Development


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Death Syndrome 145 'JOF.PUPS
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 CONTENTS vii

BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT “Tuning in” to Familiar Speech, Faces, Emotional Development

and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-Specific Learning 188 #BTJD
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 Temperament and Development

Summary  5IF
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Important Terms and Concepts  .FBTVSJOH
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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Development of Shyness and
Sociability 256
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and Toddlerhood 200 Development of Attachment 
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
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SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Baby Learning from TV and Video: .VMUJQMF
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The Video Deficit Effect 210
SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten
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 Attachment Security and Later Adjustment? 270
Information Processing

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth
in Development 272
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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Infantile Amnesia 220 Self-Development

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 224 Summary 
Individual Differences in Early Mental Development
 Important Terms and Concepts 
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Language Development
 Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 282
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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Deaf Children Invent Language 232
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Summary  chapter 8
Important Terms and Concepts 
Physical Development in Early Childhood 284
Body Growth

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Emotional and Social Development
Influences on Physical Growth and Health

in Infancy and Toddlerhood 244 )FSFEJUZ
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Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality
 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Low-Level Lead Exposure and
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 Children’s Development 291
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viii CONTENTS
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SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Otitis Media and Development 298
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Motor Development

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES Why Are Children from Asian Cultures
Advanced in Drawing Skills? 305
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Summary 
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chapter 9
Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
Piaget’s Theory: The Preoperational Stage

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SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Children’s Questions: Catalyst for
Cognitive Development 320
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES Children in Village and Tribal Cultures
Observe and Participate in Adult Work 326
Information Processing

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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Autism and Theory of Mind
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Individual Differences in Mental Development

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Language Development

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Summary 
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chapter 10
Emotional and Social Development
in Early Childhood 356
Erikson’s Theory: Initiative versus Guilt

Self-Understanding

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variations in Personal Storytelling:
Implications for Early Self-Concept 360
Emotional Development

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Peer Relations

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Foundations of Morality

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES Ethnic Differences in the Consequences
of Physical Punishment 377
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Gender Typing

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SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Children Learn About Gender
Through Mother–Child Conversations 388
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Child Rearing and Emotional and Social Development

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Summary 
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MiLESTONES
Development in Early Childhood 402
 CONTENTS ix

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chapter 11 Individual Differences in Mental Development


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Body Growth

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in IQ 452
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SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Family Stressors and Childhood
Obesity 412 Children’s Learning in School

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Health Education 
SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Magnet Schools: Equal Access to
Motor Development and Play
 High-Quality Education 464
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SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION School Recess—A Time to Play,
a Time to Learn 425 chapter 13
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 Emotional and Social Development
Summary 
in Middle Childhood 472
Important Terms and Concepts 
Erikson’s Theory: Industry versus Inferiority

Self-Understanding

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in Middle Childhood 428 4FMG&TUFFN

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Piaget’s Theory: The Concrete Operational Stage

Emotional Development

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 Moral Development

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BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Children with Attention-Deficit Peer Relations

Hyperactivity Disorder 438 1FFS
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x CONTENTS
BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Bullies and Their Victims
Gender Typing

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Family Influences

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Some Common Problems of Development

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Impact of Ethnic and Political
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 A Personal Note to Students

O ur many years of teaching child development have brought us in contact with

thousands of students like you—students with diverse college majors, future goals,
interests, and needs. Some are affiliated with our own field of psychology, but many come
from other related fields—education, sociology, anthropology, biology, family studies,
social service, and health sciences, to name just a few. Each semester, our students’
aspirations have proved to be as varied as their fields of study. Many look toward careers
in applied work—teaching, caregiving, nursing, counseling, social work, school psychol-
ogy, and program administration. Some want to teach, and a few want to do research.
Most hope someday to become parents, whereas others are already parents who come
with a desire to better understand and rear their children. And almost all arrive with a
deep curiosity about how they themselves developed from tiny infants into the complex
human beings they are today.
Our goal in preparing this eighth edition of Infants, Children, and Adolescents is to
provide a textbook that meets the instructional goals of your course as well as your
personal interests and needs. To achieve these objectives, we have grounded this book in
a carefully selected body of classic and current theory and research brought to life with
stories and vignettes about children and families, most of whom we have known person-
ally. In addition, the text highlights the joint contributions of biology and environment
to the developing child, explains how the research process helps solve real-world prob-
lems, illustrates commonalities and differences among ethnic groups and cultures, and
pays special attention to policy issues that are crucial for safeguarding children’s well-
being in today’s world. Woven throughout the text is a unique pedagogical program that
will assist you in mastering information, integrating the various aspects of development,
critically examining controversial issues, applying what you have learned, and relating
the information to real life.
We hope that learning about child development will be as rewarding for you as we
have found it over the years. We would like to know what you think about both the field
of child development and this book. We welcome your comments; please contact us
through our textbook website: www.infantschildrenandadolescents.com.

Laura E. Berk and Adena B. Meyers

xii
Preface for Instructors
A Message from Laura Berk
It is my pleasure to introduce Adena B. Meyers, new coauthor of
Infants, Children, and Adolescents, Eighth Edition. How excited I
was when she readily responded “yes!” to my invitation to join in
preparing this edition. Adena and I live and work in the same com-
munity: We have been departmental colleagues for many years and
have written together on numerous occasions. Our coauthorship
of the eighth edition is a natural extension of our previous joint
endeavors.
Adena brings to the text outstanding scholarship, areas of
specialization that complement my own, a similar writing style,
a shared commitment to research-based applications, and wide-
ranging direct experiences with children and families. In addition
to her talents as a teacher, researcher, and clinician, she is an exem-
plary parent of two remarkable teenagers.
Adena’s gracious partnership throughout the journey of pre-
paring this revision realizes my fondest hopes when I first set my
pen to page to craft Infants, Children, and Adolescents: that future
editions will be numerous, and that instructor and student enthusi-
asm for the text will continue to be a deep source of author pride
and satisfaction for many years to come.
Laura E. Berk
The Eighth Edition
In preparing this eighth edition of Infants, Children, and Adoles-
cents, we drew inspiration from the hundreds of students of child
development with whom we have worked in our combined half-
century of college teaching. As in previous editions, we aimed for
a text that is intellectually stimulating, provides depth as well as
breadth of coverage, portrays the complexities of child develop-
ment with clarity and excitement, and is relevant and useful in
building a bridge from theory and research to children’s everyday
lives.
The more than two decades since Infants, Children, and Adoles-
cents first appeared have been a period of unprecedented expansion
and change in theory and research. This eighth edition represents
these rapidly transforming aspects of the field, with a wealth of new
content and enhanced teaching tools:
Diverse pathways of change are highlighted. Investigators have
reached broad consensus that variations in biological makeup,
everyday tasks, and the people who support children in mastery of
those tasks lead to wide individual differences in children’s paths of
change and resulting competencies. This edition pays more atten-
tion to variability in development and to recent theories—includ-
ing ecological, sociocultural, dynamic systems, and epigenesis—that
attempt to explain it. Multicultural and cross-cultural findings,
CONTENTS xiii
including international comparisons, are enhanced throughout the
text and in revised and expanded Cultural Influences boxes.
The complex, bidirectional relationship between biology and
environment is given greater attention. Accumulating evidence on
development of the brain, motor skills, cognitive and language
competencies, temperament and personality, emotional and social
understanding, and developmental problems underscores the way
biological factors emerge in, are modified by, and share power with
experience. The interconnection between biology and environment
is revisited throughout the text narrative and in Biology and Envi-
ronment boxes with new and updated topics.
Inclusion of interdisciplinary research is expanded. The move
toward viewing thoughts, feelings, and behavior as an integrated
whole, affected by a wide array of influences in biology, social con-
text, and culture, has motivated developmental researchers to
strengthen their ties with other areas of psychology and with other
disciplines. Topics and findings included in this edition increas-
ingly reflect the contributions of educational psychology, social
psychology, health psychology, clinical psychology, neurobiology,
pediatrics, sociology, anthropology, social service, and other fields.
The links among theory, research, and applications—a theme
of this book since its inception—are strengthened. As researchers
intensify their efforts to generate findings that can be applied to
real-life situations, we have placed even greater weight on social
policy issues and sound theory- and evidence-based interventions
and practices. Further applications are provided in the Applying
What We Know tables, which give students concrete ways of build-
ing bridges between their learning and the real world.
The educational context of development becomes a stronger
focus. The home, school, and community are featured as vital edu-
cational contexts in which the child develops. Research on effective
teaching practices appears in all chapters and in new and revised
Social Issues: Education boxes.
The role of active student learning is made more explicit. The
Take a Moment . . . feature, built into the chapter narrative, asks
students to think deeply and critically as they read. Ask Yourself
questions at the end of each major section have been revised to pro-
mote four approaches to engaging actively with the subject matter:
Review, Connect, Apply, and Reflect. This feature assists students in
thinking about what they have read from multiple vantage points.
The Look and Listen feature presents students with opportunities to
observe what real children say and do and attend to influences on
children in their everyday environments.
Text Philosophy
The basic approach of this book has been shaped by our profes-
sional and personal histories as teachers, researchers, and parents.
It consists of seven philosophical ingredients that we regard as
xiii
xiv PREFACE
essential for students to emerge from a course with a thorough
understanding of child development:
1. An understanding of major theories and the strengths and
shortcomings of each. The first chapter begins by emphasizing that
only knowledge of multiple theories can do justice to the richness
of child development. As we take up each age period and domain
of development, we present a variety of theoretical perspectives,
indicate how each highlights previously overlooked facets of devel-
opment, and discuss research that evaluates it. Consideration of
contrasting theories also serves as the context for an evenhanded
analysis of many controversial issues.
2. An appreciation of research strategies for investigating child
development. To evaluate theories, students must have a firm
grounding in research methods and designs. In addition to a special
section in Chapter 1 covering research strategies, numerous studies
are discussed in sufficient detail throughout the book for students
to use what they have learned to critically assess the findings, con-
clusions, and implications of research.
3. Knowledge of both the sequence of child development and the
processes that underlie it. Students are provided with a description
of the organized sequence of development along with processes of
change. An understanding of process—how complex interactions of
biological and environmental events produce development—has
been the focus of most recent research. Accordingly, the text reflects
this emphasis. But new information about the timetable of change
is constantly emerging. In many ways, children are considerably
more competent than they were believed to be in the past. Current
evidence on the sequence and timing of development, along with
its implications for process, is presented throughout the book.
4. An appreciation of the impact of context and culture on child
development. A wealth of research indicates that children live in
rich physical and social contexts that affect all domains of develop-
ment. In each chapter, students travel to distant parts of the world
as we review a growing body of cross-cultural evidence. The text
narrative also discusses many findings on socioeconomically and
ethnically diverse children within the United States and on children
with varying abilities and challenges. Besides highlighting the role
of immediate settings, such as family, neighborhood, and school,
we make a concerted effort to underscore the impact of larger social
structures—societal values, laws, and government programs—on
children’s well-being.
5. An understanding of the joint contributions of biology and
environment to development. The field recognizes more power-
fully than ever before the joint roles of hereditary/constitutional
and environmental factors—that these contributions to develop-
ment combine in complex ways and cannot be separated in a sim-
ple manner. Numerous examples of how biological dispositions can
be maintained as well as transformed by social contexts are pre-
sented throughout the book.
6. A sense of the interdependency of all domains of development—
physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. Every chapter takes an
integrated approach to understanding children. We show how phys-
ical, cognitive, emotional, and social development are interwoven.
Within the text narrative and in a special series of Ask Yourself
Connect questions at the end of major sections, students are referred
to other sections of the book to deepen their grasp of relationships
among various aspects of change.
7. An appreciation of the interrelatedness of theory, research, and
applications. Throughout this book, we emphasize that theories of
child development and the research stimulated by them provide the
foundation for sound, effective practices with children. The links
among theory, research, and applications are reinforced by an
organizational format in which theory and research are presented
first, followed by practical implications. In addition, a current focus
in the field—harnessing child development knowledge to shape
social policies that support children’s needs—is reflected in every
chapter. The text addresses the current condition of children in the
United States and around the world and shows how theory and
research have combined with public interest to spark successful
interventions.
Text Organization
The chronological organization of this text assists students in thor-
oughly understanding each age period. It also eases the task of
integrating the various domains of development because each is
discussed in close proximity. At the same time, a chronologically
organized book requires that theories covering several age peri-
ods be presented piecemeal. This creates a challenge for students,
who must link the various parts together. To assist with this task, we
frequently remind students of important earlier achievements
before discussing new developments, referring back to related sec-
tions with page references. Also, chapters devoted to the same topic
(for example, cognitive development) are similarly organized, mak-
ing it easier for students to draw connections across age periods
and construct an overall view of developmental change.
New Coverage in the
Eighth Edition
Child development is a fascinating and ever-changing field, with
constantly emerging new discoveries and refinements in existing
knowledge. The eighth edition represents this burgeoning contem-
porary literature with more than 2,000 new citations. Cutting-edge
topics throughout the text underscore the book’s major themes.
Here is a sampling:
CHAPTER 1 New chapter introduction, inviting readers to become
acquainted with the coauthors t Revised and updated section on
developmental neuroscience, with special attention to developmen-
tal social neuroscience t New Social Issues: Health box on how fam-
ily chaos undermines children’s well-being t Revised and updated
Cultural Influences box on immigrant youths t Updated examples
of research designs, including the benefits of massive longitudinal
projects yielding multipurpose data banks t Inclusion of children’s
assent as part of informed consent guidelines for protection of
human subjects

CHAPTER 2 Updated discussion of gene–gene interactions, includ-
ing the distinction between protein-coding genes and regulator
genes t Consideration of social and cultural influences on the male-
to-female birth sex ratio t New evidence on older paternal age and
increased risk of DNA mutations contributing to serious disorders,
including autism and schizophrenia t Enhanced attention to the
impact of poverty on development, with special attention to inter-
ventions that help children surmount developmental risks t Revised
and updated Social Issues: Education box on the impact of world-
wide education of girls t Updated research on neighborhood influ-
ences on children’s physical and mental health t Expanded attention
to the role of ethnic minority extended families in promoting resil-
ience in the face of prejudice and economic deprivation t Current
statistics on the condition of children and families in the United
States compared with other Western nations t Enhanced discussion
of gene–environment interaction t Expanded section on epigene-
sis, including the role of methylation
CHAPTER 3 Revised and updated section on motivations for par-
enthood t Enhanced attention to fetal brain development, sensory
capacities, and behavior t Updated Biology and Environment box
on the prenatal environment and health in later life t Expanded and
updated consideration of a wide range of teratogens t New evidence
on the long-term consequences of emotional stress during preg-
nancy t Updated Social Issues: Health box on the Nurse–Family
Partnership—reducing maternal stress and enhancing child devel-
opment through social support
CHAPTER 4 New statistics and research on benefits and risks of
medical interventions during childbirth t Consideration of the role
of chronic maternal stress in preterm and low birth weight t New
findings on the risks of late preterm birth—as little as 1 or 2 weeks
early t New research on parenting and development of preterm and
low-birth-weight infants t Expanded and updated Social Issues:
Health box on health care and other policies for parents and new-
born babies t Updated findings on hormonal changes in both
mothers and fathers around the time of birth, and in foster and
adoptive mothers, that facilitate caregiving t New evidence on fac-
tors contributing to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), along
with the importance of public education efforts t New research on
the role of sleep in infant learning t Updated discussion of “proxi-
mal care”—extensive holding of young babies—in reducing infant
crying t Enhanced discussion of techniques for reducing infant
stress to painful medical procedures t New findings on prenatal
influences on newborn taste perception
CHAPTER 5 Updated introduction to major measures of brain
functioning, including the EEG geodesic sensor net (GSN) and near-
infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) t Enhanced discussion of brain devel-
opment, with special attention to the prefrontal cortex t Updated
Biology and Environment box on early brain plasticity t New
research on children adopted from Romanian orphanages, bearing
on whether infancy is a sensitive period of development t Enhanced
attention to cultural influences on infant sleep t New findings on
long-term consequences of malnutrition in infancy and toddler-
hood t New Social Issues: Health box on U.S. public policy changes
that improve infant feeding practices in low-income families t
PREFACE xv
Updated discussion of the controversy surrounding newborns’
capacity to imitate t New dynamic systems research on development
of walking, reaching, and grasping t Updated findings on implica-
tions of infants’ capacity to analyze the speech stream for later lan-
guage progress t Enhanced discussion of the impact of crawling
and walking experience on perception of depth-at-an-edge t New
evidence on the perceptual narrowing effect in speech, music, and
species-related face perception, and in gender- and race-related
face perception
CHAPTER 6 Updated evidence on toddlers’ grasp of pictures and
videos as symbols, including experiences that enhance symbolic
understanding t New research on infants’ ability to discriminate
and perform simple arithmetic operations on large sets of items t
Revised section introducing information-processing concepts,
including working memory, automatic processes, processing speed,
and executive function t Updated Biology and Environment box on
infantile amnesia, addressing contributions of neurological change,
language, and adult–child conversations about past events to stable
long-term memories t New research on cultural variations in scaf-
folding infant and toddler learning t New evidence on the impor-
tance of sustained, high-quality child care from infancy through
the preschool years for cognitive, language, literacy, and math per-
formance at kindergarten entry t Updated evaluation findings on
Early Head Start t New Biology and Environment box on the capac-
ity of deaf children to invent language when exposed to limited
or grammatically inconsistent input t Updated findings on babies’
participation in imitative exchanges and joint attention, reveal-
ing their developing capacity for effective communication t New
research on toddlers’ preverbal gestures, with implications for spo-
ken language development t Enhanced attention to SES differences
in early vocabulary development as a predictor of vocabulary size
at kindergarten entry t New evidence highlighting the vital role of
a responsive adult in early language development
CHAPTER 7 Enhanced discussion of cultural variations in infant
emotional expressiveness, with special emphasis on the social smile
t New research on consequences of effortful control for cognitive,
emotional, and social development t Revised section on genetic
and environmental influences on temperament, with updated sec-
tion on ethnic and gender differences t New section on tempera-
mental differences in toddlers’ susceptibility to rearing experiences,
highlighting research on the short 5-HTTLPR gene t Revised and
updated section on consequences of early availability of a consis-
tent caregiver for attachment security, with special attention to chil-
dren adopted from Eastern European orphanages t New findings
on the joint contributions of infant genotype, temperament, and
parenting to disorganized/disoriented attachment, with evidence
on the short 5-HTTLPR and DRD4-7 repeat genes t Revised and
updated Social Issues: Health box on child care, attachment, and
later development t Updated research on cultural variations in
early self-development
CHAPTER 8 Updated consideration of early childhood brain
development, with emphasis on the prefrontal cortex and executive
function t New statistics and research on the health status of young
children, including tooth decay and childhood immunizations t
xvi PREFACE
Updated Biology and Environment box on low-level lead exposure
and children’s development t Enhanced discussion of the contribu-
tion of sleep to early childhood physical growth and cognitive
development t Expanded attention to the impact of adult mealtime
practices on children’s eating behavior and weight status t New evi-
dence on parenting practices and young children’s unintentional
injuries t Expanded attention to cultural variations in development
of drawing, including a new Cultural Influences box on why chil-
dren from Asian cultures are advanced in drawing progress and
creativity
CHAPTER 9 New research on young children’s natural and super-
natural beliefs, including cultural variations t Updated evidence on
early childhood categorization, highlighting cultural differences t
New findings on cultural variations in effective scaffolding t New
Social Issues: Education box on children’s questions as a catalyst for
cognitive development t Expanded discussion of gains in executive
function in early childhood, including attention, inhibition, and
planning t New evidence on neurobiological changes in the cere-
bral cortex accompanying young children’s more effective problem
solving t New findings on cognitive attainments and social expe-
riences that contribute to mastery of false belief, with attention
to cultural differences t Updated Biology and Environment box
on autism and theory of mind t Enhanced discussion of SES dif-
ferences in emergent literacy and math knowledge t New evidence
on benefits of universal prekindergarten programs t Revised sec-
tion on strengthening preschool intervention, including findings
on Head Start REDI t Updated discussion of effects of educational
television and computer activities on academic learning t New
research on preschoolers’ strategies for word learning, including
cultural variations
CHAPTER 10 New research on the influence of parents’ elabo-
rative reminiscing on preschoolers’ self-concept and emotional
understanding t Updated Cultural Influences box on cultural varia-
tions in personal storytelling and its implications for early self-
concept t New evidence addressing contributions of sociodramatic
and rough-and-tumble play to young children’s emotional and social
development t Enhanced discussion of cultural variations in socio-
dramatic play t Expanded and updated section on contributions of
early childhood peer relations to school readiness and academic
performance t New research on corporal punishment and chil-
dren’s adjustment, with special attention to children at high genetic
risk for behavior problems t Updated Cultural Influences box on
ethnic differences in the consequences of physical punishment t
Expanded discussion of parent training programs in intervening
with aggressive children, with special attention to Incredible Years t
Updated evidence on hormonal influences on gender typing t New
Social Issues: Education box on mother–child conversations as a
source of children’s gender stereotypes t Updated section on styles
of child rearing, including Baumrind’s distinction between con-
frontive and coercive control
CHAPTER 11 Updated findings on brain development in middle
childhood t New evidence on factors contributing to obesity, includ-
ing parents’ demanding work schedules, frequent eating out, and
children’s capacity for self-regulation t New Social Issues: Health
box on family stressors and childhood obesity t Enhanced consid-
eration of the effectiveness of school-based obesity prevention pro-
grams t New findings on unintentional injury in middle childhood,
with special attention to parental supervision and to school and
community safety education programs as preventive strategies t
Expanded attention to informal, child-organized games in middle
childhood, including SES and cultural variations t Updated statis-
tics on U.S. schoolchildren’s physical activity levels and access to
physical education and recess
CHAPTER 12 Updated research on school-age children’s spatial
reasoning, focusing on cognitive maps of large-scale spaces t New
sections on executive function and working memory in middle
childhood, with implications for academic learning t Updated Biol-
ogy and Environment box on children with attention-deficit hyper-
activity disorder t New findings on the contribution of societal
modernization to children’s performance on diverse cognitive tasks
t Updated evidence on the school-age child’s theory of mind, with
special attention to recursive thought t New Cultural Influences
box on the Flynn effect, dramatic gains in IQ from one generation
to the next t New research on contributions of language skills to test
bias, with special attention to African-American English t Updated
findings on reducing cultural bias in testing through countering the
negative impact of stereotype threat t Implications of recursive
thought for language development, including understanding irony
and sarcasm t Expanded discussion of the diverse cognitive bene-
fits of bilingualism t Enhanced consideration of the benefits of coop-
erative learning in classrooms t Revised and updated section on
educational media, with special attention to the influence of video
game play on diverse aspects of cognitive development t Updated
section on U.S. academic achievement in international perspective
CHAPTER 13 New evidence addressing effects of person praise
and process praise on children’s mastery orientation t Expanded
coverage of cognitive and cultural influences on achievement-
related attributions t Updated section on peer acceptance and
rejection t Revised and updated Biology and Environment box on
bullies and their victims, with special attention to cyberbullying t
Recent changes in children’s stereotyped beliefs about achievement
t Updated evidence on children’s development in gay and lesbian
families t Expanded coverage of effects of fathers’ employment on
child development t Updated discussion of children’s fears, includ-
ing school refusal t Revised and updated Cultural Influences box
on the impact of ethnic and political violence on children t Updated
evidence on child sexual abuse, including global prevalence esti-
mates and long-term developmental consequences t Enhanced dis-
cussion of resilience, introducing the concept of developmental
cascade t New research on social and emotional learning interven-
tions, with special emphasis on the 4Rs program
CHAPTER 14 Consideration of adrenarche—hormonal changes
preceding the physical events of puberty t New statistics on physi-
cal activity levels among U. S. adolescents t New research on effects
of adverse family environments on pubertal timing t Updated evi-
dence on the secular trend in age at menarche in industrialized

nations t New research on adolescent brain development, with
implications for adolescent risk taking and susceptibility to peer
influence t New findings on pubertal timing and adjustment t
Revised and updated evidence on eating disorders, with new sec-
tion on binge-eating disorder t Updated Social Issues: Education
box on parent–adolescent communication about sex t Expanded
discussion of healthy and unhealthy sexual behavior during adoles-
cence, with new evidence on consequences of early sexual activity t
Updated Biology and Environment box on lesbian, gay, and bisex-
ual identity development and coming-out experiences t Updated
statistics on adolescent contraceptive use, pregnancy and parent-
hood, and sexually transmitted infections t New research on sub-
stance use prevention, including the Strong African American
Families (SAAF) program
CHAPTER 15 Updated discussion of sex differences in mental
abilities, including current U.S. and international evidence on read-
ing, writing, and math achievement t Revised and updated Biology
and Environment box on sex differences in spatial abilities, with
new research on experiences influencing spatial skills t Expanded
discussion of school transitions, including new findings on achieve-
ment of students in K–8 versus middle schools t Updated Social
Issues: Education box on media multitasking, with new evidence
on consequences for executive function t Updated Social Issues:
Education box on high-stakes testing t Revised and updated dis-
cussion of high school dropout, with new statistics on U.S. dropout
rates t New findings on the impact of gender-stereotyped messages
on girls’ career aspirations and confidence in entering STEM fields
CHAPTER 16 New research on personal and social factors con-
tributing to identity development in adolescence t Updated Cul-
tural Influences box on development of ethnic identity, including
enhanced attention to peer influences t Enhanced consideration of
PREFACE xvii
factors that promote moral identity, along with its relationship
to moral behavior t New evidence on adolescent religious involve-
ment and moral development t Updated Social Issues: Education
box on development of civic engagement in adolescence, includ-
ing school and community contributions through extracurricular
activities and service learning t New findings on gender intensifica-
tion in adolescence t Enhanced discussion of parent–child relation-
ships and development of adolescent autonomy, including cultural
variations t Expanded section on teenagers’ communication with
friends through social media, including implications for friend-
ship quality and social adjustment t Updated evidence on adoles-
cent depression, with special attention to gender differences t New
research on family, school, and neighborhood contributions to
delinquency t Updated findings on long-term outcomes of multi-
systemic therapy for violent juvenile offenders
CHAPTER 17 Expanded discussion of emerging adults’ roman-
tic relationships, including the Internet as an increasingly popular
way to initiate relationships t New research on uncommitted sexual
encounters during the college years, with implications for adjust-
ment t Updated evidence on cohabitation among U.S. emerging-
adult couples and its implications for a lasting intimate relationship t
New research on the importance of a high-quality college educa-
tion to securing favorable employment t Updated findings on chal-
lenges experienced by women who choose to purse male-dominated
careers t New evidence on racial and ethnic biases in career oppor-
tunities t Enhanced consideration of the debate over whether
emerging adults forge self-centered worldviews, as the descriptor
“generation me” suggests t Expanded section on religion and spiri-
tuality among emerging adults, with implications for psychological
adjustment t Enhanced discussion of emerging adults who flourish,
developing favorably, versus those who flounder, appearing lost
during these transitional years
xviii PREFACE

Pedagogical Features
Maintaining a highly accessible writing style—one that is lucid and engaging without being
simplistic—continues to be one of our major goals. We frequently converse with students,
encouraging them to relate what they read to their own lives. In doing so, we aim to make
the study of child development involving and pleasurable.

Social
Emotional and
in Infancy
7
chapter
Development od
Chapter Introductions and
and Toddlerho Vignettes About Children
Child”
“The Mother and
Ruvini Ariyaran
thna To provide a helpful preview of chapter content, we include an outline
and overview in each chapter introduction. To help students con-
Kahinga la
ka
16 years, Sri Lan
reflects
A mutual embrace
the stro ng, affe ctionate bond struct a clear image of development and to enliven the text narrative,
each chronological age division
her and
between this mot
. Cha pter 7 considers the
child
parental love
importance of
and sens itivi ty for infants’ is unified by case examples
A
feelings of
and toddlers’
secu rity
s Caitlin reached
and com petence. 8 months of age, her
she had become pare nts noticed that
woven throughout that set of
more fearful. One
David left her with
door—an expe
a babysitter, she
evening, when
wailed as they
Carolyn and What’s Ahead in chapters. For example, within
rience she had headed for the chapter
7 the infancy and toddlerhood
Caitlin and Tim accepted easily
my’s caregiver a few weeks earl
wariness of stra Ginette also obse ier.
ngers. When she rved an increasi Erikson’s Theory
turned to go to ng
section, we look in on three
their play to craw
l after her. At the another room,
both babies drop and Toddler Per of Infant
Ginette’s legs, mail carrier’s kno ped sonality
reaching out to ck at the door, Basi c Trust versus Mist
be picked up. they clung to rust
children, observe dramatic
At the same time Autonomy vers
, each baby seem us Shame and
hand produced ed more willful. Doubt
Removing an obje
NORWAY

little response
at 5 months. But ct from the
changes and striking individual
Vanessa, took at 8 months, whe Emotional Dev
away a table knif n Timmy’s mot elopment
e he had managed her,
REN’S ART, OSLO,

screams and cou to reach, Timmy Basic Emotions

ld not be console burst into angry Und erstanding
d or distracted. and Responding
differences, and address the
All Monica and to the Emotion
Kevin knew abo of Others Eme s
loved by her dest ut Grace’s first rgence of Self-
itute, homeles year was that she Con scious Emotion
s mother. Sepa had been deeply s Beginnings
MUSEUM OF CHILD

journey to an unfa
impact of family background,
ration from her, of Emotional Self
miliar home, had followed by a long -Regulation
sad, turning awa left Grace in shoc
y when Monica k. At first she was Tem per ament and
held her close, or Kevin picked extremely

child-rearing practices, parents’

spoke gently, and her up. But as
Grace’s new pare Development
affection. Two satisfied her crav nts The Structure of
ing for food, Grac
NAL

weeks after her e returned thei Temperament

arrival, her desp
THE INTERNATIO

disposition. She r Mea suri

and children’s life experiences,
ond ency gave way ng Temperamen
burst into a wid to a sunny, easy Stability of Tem t
and laughed at e grin, reached going perament
her brother Eli’s out at the sigh
funny faces. Amo t of Monica and Kev Genetic and Envi
of family mem in, ronmental
and child-care quality on develop-
bers—“Eli,” “Ma ng her first wor Influences Tem
ma,” and “Dada.” ds were the nam perament and
PERMISSION FROM

she pointed to As her second es Child Rearing:

herself, exclaim birt hday approached The Goodness-
“Gwace’s chicken ing “Gwace!” and , of-Fit Model
ment. Besides a set of main char-
!” she would ann laid claim to trea
ounce at mealtim sured possessions.
drumstick, a prac es, sucking the BIOLOGY AND
tice she had brou marrow from the ENVIRONMENT
ght with her from Development of
acters, many additional vignettes
Taken together
REPRINTED WITH

120 CHAPTER 3 Prenatal Development , the children’s Cambodia. Shyness and

reactions reflect Sociability
that develop duri two related aspe
ng the first two cts of personality
begin with Erik years: close ties Development
offer vivid examples of development
to others and a of Attachment
Ask Yourself development duri
son’s psychoso
ng infancy and
cial theory, whi
ch provides an
sense of self. We
overview of pers
Bowlby’s Ethologi
cal Theory
toddlerhood. The onality Measuring the
development, Security of
among children and adolescents.
REVIEW List psychological factors during pregnancy that REFLECT Ask your parents and/or your grandparents to
we will discover n, as we chart the Attachment Stab
why fear and ang course of emotion ility of
predict parenting effectiveness after childbirth. and Timmy’s rang
describe attitudes and experiences that fostered or interfered er became mor al Attachment Cult
e of emotions e apparent in Cait ural Variations
244 with their capacity to build a positive
individual diffe of theparental identity by the end lin’s Factors That Affe
APPLY Megan, who is expecting her first child, recalls rencthey first year ct Attachment
when es inwere
temexpecting
perament.their
We first child. Do you. Our
thinkattentio nAMthen turns to Security Multiple
her own mother as cold and distant. Suggest steps she concan tributions to thes will
oneself exam Attachments
ine biol 2/9/15 9:55
buildingeadiffe
healthy
rencpicture isogic
take to form a confident, positive picture of herself as a new es and of
thei r con
as a parent moreal and environm
ental
From Attachment
to Peer
Next, we challenging
take up attatoday sequ encesorfor future
than it was in your parents’ Sociability Atta
parent. chment to the development. chment
We will see howgrandparents’ generation? caregiver, the chil and Later Develop
the feelings of d’s first affectio ment
the child’s expl security that grow nate tie.
oration, sense out of this imp SOCIAL ISSUES:
of independen ortant bond supp HEALTH
Finally, we focu ce, and expandin ort Does Child Care
s on early self- g social relation Threaten
recognized hers development. ships. Attachment Secu
elf in mirrors and By the end of toddlerh rity and Later
photographs, labe ood, Grace Adjustment?
the beginnings led herself as a
of self-control. girl, and showed
“Don’t touch!” CULTURAL INFL
Summary
resisted the desi she instructed UEN CES
re to pull a lam herself one day The Powerful Role
with social expe p cord out of its as she of Paternal
riences to prod socket. Cognitiv Warmth in Dev
uce these chan e advances com elopment
ges during the bine
second year. Self-Developm
Motivations for Parenthood (p. 91) Prenatal Development (p. 95) Prenatal Environmental ent
Self-Awareness
3.1 How has decision making about child- 3.2 List the three phases of prenatal devel- Influences (p. 101) Cate
the Self Self-Con gorizing
bearing changed over the past half century, opment, and describe the major milestones trol
3.3 What are teratogens, and what factors
and what are the consequences for child rearing of each. influence their impact?
and child development?
The first prenatal phase, the germinal period, Teratogens are environmental agents that cause
Adults in Western industrialized nations are freer lasts about two weeks, from fertilization and damage during the prenatal period. Their impact
today to choose whether, when, and how to formation of the zygote through implantation of varies with the amount and length of exposure,
have children. Motivations for parenthood have the blastocyst in the uterine lining. During this the genetic makeup of mother and fetus, the
increasingly emphasized personal fulfillment and time, structures that will support prenatal growth presence or absence of other harmful agents,
deemphasized societal obligations. begin to form, including the placenta and the and the age of the organism at time of exposure.
In industrialized nations, family size has declined umbilical cord. The developing organism is especially vulner-
over the past half century, reflecting in part the able during the embryonic period. In addition 245
© PASCAL GOETGHELUCK/
PHOTO RESEARCHERS, INC.

need to balance career and family. Birth order and
BerkICA8_ch
spacing are unrelated to children’s intelligence.
The greater number of births to low-SES mothers
accounts for the link between large family size and
children’s lower intelligence test scores.
PHOTODISC/GETTY IMAGES
to immediate physical damage, some health
07_244_281_r06.i
ndd 245
outcomes may appear later in development, and
physical defects may have indirect psychological
consequences.
3.4 List agents known to be or suspected of
being teratogens, and discuss evidence

supporting their harmful impact.

Drugs, cigarettes, alcohol, radiation, environ-
mental pollution, and infectious diseases are
teratogens that can endanger the developing

End-of-Chapter Summaries
During the period of the embryo, from weeks organism. Currently, the most widely used potent
2 to 8, the foundations for all body structures are teratogen is isotretinoin, a drug used to treat
laid down. Initially, the nervous system develops severe acne. The prenatal impact of many other
fastest, forming the neural tube, the top of which commonly used medications, such as aspirin and

Comprehensive end-of-chapter summaries, organized

swells to form the brain. Other organs, including caffeine, is hard to separate from other factors
the reproductive system, follow. At the end of this correlated with drug taking.
period, the embryo responds to touch and can

according to the major divisions of each chapter and

JOHN JAMES WOOD/GETTY IMAGES

move.
The period of the fetus, lasting until the end of
Although older parents may be better equipped pregnancy, involves a dramatic increase in body

highlighting important terms, remind students of key

financially and emotionally to rear children, size and completion of physical structures. At the
reproductive capacity declines with age, particu- end of the second trimester, most of the brain’s
larly as women reach their late thirties. Advanced neurons are in place. In the third trimester,

points in the text discussion. Learning objectives are

maternal and paternal age is associated with between 22 and 26 weeks, the fetus reaches the
increased risk of chromosomal and genetically age of viability. The brain continues to develop
influenced disorders. rapidly, and new sensory and behavioral capaci-

included in the summary to encourage focused review.

ties emerge: The fetus distinguishes different
voices and language and musical sounds. Grad-
ually the lungs mature, and the fetus fills the
uterus.
 PREFACE xix

Ask Yourself Questions

Active engagement with the subject matter is supported by
revised and expanded study questions at the end of each
major section. Four types of questions prompt students to
Ask Yourself
CHAPTER 12 Cogn
itive Deve

think about child development in diverse ways: Review

lopment in Midd
le Childhood
455
REVIEW Usin

questions help students recall and comprehend informa-

g Ster
theory of multiple nberg’s triarchic theory and Gard
intelligences, expl ner’s APPLY Josefina
current mental ain the limitatio , a Hispanic four
tests in assessin ns of homework assig th grader, does
tion they have just read. Connect questions help students
intelligence. g the diversity well on
of human nments. But whe
“It’s time for a n her teacher ann
CONNECT test to see how ounces,
Explain how dyna Josefina usually much you’ve lear
mic assessment does poorly. How ned,”

build an image of the whole child by integrating what

consistent with is explain this inco might stereotyp
Vygotsky ’s zone nsistency? e threat
and with scaffoldi of proximal deve
ng (see Chapter lopment
9, pages 323–324) REFLECT Do
. you think that
they have learned across age periods and domains of culturally biased? intelligence tests
What observat are
influenced your ions and evidence
conclusion?

development. Apply questions encourage application Language Deve

lopment
of knowledge to controversial issues and problems faced Vocabulary, gram
mar, and pragmat
12.8 Describe changes
metalinguistic in
awareness, voca
by children, parents, and professionals who work with
obviously than ics continue to bulary,
at earlier ages. develop in mid grammar, and
damental shift. In add dle childhood, pragmatics duri
They develop met ition, children’s attitude tow ng
ard language und though less
middle childhood
12.8 Describe
a system. alinguistic awa .

them. Reflect questions make the study of child devel-

reness, the abil ergoes a fun- 12.9 Describe
Vocabulary, gr Schooling contrib changes in
utes greatly to
ity to think abo
ut language as development,
bilingual

ammar, and pr extremely com along with adva

metalinguistic mon thes
language learning during reading instruction.
e language compete of bilingualism ntages

opmentagpersonally
ncies. Reflecting
matics contmeaningful awareness, voca
inue to develoby asking students to
in childhood.
obviously than language grow
(Ravid & Tolchins And fluent read
bular y,
ing is a major
on language is
at earlier ages. In additio p in middle ch grammar, and s out of literacy ky, 2002). As
and supports man we will see, an improved abil
pragmatics durin y complex lang
new source of
ity to reflect on
reflect on their n,own development
child and life experi-
ren’s attitude to ildhood, though
less Vomca idbu dllar
e ch y ildhood.
g uage skills.

ward language
ences. Each question is answered th on the text’s undergoes a fu 12
During the elem
preh.9
Schooling cont e ability to thin n- com ensionDe
entary school year
sc rib eds.biOnlinavergu
s, vocabulary incr
alchil eases fourfold, eventually exce
MyDevelopmentLab
ribut website. k about langua day—a rate of
strade
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extrem es greatly to th ge as tegive
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lousse
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t,pteralo9, ng wi chil ad
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text The ve the
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Learning
As at earlier ages .
2002). As we w is a major new especially whe , children benefit
from conversatio
many

ill see, an impr source of 2001). But bec

n their partners
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use and explain ns with mor
complex words e expert speakers,
oved ability to lary than spoken uage
language, reading contains a far more diverse
(Weizman & Sno

New to this edition, learning objectives appear in reflect on readers are exp
words. But chil
osed to more than contributes enormously to voc
4 million words
and complex voc w,
abu
abu-
dren who rare
ly per year, average lary growth. Avid
Wilson, & Fiel
ding, 1988). By read encounter only about 50,0 readers to 600,000
the text margins next to each main head, guiding ing habits are stro
2011).
second 00 wor
ngly predict late to third grade, reading compreh ds (Anderson,
r vocabulary size ension and read
into high scho
ol (Cain & Oak -
students’ reading and study. As their knowle

LOOK and
dge becomes bett hill,
about and use er organized,
wor
use topple, tum ds more precisely : In addition older school-age
children thin
ble, and plummet to the verb fall,
change. Five- for example, they k
and 6-year-olds (Berman, 2007). Word definiti

LISTEN
also
appearance—knif offe ons also illustrat
e: “when you’re r concrete descriptions refe e this
handlebars.” By cutting carrots” rrin
the ; bicycle: “it’s got g to functions or
relationships app end of elementary school, syn wheels, a chain,
ear—for example, onyms and exp and
knife. It could lana

knife: “something you tion s of categorical
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1981). This adv ”
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tices of othe typical response “Most people
ities
of diffe
learn together; safe, humane settings or are ridd on
and play yards Ons, M E6). N T. .. C of er e are so m e
Aviolenc schooling in later chapterpors.ts developyo- u answer it? H
M
y to care for it.”
are uss each
T A K Ewith
We will disc
e (Eva 200

g ch
these aspects of
ild re n ?
pare Hschoow
nt– ol contactwsupouldinvolved
by , th en th ey should be read en ts reflect a wid
ely held
un se parents are
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yo ba
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vefer-
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dents: “If pa
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ledge
show
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lex social systems er promotes mast
parents, whose
e ofyteacabhers,ou
kgrounds and
t likelyhe
e ot to mak rs e pho ne call Schools are comp
students’ active
participation, this
second-grade teach
toward learning.

are not haand ppvisits to schoofte are mor des

and ethnic tic attitu
with enthusias

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thos tras t, low - SES and skills along

atblece the— LOOK and

ol. In con
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about com-
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minority parentsnit ed Sts redu in This vi
American valu
rs

in ion in ingth e U
ol, and daily stre
ssor
energy

lowand on
, 2010; Reschly
& Christenson
ic ly
, 2009). Teache
pa re and s.
iliesnt
LIST
as ce ntral a
op to scho
they have for scho must take extrre
ent (Grant & Ray
ors of pa ily–school ties.
lvem
nt s, and ethn minorit y fam

family life em erge d Take Moment… ow to

se classroom

blic has been sl

ol invo - SES Ask a teacher who
ty
s with
admdu
a step
ande yllenyof
ents from low-

care, are th
a

schools acman t edu-

extr
, they deliver an
nting and teachingivwith
has many stud
g pr pu
inistrat
urban areas to
build supportive
fam
ures of good pared atte
nc e, an th e highly
rs , th at the SES families wha
t percentage of

’s wellre-beinlia cts ong othe Built into the text narrative, this feature asks students to
rts lead to cult ndin parent–teacher

on, its, effeam

en thes e effo ple, stud ents whe n exce parents attend

as
Wh g. For exam 7). And
oncomemunre
& Steinberg, 199 conferences. Wha
t steps does
boost to children ieve especially well (Darling
Ittratisors,(and
ity mem bers
of teac02 hers,).
to promote
rt20
,
take
“take a moment” to think about an important point, inte-
ach
rn al., 2006). her
involved parents adminis
omeea
the teac
Hauser-Cram et
catiM cL
(Halfon &on learning are stronger and
on bec s a team effo
reac h man y more students parent–school
involvement?

grate information on children’s development, or engage in

Context erstood only
The Cultural hasized that chil
d development
can be fully und
ions, we expand
on this impor- an exercise or an application to clarify a challenging con-
in Chapter 1 emp the following sect ment. First, we discuss way
s
Our discussion con text . In

tant them e by
its larger cultural
when viewed in ng up the role of the macrosy
taki
s affect env iron
stem in develop
men tal contexts for dev
elopment. Then
program s that shie
we con-
ld chil- cept. TAK E A MOMENT... highlights and reinforces the
es and practice and government
that cultural valu development depends on laws
sider how healthy foster their well-being.
and ol experi-
text’s strength in conversing with and actively engaging
dren from harm interaction, scho y of us
students in learning and in inspiring critical thinking.
s shape fam ily Man
CTICES Culture short, all aspects of daily life. the prac-
UES AND PRA in to
CULTURAL VAL ity settings beyond the home— until we see them in relation
mun tage
ences, and com own cultural heri
aspects of our responsible for
rearing
remain blind to Who should be stu-
tices of others. r the question, onses from my
NT. .. Conside some typical resp
TAK E A MO ME would you answer it? Here are be ready to care for it.” “Mo
young children
? How
nts dec ide to have a baby,
then they should se statements reflect a widely
ily life.” The pay ing
st people

for
held
that
Look and Listen
dents: “If pare uding into fam children, and
about others intr the care and rearing of young history—one in
which
are not happy
opinion in the
United Stat es—
of parents,
that
and only pare nts. This view
has
ily life eme
a
rged
long
as central American valu
been slow to
es
This active-learning feature presents students with opportu-
care, are the duty reliance, and the privacy of fam others, that the public has
indepen den ce,
(Halfon & McL
self-
earn, 2002). It
is one reas on,
benefits for all
amo ng
families, such
as high-qua lity chil d care and
to the large
also contributed employed
nities to observe what real children say and do and attend to
ent-supported ds. And it has
influences on children in their everyday environments. “Look
endorse governm leave for meeting family nee gainfully
their parents are
paid employm
ent
rem ain poo r, even though
children who
number of U.S. F, 2012).
(Gruendel & Abe
r, 2007; UNICE
and Listen” experiences are tied to relevant text sections, with
2/9/15 9:59
AM the goal of making the study of development more authentic
and meaningful.
xx PREFACE
CHAPTER 11 Phys

Social Issues:
ical Developm
ent in Middle Child
hood 425
Educat ion
Three Types of Thematic Boxes School Recess—
A Time to Pla
y, a Time to Le

W
arn
Thematic boxes accentuate the philosophical themes
hen 7-year-old
Whitney’s fami
to a new city, she ly moved
left a school with In a series of stud
three daily reces ies, school-age
s periods for one more attentive children were

of this book:
just a single 15-m in the classroom

EDIT
inute break per with before it—an effec after recess than
second-grade teach day, which her t that was grea

O
er canceled if any than fourth grad ter for second

© BILL ARON/PHOT
behaved. Whit child mis- ers (Pellegrini, Hub
ney, who had prev 1995). And relat erty, & Jones,
school, complain iousl y enjoyed ive to nonpartic
ed daily of head second and third ipating agemates,
upset stomach. aches and an graders randomly
Her mother, Jill, program of 10-m assigned to a
child is stressing thought, “My inute periods of

Social Issues boxes discuss the impact of

out because she distributed acro physical activity
day!” After Jill can’t move all ss the school day
and other pare tially higher in acad scored substan-
appealed to the nts successfully emic achievem
school board to year follow-up ent at a three-
add a second (Donnelly et al.,

social conditions on children and emphasize the

recess period, 2009). Teacher
Whitney’s symp ratings of class
and(Rau Rese arch
ber, Strategies toms vanished room disruptive
2006).
History, Theory, decline for child behavior also
28 CHAPTER 1 In recent years,
recess—along utes of recess a
ren who have more
than 15 min-

need for sensitive social policies to ensure their

opportunities for with its rich day (Barros, Silve

Health
child-organized In another inve r, & Stein, 2009

Social Issues:
interaction—has play and peer stigation, kind ).
diminished or first graders’ enga ergartners’ and
many U.S. scho disappeared in gement in peer

well-being. They are divided into two types: Social

ols (American Acad and games durin conversation
rics, 2013). Unde emy of Pediat-
ell-Being g recess positively
s Children’s W
r the assumpti later acad emic pred icted
on that extra time achievement, even
s Undermine
for academics
will translate into tors that might after other fac-
Family Chao gains, 80 percent achievement explain the relat

Issues: Education boxes focus on home, school,

ionship (such as

AMY
of school districts acad emic previous achie
require daily reces lopment no andlong er vement) were cont
child- s fordeve rolled (Pellegrin

RY/AL
dentgs.our
durin elementary scho
ent, fewe behavior et al., 2002). Recall from
rstu- i

A
can recal l days Amo ng distr achie vem ol Chap ter 10
ll of us regular icts that do, fewe spent sleep-dren’s social maturity cont that chil-

L PHOTOLIBRA
timehalf

and community influences on children’s learning—

ly routman ines— date lems, and r than ributes substanti
hoods when fami at least 20 minu
time,
prob
tes of recess per nce, reduced early academic ally to
ime, hom (Cenewortersk for ing; and in adol
esce day competence. Rece
mealtime, bedt imes
Disea
—were se Control and Prevtakin entio g, alcoh ol and few remaining contexts ss is one of the School-age child
reading and playt Yet rather than sexual risk n, 2014). devo ted to child- ren, especially
and parent–child ge in a par- subtractinguse, tal health organized games that prov girls, are even more

for example, Children Learn About Gender Through

a chan
learn fromand class men physically activ
aps because of ing, room e during recess

© JANINE WIEDE
recess periods drug ide practice in than in gym class
disrupted, perh busy season of boost it! ReseShar
lems. archeddatin mealtimes social skills—cooperation, vital By providing regul .
ly illness, or aback more than 100 years prob g d ship, and leadership, follo ar opportunities
ent’s job, a fami how
lies, itive ever, confi rms ase the likel ihoo inhib ition wer- play and game
s, recess promotes
for unstructured
ts. In some fami ing cogn ly demanding also increthat distribut- of aggression—

Mother–Child Conversations; School Recess—A Time

and social comp physical, academic
after-school spor nearlybycons tant, tasks over diet er and prote ct supe rvisio n rather than direc unde r adul t etenc e. ,
nce of daily structure is time introducing regu of a heal
with lar
thya long
esce trans
nt fer these
tion. As children
abse cons interferesinten breaks, rathe and adol
ityr than skills to the class
tic home life thatolidating against obes , & in discussion
join room, they may
yielding a chao & Wint
eenha er, 2010). Ansive effort withgindisor oneders (Adam, Snell s, collaborate, Department of

to Play, a Time to Learn; and Media Multitasking

lopm ent (Fies nces atten tion eatin perio d, enjo follo w Educ
healthy deve and & Schwartz,y academic pursuits rules ation, 2006). Scho
Sucha supportive con- perfoPend rman ry,ce2007at all; Fiese , and especially, enga ol-age girls,
ly life provides breaks areactio partin, ages. enha more—factors ge in more mod
organized fami child child inter
cularly important findings suggest,nce motivation and achie that
exercise during erate-to-vigorous
involved parent–ren. 2008). As these for youn g vement.
text for warm, being. s are a gen- Finally, children are even recess than at

Disrupts Attention and Learning. Social Issues:

other times of
to children’s well- regular mealtime more physically day (Mota et al., the
which is essential d to econ omic disadvan- indic ator of an organized active during reces
s than in tured reces
2005). In sum,
regu lar, unstruc-
linke eral gym class (U.S. s fosters children’s
Family chaos is with limited positive parent health and com
, single mothers family life and tence—physically pe-
tage—especially , inter

Health boxes address values and practices relevant

chall enge s of t– child acad-emically, and
the involvement. paren socially.
to juggle warm, relaxed
incomes struggling s can prevail life interferes with s,
, shift jobs, unst
able child-care Physical Educ But family chao A chaotic home problems. Exosy
stem influence
transportation
and other daily
hassles. But chao at
s
even when fami ion
lies do engage
in
action and contr
ibutes to behavior
pressures, can
trigger disorganiz
ed family

to children’s physical and mental health. Examples Biology and En

ents, , place CHAPTER 3 Pren
arran gem Physica edict able sive work atal Developm
such families. l activity such as exces
Unpr
sup joint activities. ent 103
is not limited to
thatmen amot— theifami lies as a ports man y aspe zed cts
vironment
ly meals involv- routines.

/CORBIS
ng U.S. r health, their sens disorgani famiof children- ’s develop
Surveys reveal ren has remained e of self- ntal disci - ren’s behav-
timeand with cap h or lax worpare ributes to child
include Family Chaos Undermines Children’s Well-
childable th as physically
whole, mothers’ beings, and the ing hars
decades, and cog The Prenata
ile, disrespectful active Family chaos cont nd its negative

NG/REUTERS
fairly stable over
the for
past gett
three ing along ann, & pline niti
and ve host
and social skil l Environment
d with child ren’s
ior problems, abov e and beyo
(Galinsky, Aum with others.
ciatels
scho comAmun larg e on
are asso necessary , and Health in ess (Coldwell,

W
asedol- icati nting effectiven
incre based nts bodultie y of Foley, & Spagnola Later Life
fathers’ time has y pare phy evid impact on pare
sicad l activity tohen
spen s (Fies e, enc er, 2010). Cha-
e link
Being, U.S. Public Policy Changes Improve Infant pressured sand
themen waytman adjustme imp nt diffic
Mich 2008; Fiese & Wint
Bond, 2009). But (Centerme roveael d ente acadred Pike, & Dunn,
ss inco s for ren a sense of
s and the
emimes

© RICK WILKI
levelDis ease Con beco worl
c ach d 55
to Acroote ago,
trol). As6and weeklys time
fami ieveyear- s es, 5 pounds atsurro
nish ngs induce in child
that time has chan devers
ged. 2006 Prevpremature ture dimi
mor fathee rs repo
tim e
rt
toforacademi , its enti
orde rly
on, struc
and201 weig hing otic birthundi had a 50 erlessness,
gem0).
and only ming per- of pow
both scho
moth ols hav overcwhel inst4 pounds, the
ruct ent Yet cent greatergchan ledofand feelings
ethnic groups,
Feeding Practices in Low-Income Families, and Family
e cut ren— ion, doct enga
or hass self-esteem.
ing while carin
g for child him
back on recessand’t surewasn warmhepare nt– childU.S.
would make it.elementary
deliv ering
of heart disea
bein ce dyin
anxigety and low 80
more multitask box abo ve). to eat but also only (see the Soc ial Issues: Educati Mich ael whic h enge
se and nderstrok orts—
mealtimes not
just survdisinivedtegrabut tes.enjoyed ernot
ona pileup ofeven after SES ystem ande,macrosystem supp
example, using Sim plan good heal can trigg and family poli-
k, read toilarl y,ren, and mid- circumsta nces th until his Exos a variety gs with favorable
child although mos forties, when
y, t U.S. Dive
rse rces, breedingof other health 70

Stressors and Childhood Obesity.

, durin settin Low birth weigh
to check homewor edu cation, ns chi & Ralechec stat es requ
g a rout inel med
tiona resou including risks work is affordable t (less than 5.5

50
celebratio only(Bian six kup, he was ed pare ntal emo ire som ical were child care that lb)
family outin gs and
datesdisru requ
one fami presitsure
ly ire in everlimit diag nose d with e phy
high blood l
to micr sica
osyst em and controlled
(Bark
cies and high - qual ity ands
Not low birth
weight
y grad addition er, 2009; 60 ating dem

nosed at Age
at leasptiont in 30 min and
fami type
ly chao2 s.e,Inand
only tal healGodf th help prev ent escal
2005). Cons eque
and
ntly, utesappa perrentscho
diab etes.
enceMich s (pare aelone
ntshadman
with men
no - rce, singl
rey & Barkrelia ble—).
er, 2000 can &
45 min
rs. utes risk ol
factoday
sytem influ
in elem e and The way to chaos (Repetti
routine can disru
pt othe in mid dle ily
of fam anddhigh
meso rs for these enta
cond
ntal sepa ry nscho
ratio
ition and divo
ol ionshweig
conn ectio non betw
fami een that
liesbirth give
50a child-care
elem enta
of this ry com pression
and seconda
Coul the
prob scho
roots
lems ,
of pare
ol. Nea
s. ips), com mun ity,
few orrly
Possibly beca use Mich ael’sno half ortiv e relat ht and cardg, 2010). In one
phypare sicants and children cons date
is-ry scho back ol topare stud with
heal suppth prob of lems
U.S is was Wan iovascular dis- e dinner program.
routines, today’s
l edu cationtoge his nts
prenents atal do deve not n family time ease ted a take-hom 40 healthy, rea-
time clas sesing
ther. For lopm
erfulatte
ent?: Whend strongest er initia
dur ing
evid is pow Increany Thes- e child rencent for peop le d special-order a

Percentage Diag
prishave ingltooy,little
physicahalf
ence athe typi
sugg estsstem
cal
exosy scho
that pren as-
s—parents com whose weig participat ents
in coul
y ofol
Biology and Environment boxes highlight grow-
tently say they l inac wee
atal force ht-to a frien go at day’s
of U.S.
tivit
men y tal
amo facto exter nalk.enviNot ron- sur- winn ing—is the Busy pareth
-leng ratio dly runnl,ingread y to
race
slightly more than ngat rs—chil
the merc
ones
dren thatand are to and from work at ,birth wasasize
goal. Many CHAPTERd fami
expe ly8 mea
rts belie Physical wher
30 Development e finishin ing—Early notChildhood 305
example, only three to five toba cco or ral hour not
ado s a day (as
toxic
lesc entsfailin
are
shou ld emph very
sona bly
low— price
a sign
informal game ing the family ve that phys
dinn a routine
icalereduc
eating together alcoh
mutiol) ngbut seve rather fairly is g, pare ofntsprenatal in mak s, individual exerc ation classes
families report ion Research as the flow of nutr-care arran gements subt often rathe
le, such sures orr than comp grow
end thtostun
etitiv aid ting. ise,ent.
(CASA, 2006; Opin e sport s. children’s deve 20lopm and personal progress

ing attention to the complex, bidirectional relationship

childients and horm workplace pres In other large-scale
times per week fami ly mea
the ls
placenta—can riencing exce ones
ssive acro ss that enha nces
studies,
). Frequency of
Cultural Influences tened.a consistent link
orati on, 2009 expe affect an indiv are threa
Corp out-
ive decades later. iduaines
ly rout l’s health betw een low
wide-ranging posit job loss—fami birth weight and 10
is associated with language high blood

between biology and environment. Examples include hood, enhanced

BerkICA8_ch
11_40in child Low Birth Wei pressure, heart
comes— 4_427
ght disease, stroke,
Stroke, and Diab and Heart Disease,
0
stance.
_r05.indd 425
Why Are Children from Asian Cultures Advanced in Drawing Skills? and diabetes in
middle adult- and even financia High l assi
Blood
etes ions hip, ilies who Hear t Disease
advice, com—pan
hood emerged
vities. Fam Pressure

The Prenatal Environment and Health in Later Life, who providesexe in exosystem acti l or community- or Stroke
Carefully controlle for both Diabetes
bers

R
d animal expe divewn
eturn to the that a poorexte nded- fam ily mem rime nts revealimitative act of
s and in kdo
a brea rse coun pers ona
elaborate, expressive
ly drawing, daunting
ative imp task, much tries few

TAO IMAGES RM/GETTY IMAGES

nour , with FIG UR E 3.5
by a Chineserienc
ished, underwei
con onfirm the s the
neg
ghtlike
(see Figure 3.5)
up insoci a ally isol (Barkated 2007). Refe to the
Relartionship of
in h
artist esjust 4gesearc
years old, fetus expe- whoJohn
a child are er, 2009; et al.,
chan
Res body ent orgrowing se). (Coultoinnadul to low birth weight to dise
Deaf Children Invent Language, and Autism and Theory
that structurempl
by une oym
andcontext
func
son & Schoeni,
and chil d abu
2011 thood. In aexo
the syst em
opening page ofgrea
thistly
chapter.
areincre affease cted
Observations
the risk of card
tion
rate
dcular
where each
s of conRese flict
person
archers believe tration of the pow
birth erhtofwas
weig
follo w-up of more than 2000 ase risk
, shocowetincrease
U.S.
of young children’sdisea se in adul
drawings in Asian
base d ties
thoo dcultures,
iovas
speaks a different language
ancom add ition al illus that pressure, heart
associated with
a greatly increased births at age 50, low
(Fran
box ).abo ve for plex factors asso disease, stroke, incidence of high
such as China, Japan, explo re thisthe
Korea, Issuipes:
Philippines, Heaal., lth2002 (Cohn, To2014). Furthermore,
’s dev elop ment. ciated postnatal healt and diabetes after blood

of Mind.
relat ialionsh with
Soc in hum and children unde rwei h risks were contr
olled,. (Based on
many other pren
macrosystem
tapped ans,ningresea emphasizes ght are involved.
Taiwan, and Vietnam, reveal
publskills
ic reco
ct
that
fam
rds, ily fun
are ctio U.S. rcheart education
rs el, the Johnson & Scho
atal and
affe gath Some speculate s mod
lyner’
ering infor bren eni,
remarkably advanced the birthoverweigthose htsofoftheirthouWest-
mati on on
independence— finding
leve amountsnfen
one’sl of Bro that a poor rosystem 2011.)
rity that the mac
diverts st large nourished fetus
ern agemates. What andexplains
women and suchthe early
sands of British
artisticSYS TEM own men style. outermoteachers
The American urce s. The
of bloo d to prio
the brain, the environmen
above 8.8t.poun Fords—was asso
MAoccu CRO caus ing , and reso
thatoms ls of
THE rrenc e of disea , cust orga ciated with a grea
ability? middle adulthoo se es,
typicallyin laws assume copyingns in theive abdo atmeninne r leve increased incid
d. Those weig culthing urallessvalu and t they (invorece
, such as the liver ence of breast tly
To answer this question, researchers consists of have thanaffedrawings
others’
ds cts theand supkidn
stifles por eys
creativ- lved in controllin other cancer risks cancer, even after
s to children’s neeity, so they discourage blood pressure g cholesterol were controlle

Cultural Influences boxes deepen the attention to

examined cultural influences on give children’s chil- ), to be undersize Silva et al., 2004 d (dos Santos
Ozanne, 2003). The resu d (Hales & ). The likely culp
rit is excessive
Y

lt is heightened maternal estro

S/ALAM

drawings, comparing China to the United States. dren from doingrisk so (Copple
of heart disease later gen in the over
and stroke. In mother, which weight expectan
Artistic models offered by the culture, teaching & Bredekamp, 2009). diabete Rather the case of promotes large t

culture threaded throughout the text. They highlight

s, inadequate pren fetal size and
© BLEND IMAGE

strategies, valuing of the visual arts, and expec- than promotingperm correct ways to atal nutrition may alters the mak
anently impair eup of beginnin
the pancreas, lead so that it responds g brea
AMst tissu
e
tations for children’s artistic development can draw, U.S. teachers glucoemphasize ing
2/9/15 10:00
to estrogen in
se intolerance beco adul
have a notable impact on the art that children imagination and self- to rise as the pers ming malignan thoo d by
etexpression.
both cross-cultural and multicultural variations in child
(Wu al., 2004). Yet anot on ages t.
produce. Does the Chinese method of her hypothesis High birth weig
the malf unctionin is that ht is also associate
In China’s 4,000-year-old artistic tradition, teaching drawing moth skills begin- g placeThe ntascomplex
of somedrawingsexpectan
increases in pros
of these kindergartners in Shanghai,
tate cancChina,
d with
ers permit high t blooyoung er in well,
men and digestive

development—for example, Why Are Children from Asian

adults showed children how to draw, encouraging ning in the preschool levelbenefit
s of stres from adult expectations that d, andchildren learn to draw
to reachyears s horm ones lymphatic canc ,
them to master the precise steps required to interfere withincre children’s
the fetus, whic careful teaching of artistic knowledge
crea- h slows fetal grow (Caughey and technique,
& Michels,and theers
richin both genders
ases fetal blood pressure artistic tradition of th,Chinese culture. 2009; Cnattingi
depict people, butterflies, fish, birds, and other tivity? To findexce out,ssresearchers , and promotes McCormack et us et al., 2009;
blood glucose, al., 2005). As yet,

Cultures Advanced in Drawing Skills?, The Flynn Effect:

predisposing the unclear. the reasons are
images. When taught to paint, Chinese children followed a group of Chinese-
ing person to later develop-
follow prescribed brush strokes, at first copying American children disease (Bark
2013). of immigrant parents ander a & Thornber tasks, including drawing. And the more time they
g, Preventi
their teacher’s model. To learn to write, they group of Caucasian- FinaAmerican children, all from spent, especially when on their parents taught and

Massive Generational Gains in IQ, and Is Emerging Adult-

lly, prenatally grow The relat
must concentrate hard on the unique details middle-SES two- parent families, from ages th-stun5 toted 9. babiesmodeled drawing ionships
at home, thebetw
more
often gain exce ssive men eenmature
prenatal develop-
of each Chinese character—a requirement that At two-year they intervals, weig ht in child t and
have the children’s human-
access to plentiful
figure hood, once their drawing skills.
the illnesses
Atlater
the same time,
-life illne ssesChinese-
do not mean that

hood Really a Distinct Stage of Development?

likely augments their drawing ability. Chinese drawings were 2013 rated
). This for maturity and originality— food (Ojha et al., American children’s artistic
are creativity
inevitable.flourished
excess weight usua take to prote Rather, the steps
parents and teachers believe that children can inclusion ofincre novel elements (Huntsinger etllyal., persists, grea under this systematic approach
ct our heal to promoting we
asing the risk of diab tly risks from beco th can prevent prenatal
be creative only after they have acquired a 2011). Findings revealed that on eachetes occasion,
and heart disea artistic maturity. ming reali
se. ty. Researchers advi
foundation of artistic knowledge and technique the Chinese- High
AmericanBirthchildren’s
Weightdrawings were In sum,indiv evenidua ls who
though youngwereChinese
low-weig children se
and also more creative.Cancer
and ht or high-weig
(Golomb, 2004). To that end, China has devised more advanced The othe are taught at how birth to get their
to draw, regu artistic
lar products
medical checkups ht
r prenatal grow scree
a nationalPren art curriculum
atal environm with
entalstandards and Interviews weigrevealed
ht—is linke that Caucasian- th extre American
me—high birth are original. Once ning tests
they succeed
that increat drawing basic and
ase the odds
factors d to brea disea
teaching materialslater life. Thisextending
baby ’s highfrom age 3can affect health in
through parents more monoften malignan mentioned st canctheir
providing er, the most com forms, they se detectionadd
spontaneously . They unusual
also recodetails of early
incre birth weight place cy in adult wom - siste mmend con-
secondary school. ased risk s her children with
2008a).rich nt atten
for breast cance
r in adulthood.
at In avariety
study of more
of art materials, en (Barker et al., of their own. Althoughtion
stres richcont
Westernto diet,children
weight,may fitne
The United States, as well, has a rich artistic whereas Chinese- women,American parents than more2,00 often 0 British come up with s— ideas
rollaabout
ble factowhatrsto draw, ss, and
high birth weig that contribute
hood 301 ht—
in artespe cardiovasthe cularnecessary to
ent in Early Child tradition, but its styles and conventions are enor- reported enrolling their children lessons,
cially weight until they acquire disease, skills,
adult-onsethey
ical Developm and cancer.those ideas. Cross- t
culturaldiabetes,
CHAPTER 8 Phys mously diverse compared with those of Asian cul- rating the development of artistic competence cannot implement
tures. Children everywhere try to imitate the art as more important. The Chinese-American chil- research indicates that children benefit from
around them as a way to acquire their culture’s dren also spent more time as preschoolers and adult guidance in learning to draw, just as they
ow
What We Kn
“visual language.” But American children face a kindergartners in focused practice of fine-motor do in learning to talk.
Applying ildhood BerkICA8_ch
rly Ch 03_090_121_r04.i

l Injuries in Ea
ndd 103

intentiona
Reducing Un
encourage
supervision. To
DES CRI PTI ON nearly constant
preschoolers need in the reasons behind them
, consistently CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT OF DRAWING In cultures that have rich
SUG GES TIO N understanding
and self-control,
lish the rules, expla
artistic traditions and that highly value artistic competence, children create elaborate draw-
Despite gains in r and obey safety rules, estab . ings that reflect the conventions of their culture. Adults encourage young children by guiding
opriate mbe them ies and
Provide age-appr children to reme ren for following their share of injur
safety instructio
n.
enforce them,
and praise child us have more than them in mastering basic drawing skills, modeling ways to draw, and discussing their pictures.
supervision and negative, or curio
e, distractible, Peers, as well, talk about one another’s drawings and copy from one another’s work (Boyatzis,
unusually activ ets out of sight
,
Children who are g. ucts in high cabin aded in a 2000; Braswell, 2006). All of these practices enhance young children’s drawing progress. And
’s temperament. need extra mon itorin erou s prod
Know the child kitchen, store dang is impossible, store them unlo as the Cultural Influences box above reveals, they help explain why, from an early age, children
example, in the ; if that s in containers
es for safety. For er. Remove guns keep all medicine in Asian cultures are advanced over Western children in drawing skills.
Examine all spac a latch ed draw room , and
serious dangers implements in hoolers to the
bath
Eliminate the most and keep sharp ny young presc In cultures with little interest in art, even older children and adolescents produce simple
Always accompa is 4 feet
from the home. locked cabinet. 8 or until the child forms. In the Jimi Valley, a remote region of Papua New Guinea with no indigenous pictorial
with safety caps
. seat up to age seat; passenger
-
y seat or booster ys ride in the back
erly installed car safet ren should alwa r leave a
opria te, prop y time . Child h to a child. Neve
ys Use an age-appr the child in correctly ever can caus e injur y or deat 3 to 5 time s faster than
ile travel, alwa strap that they ases
During automob 9 inches tall, and seat depl oy so forcefully body temperature incre
properly in the side air bags in
the front a child ’s core
restrain the child a cool, sunny day;
a car, even on h. .
back seat of the
car. child alone in t injur y or deat , and jungle gyms
risk of permanen r swings, see-saws
an adult’s, with been placed unde
d matting has
, wood chips, or rubberize outdoor play.
Make sure sand ys supe rvise drownings.
round equipme
nt s for dang erous plants. Alwa pool s are frequent sites of so muc h
Select safe playg Check yard shallow, inflatable r; they may swal
low
g water play; even ld not be immersed in wate
and sites. rve children durin s shou
Constantly obse g children’s head ulsions and deat
h.
water. swimming, youn can lead to conv

Applying What We Know Tables

around While they are h 5 or 6.
Be extra cautious lop water intox
icatio n, whic usually arou nd age
that they deve help care for it— sing. Model and
teach
gh to handle and g playful roughhou
is mature enou often occur durin
until the child an animal; bites
Wait to get a pet
around animals. g child alone with
Practice safety Never leave a youn t.

In this feature, we summarize research-based applications on

men
humane pet treat

Source: Safe Kids

Worldwide, 2008.
8.6 Cite major
milestones of gros
s-
early
many issues, speaking directly to students as parents or future
development in

ent
and fine-motor
parents and to those pursuing different careers or areas of study,
Motor Developm
childhood. es in
idual differenc
8.7 Describe indiv to

year-olds at play
in a neighborho
od park, pre-
ls occurs in earl
y
preschoolers’ mot
nce mot or
or skills and ways
development in
early such as teaching, health care, counseling, or social work. The
several 2- to 6-
enha
NT. .. Observe new motor skil
an explosion of
TAK E A MO ME
scho ol, or chil d-care center. You
of which builds
will see
on the
that
sim pler mov ement patterns
of todd
ious ly
lerh
acqu
ood.
ired skills into
to integrate prev bodies grow larger and
childhood.
tables include Supporting Early Langugage Learning, Helping
childhood, each dren continue
During the pres
more complex,
chool years, chil
dynamic systems
. Then they revi
ems
se each new skil
develop, their
l as their
environments
cap
present new cha
acities.
llenges,
Children Manage Common Fears of Early Childhood, Regulating
vou s syst niti ve
stronger, their
and they set new
central ner
goals, aided by
gains in perc eptual and cog
Screen Media Use, and Supporting Healthy Identity Development.
t
Developmen of gravity shifts
Gross-Motor more streamlined
vy, their center
and less top-hea tly, paving the way for new
grea
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As children’s bod the trunk. As a result, balance age 2, preschoolers’ gaits bec
ard y. By and later by
downward, tow cles of the bod first by running
lving large mus e the ground, at
motor skills invo re enough that soon they leav
rhyt hmi c— secu ping . are free d to experiment
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 PREFACE xxi

MiLESTncyON ES d
and Toddlerhoo
in Infa
EMOTIONAL/SOCIAL EMOTIONAL/SOCIAL Engages in deferred imitation of actions an

Development
Joins in play with familiar adults, siblings, adult tries to produce, even if not fully realized.
Smiling; and laughter increase in frequency
own lang uage (208)
ds not used in and expressiveness. (249) and peers. (273–274)
“Screens out” soun speech. (187–189) Categorizes objects conceptually, on the basis of
ful Anger and fear increase in frequency and
perceives meaning to detect

© ELLEN B. SENISI
common function or behavior. (221)
LANGUAGE d, babbles. (235) Increasing ly uses featu ral information intensity. (249–250)
S end of this perio an object. (194
–195) Begins to use language as a flexible symbolic
BIRTH–6 MONTH Coos and, by the tion with the identity of
Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety appear.
(196)
lish joint atten to improve. tool, to modify existing mental representations.
Begins to estab events. (236) ption continues (250, 262)
labe ls objects and Intermodal perce (209)
caregiver, who Uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration.
COGNITIVE
(250)
ARIEL SKELLY/BLE S
ND

/SOCIAL LANGUAGE
IMAGE

EMOTIONAL direc ted,

(248) tional, or goal- Shows “clear-cut” attachment to a familiar
Engages in inten

Milestones Tables
laughter emerge. Produces 200 to 250 words. (235)
IMAGES/GET TY

Social smile and in face-to- behavior. (204)

caregiver. (262)
ion. (204) Combines two words. (238)
tone of caregiver matched hidden in an initia
l locat
Matches feeling cts Finds an object
Increasingly detects the meaning of others’
on; later, expe
face communicati emotional expressions and engages in social
EMOTIONAL/SOCIAL
) referencing. (250–251)
responses. (250
A Milestones table appears
emotion

Y
Realizes that others’ emotional reactions may
ive from negative

T PHOTOGRAPH
Self-conscious emotions (shame, embarrassment,
Distinguishes posit expressions. (250) Regulates emotion by approaching and differ from one’s own. (251) guilt, envy, and pride) emerge. (251)
l
in voices and facia well organized
retreating from stimulation. (252)
Complies with simple directives. (278)
ns beco me Acquires a vocabulary for talking about feelings.

at the end of each age

essio
Emotional expr ronmental
related to envi
PHYSICAL
(253)
ly. (159–160) and meaningfully 13–18 MONTHS

© LAURA DWIGH
ht increase rapid 19–24 MONTHS Begins to use language to assist with emotional
Height and weig events (250)

division of the text. The

xes decline. (143
) PHYSICAL PHYSICAL
self-regulation. (253)
Newborn refle s; shows
tastes and odor Begins to tolerate caregiver’s absences more
Y

Height and weight gain are rapid, but not as great

S/ALAM

Distingui shes basic s. (148) gain s Jumps, walks on tiptoe, runs, and climbs. (182)
sweet-tasting food as inbyfirst
ated year; toddlers slim down. (159–160) easily; separation anxiety declines. (262)
preference for improves, as indic ns with
operantly Recall memory actio
tion of adults’ Walking is better coordinated (182)
tables summarize major
© TETRA IMAGE

ically and Recognizes image of self and, by end of this

© ELLEN B. SENISI
be class
Responses can in deferred imita period, uses own name or personal pronoun to
–178) )
conditioned. (176 recovers to objects. (207–208 ogy
Manipulates
to a previous
small objects with improved
refer to self. (276)
anging stimuli; anal
physical, cognitive, lan-
lems by coordination. (186, 204)
Habituates to unch Solves simple prob
–179)
novel stimuli. (178 problem. (208)

© LAURA DWIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY

a night–day COGNITIVE
of subtle sets
ly organized into cts on the basis
is incre asing Categorizes obje al cont rast

guage, emotional, and

Sleep eptu
when the perc Explores the properties of objects by acting on
schedule. (169
) of features, even is minimal. (219 ) in novel ways. (203)
, and grasps objects. ories them
Holds head up,
rolls over between categ
attention and Searches in several locations for a hidden

social attainments, pro-

(182) binocular, tion by shifting
Regulates emo LANG UA GE object. (206)
y to motion, then ) y sounds of
Shows sensitivit . (189–190) self-soothing. (252 to caregiver to include man Engages in deferred imitation of adults’ actions
rial depth cues and babbles more Babbling expands of the child ’s
and finally picto facial pattern; es, laug hs, s and patterns with objects over longer delays and across a
spoken language
viding a convenient aid
Smil
prefers human (192–193) ger. (262) ity. (235–236)change in context—for example, from child
Recognizes and face. than to a stran language commun
res of mother’s ically distinct from mes more (208)
recognizes featu stimuli as Awareness of self as phys
with care giver beco
care to home.
tory and visual ases. (276) Joint attention

for reviewing the chronol-

Perceives audi (187, 195) surroundings incre accurate. (236)
Sustained attention improves. (217) Manipulates small objects with good
patte rns. pat-a-cake and
organized spatial games, such as Recall memory improves further. (219) coordination. (186, 204)
ng on motion and S Takes turns in
Moves from relyi information— 7–12 MONTH peekaboo. (236
) Sorts objects into categories. (221)
using featural
arrangement to
shape, color, and
pattern—to visua
lly detect
PHYSICAL
Realizes that pictures can symbolize real
COGNITIVE
ogy of child development.
© ELLEN B. SENISI

an obje ct. (194 ) e schedule. (169) objects. (209) Solves simple problems suddenly, through Less often makes scale errors. (276–277)
the identity of tlike sleep–wak
al (visual, Approaches adul representation. (205)
range of intermod (195–196) ls, and walks. (182
) Shows signs of empathy. (278)
Masters a wide
© LAURA DWIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY
le) relationsh ips. Sits alone, craw Finds a hidden object that has been moved
auditory, and tacti while out of sight. (205)
Categorizes self and others on the basis of age,
sex, physical characteristics, goodness and
Y

Engages in make-believe play, using simple

COGNITIVE
T PHOTOGRAPH

badness, and competencies. (278)

rred imitation actions experienced in everyday life. (205)
ediate and defe Shows gender-stereotyped toy preferences.
Engages in imm )
l expressions. (207 (278)
of adults’ facia

© LAURA DWIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY

viors that lead to
beha
Repeats chance lts. (203–204) Self-control, as indicated by delay of
© LAURA DWIGH

interesting resu ing, pointing) to

pleasurable and gestures (show
gratification, emerges. (279)
eness of man y phys ical Uses preverbal vior and to
Has some awar anence) and rs’ goals and beha Starts to use words to influence a playmate’s
uding object perm influence othe
properties (incl (205 –206) ey infor mati on. (236) behavior. (274)
l knowledg e. conv )
basic numerica word meanings. (237
ent and flexible. Comprehends
some
mes more effici rstands
Attention beco this period, unde
Around end of and says first
(216–217) oves. ence of words
ory for visual events impr displaced refer
Recognition mem flexibility and words. (237)
LANGUAGE
ing improve in
(217–218) cts’ similar Reaching and grasp
CHAPTER er grasp. (185
7 Emotional
–186) Steadily adds 265
and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood to vocabulary. (237)
base d on obje s refined pinc
Forms categories (219) accuracy; show By end of this period, produces 50 words. (235)
s. is discussed.
physical propertie h each milestone
or pages on whic
became parents before they were psychologically ready but, indicate the page
in parentheses
Note: Numbers Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate the page or pages on which each milestone is discussed. MILESTONES Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 283
with social support, grew into the role. cy and Toddlerhood 80
ES Deve lopment in Infan
In contrast,
282 in low-
MILESTON SES families with many daily stresses, Avoidant
Secure
attachment generally moves away from security or changes 70 Resistant AM
2/9/15 10:03
from one insecure pattern to another (Fish, 2004; Levendosky
et al., 2011; Vondra et al., 2001). And in a long-term follow-up 60
from infancy to early adulthood, child maltreatment, mater-

Enhanced Art and Photo Program

Percentage of Infants

nal depression, and poor family functioning were associated 50

with shifts from security to insecurity (Weinfield, Sroufe, &
Egeland, 2000; Weinfeld, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004).
40
These findings indicate that securely attached babies
more often maintain their attachment status than insecure
babies, whose relationship with the caregiver is, by defini- 30 The art and page-layout style present concepts and research findings
with clarity and attractiveness, thereby aiding student understanding and
tion, fragile and uncertain. The exception is disorganized/
disoriented attachment, an insecure pattern that is either 20

highly stable or that consistently predicts insecurity of another

type in adolescence and early adulthood (Aikens, Howes, &
Hamilton, 2009; Hesse & Main, 2000; Weinfeld, Whaley, &
10
retention. Each photo has been carefully selected to complement the text
discussion and to represent the diversity of children around the world.
Egeland, 2004). As you will soon see, many disorganized/ 0
Germany Japan Israeli United States
disoriented infants experience extremely negative caregiv- Kibbutzim
ing, which may disrupt emotional self-regulation so severely
that confused, ambivalent feelings toward parents persist. FIGURE 7.4 A cross-cultural comparison of infants’ reactions in the
Strange Situation. A high percentage of German babies seem avoidantly attached,
whereas a substantial number of Japanese and Israeli kibbutz infants appear resistantly
Cultural Variations attached. Note that these responses may not reflect true insecurity. Instead, they are
probably due to cultural differences in child-rearing practices. (Based on van IJzendoorn
Cross-cultural evidence indicates that attachment patterns & Kroonenberg, 1988; van IJzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008.)
may have to be interpreted differently in certain cultures. CHAPTER 6 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 243
For example, as Figure 7.4 reveals, German infants show considerably more avoid-
ant attachment than American babies do. But German parents value independence
and encourage their infants to be nonclingy, so the baby’s behavior may be an
Infant tests consisting largely of perceptual and Language Development (p. 231) Around 12 months, toddlers say their first
motor responses predict later intelligence poorly. word. Young children often make errors of
intended outcome of cultural beliefs and practices (Grossmann et al., 1985). In As a result, scores on infant tests are called 6.10 Describe theories of language develop- underextension and overextension. Rate of
© AFRIPICS.COM/ALAMY

contrast, a study of infants of the Dogon people of Mali, Africa, revealed that none developmental quotients (DQs), rather than IQs. ment, and indicate the emphasis each places on word learning increases steadily, and once
innate abilities and environmental influences.
showed avoidant attachment to their mothers (True, Pisani, & Oumar, 2001). Even Speed of habituation and recovery to visual stimuli vocabulary reaches about 200 to 250 words,
is a better predictor of future performance. two-word utterances called telegraphic speech
when grandmothers are primary caregivers (as they are with firstborn sons), Dogon Chomsky’s nativist theory regards children as
naturally endowed with a language acquisition appear. At all ages, language comprehension
mothers remain available to their babies, holding them close and nursing them 6.9 Discuss environmental influences on early
develops ahead of production.
mental development, including home, child device (LAD). Consistent with this perspective, a
promptly in response to hunger and distress. grammatically complex language system is unique
care, and early intervention for at-risk infants
Japanese infants, as well, rarely show avoidant attachment (refer again to Fig-

JO UNRUH/GETTY IMAGES
and toddlers. to humans.
ure 7.4). Rather, many are resistantly attached, but this reaction may not represent Although language-related structures—Broca’s
Research with the Home Observation for
true insecurity. Japanese mothers rarely leave their babies in others’ care, so the and Wernicke’s areas—exist in the left hemi-
Measurement of the Environment (HOME) shows
Strange Situation probably induces greater stress in them than in infants who fre- that an organized, stimulating home environ-
sphere of the cerebral cortex, their roles are more
quently experience maternal separations (Takahashi, 1990). Also, Japanese parents complex than previously assumed. But the broad
ment and parental affection, involvement, and
association of language functions with left-
view the attention seeking that is part of resistant attachment as a normal indicator encouragement repeatedly predict higher mental
hemispheric regions is consistent with Chomsky’s
of infants’ efforts to satisfy dependency and security needs (Rothbaum et al., 2007). test scores. Although the HOME–IQ relationship is
notion of a brain prepared to process language.
partly due to heredity, family living conditions
Likewise, infants in Israeli kibbutzim frequently show resistant attachment. For Evidence for a sensitive period for language
also affect mental development.
these babies, who can sense the fear of unfamiliar people that is pervasive in their development also supports this view.
communities (see page 250), the Strange Situation probably induces unusual distress Recent theories suggest that language develop-
© RICK GOMEZ/CORBIS

(van IJzendoorn & Sagi, 1999). Despite these and other cultural variations, the secure ment results from interactions between inner
capacities and environmental influences. Some
pattern is still the most common attachment quality in all societies studied to date interactionists apply the information-processing
Girls show faster progress than boys, and both
(van IJzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008). perspective to language development. Others
shy and emotionally negative toddlers acquire
language more slowly. Low-SES children, who
emphasize the importance of children’s social
receive less verbal stimulation than higher-SES
skills and language experiences.
children, have smaller vocabularies—a strong
Factors That Affect Attachment Security 6.11 Describe major milestones of language predictor of later language and literacy skills.
Dogon mothers of Mali, West Africa, stay close to their development in the first two years, individual Most toddlers use a referential style of language
What factors might influence attachment security? Researchers have looked closely babies and respond promptly and gently to infant differences, and ways adults can support infants’ learning, in which early words consist largely of
at four important influences: (1) early availability of a consistent caregiver, (2) qual- hunger and distress. With their mothers consistently and toddlers’ emerging capacities. names for objects. A few use an expressive style,
ity of caregiving, (3) the baby’s characteristics, and (4) family context, including par- available, none of the Dogon babies show avoidant Quality of infant and toddler child care influences
Infants begin cooing at 2 months and babbling in which social formulas and pronouns are
ents’ internal working models. attachment. cognitive, language, academic, and social skills.
around 6 months. Around 10 to 11 months, their common and vocabulary grows more slowly.
Standards for developmentally appropriate
skill at establishing joint attention improves, Adults in many cultures speak to young children
practice specify program characteristics that
and soon they use preverbal gestures. Adults can in infant-directed speech (IDS), a simplified form
meet young children’s developmental needs.
encourage language progress by responding to of communication that is well-suited to their
Intensive intervention beginning in infancy and infants’ coos and babbles, playing turn-taking learning needs. Parent–toddler conversation
extending through early childhood can help games, establishing joint attention and labeling is one of the best predictors of early language
prevent the gradual declines in intelligence and what babies see, and responding verbally to their development and academic competence during
the poor academic performance evident in many preverbal gestures. the school years.
poverty-stricken children.

In-Text Key Terms with Definitions, Important Terms and Concepts

End-of-Chapter Term List, and accommodation (p. 202)

adaptation (p. 202)
executive function (p. 216)
expressive style (p. 239)
overextension (p. 237)
production (p. 238)

End-of-Book Glossary
A-not-B search error (p. 204) Home Observation for Measurement of the recall (p. 218)
assimilation (p. 202) Environment (HOME) (p. 226) recognition (p. 218)
autobiographical memory (p. 220) infant-directed speech (IDS) (p. 240) referential style (p. 239)
automatic processes (p. 216) infantile amnesia (p. 220) scheme (p. 202)

Mastery of terms that make up the central vocabulary of the babbling (p. 235)
central executive (p. 216)
intelligence quotient (IQ) (p. 225)
intentional, or goal-directed, behavior (p. 204)
sensorimotor stage (p. 201)
sensory register (p. 215)

field is promoted through in-text highlighting of key terms

circular reaction (p. 203) joint attention (p. 236) short-term memory store (p. 215)
comprehension (p. 238) language acquisition device (LAD) (p. 231) standardization (p. 225)
cooing (p. 235) long-term memory (p. 216) telegraphic speech (p. 238)

and definitions, which encourages students to review the core knowledge perspective (p. 211)
deferred imitation (p. 205)
make-believe play (p. 205)
mental representation (p. 205)
underextension (p. 237)
video deficit effect (p. 210)

terminology of the field in greater depth by rereading related

developmentally appropriate practice (p. 228) normal distribution (p. 225) violation-of-expectation method (p. 205)
developmental quotient (DQ) (p. 226) object permanence (p. 204) working memory (p. 215)
displaced reference (p. 209) organization (p. 202) zone of proximal development (p. 222)

information. Key terms also appear in an end-of-chapter

page-referenced term list and an end-of-book glossary.
xxii PREFACE
Acknowledgments
The dedicated contributions of a great many individuals helped
make this book a reality and contributed to refinements and improve-
ments in this eighth edition.
Reviewers
An impressive cast of reviewers provided many helpful suggestions
and constructive criticisms, as well as encouragement and enthusi-
asm, for the organization and content of the text. We are grateful to
each one of them.
For the First Through Seventh Editions
Scott Adler, York University
Mark B. Alcorn, University of Northern Colorado
Joseph Allen, University of Virginia
William Aquilino, University of Wisconsin
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Martha Arterberry, Colby College
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Kathleen Bey, Palm Beach Community College
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Donald Bowers, Community College of Philadelphia
Michele Y. Breault, Truman State University
Jerry Bruce, Sam Houston State College
Kristy Burkholder, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Melissa Burnham, University of Nevada, Reno
Lanthan D. Camblin, University of Cincinnati
Joseph J. Campos, University of California, Berkeley
Linda A. Camras, DePaul University
Gustavo Carlo, University of Nebraska—Lincoln
Lynn Caruso, Seneca College
Nancy Taylor Coghill, University of Southwest Louisiana
Raymond Collings, SUNY Cortland
Diane Brothers Cook, Gainesville College
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Jennifer Cook, Kent State University
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Deborah Laible, Lehigh University
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Gail Lee, Jersey City State College
Judith R. Levine, State University of New York at Farmingdale
Miriam Linver, Montclair State University
David Lockwood, Humber College
Frank Manis, University of Southern California
Martin Marino, Atlantic Cape Community College
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Trent Maurer, Georgia Southern University
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Julie Poehlmann, University of Wisconsin—Madison
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lopuksi täytyi hänen peljätä poikaansa.

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Hän laski kätensä sairaan olkapäälle. — Muistakaa, ettette ole yksin.
Täällä on paljon heikkoja sairaita.

— Tuokaa lääkäri tänne! Ja valoa! Minä tahdon saada näköni

takaisin. Vai oletteko sellaisia petoja, ettette anna viholliselle edes
lääkärinhoitoa?

Hän vaipui voihkien takaisin vuoteelle. Tuska, jota hän tunsi, oli
liian raju hänen vielä heikoille voimilleen.

Hetken kuluttua hän tunsi "sisaren" asettuvan hänen

läheisyyteensä. Hän aavisti sen siitä, että jokin hipaisi hänen
vuodettaan ja ääni kuului hyvin läheiseltä. Lääkäri oli muka hoitanut
häntä siitä asti kun hänet tänne tuotiin. Sääri ja olkapää olivat
parhaassa mahdollisessa kunnossa. Mutta silmille ei lääkärien taito
mahtanut mitään.

Tällaisellako hulluuteen asti raivostunutta miestä lohdutettiin?

Hän kiristi hampaitaan. Hän ei jaksanut enää riehua. Eikä hän

tahtonut saada uudistettua muistutusta noilta — Hän sihautti sanan
hampaittensa lomitse. Sitte hän puhkesi sisimmässään
vaikertamaan: sokea, sokea, tuomittu elinkautiseen pimeyteen! — Ja
lisäksi vailla jalkaa, vailla kättä. Hän, joka oli käskijäksi syntynyt, joka
oli määrännyt sekä oman kohtalonsa että toisten, hän on nyt tuomittu
ei ainoastaan elinkautiseen pimeyteen, vaan myöskin elinkautiseen
riippuvaisuuteen muista ja siitä mitä he suvaitsevat tai eivät suvaitse
tehdä.

Hän voihkaisee taas niin ääneensä, että kyyneleet nousevat

muutamien sairaiden silmiin. Toiset pudistavat moittivasti päätään.
Eräältä vuoteelta viskaa parrakas mies hänelle vihaisen: syntyisipä
tästä konsertti, jos kaikki pitäisivät tuollaista ääntä!

Feodorin ainoa käsi puristautuu nyrkkiin, ja hän kihnuttaa

hampaitaan vastatusten. Raivo ja tuska kuluttavat häntä kuin tuli.
Viimein vaivuttaa väsymys hänet horrostilaan. Se helpoittaa
hetkeksi. Mutta kun Feodor siitä selviytyy, uudistuu sama julma
leikki, joka häntä raatelee kuin peto saalistaan. Hän herää
ihmettelemään ympärillä vallitsevaa pimeyttä, — muistaa sitte ja —
rääkkäytyy kuin kidutuspihdeissä.

Jokainen tällainen herääminen on kuin uudistettu syvä, kipeä

leikkausveitsen piirto.

Kun hän vain pääsisi kotiin! Varmaan lääkärit siellä voisivat auttaa
häntä! Täällä häntä kaiken lisäksi, — ja vielä enemmän kuin mikään
muu — kiusaa se, että hän on kokonaan riippuvainen vihollisistaan.
Hän on nutistettu heidän käsiinsä niinkuin avuton, kokoon käpertynyt
koira, jonka selkään satelee raipaniskuja.

Monta sellaista hän, Feodor on nähnyt jalkojensa juuressa, mutta

että hän itse —

Ajatus koirasta toi hänen mieleensä omituisen pienen muiston.

Sillä oli oikeastaan juurensa etäällä. Se vei hänet takaisin siihen
aikaan poikavuosina, jolloin ei naista ollut olemassa hänen
maailmassaan, ei sisarien eikä muiden muodossa. Sisaret
tavaroineen jäivät silloin rauhaan häneltä, ei entistä suuremman
sovinnollisuuden tai lauhkeuden perustuksella, vaan siitä
yksinkertaisesta syystä, että koko naissuku oli liian halpa hänen
kiinnittääkseen huomiota siihen.

Mutta sitte sukelsi nainen jälleen yhtäkkiä hänen näköpiiriinsä, ei

yksilönä eikä ihmisenä, jolla oli paikkansa toisten rinnalla, vaan
naisena. Ja nainen pani hänen kuumat verensä kuohumaan.

Tuuhistuvien viiksien alla hehkuvat huulet veivät suuteloita

väkisten. Käsi ja sydän piteli naista lelunaan, omisti hetken ja viskasi
luotaan kun leikki alkoi tympäistä. Mutta leikki oli toista, toista
naimisiin meno. Feodor tiesi äidistään, minkälaiset naiset ovat
aviopuolisoina parhaimmat. Sentähden hän valitsi taiten, kun näki
hyväksi pysyväisesti kiinnittää naisen kotiinsa. Hän valitsi Dunjan. Ja
Dunjalla oli se pieni, silkkisenpehmeään turkkiin puettu villakoira,
joka nyt toi kaikki nämä ajatukset hänen mieleensä.

Kerran — hän ei enää muistanut ulkonaista syytä siihen — hän

silmittömästi suuttui koiraan. Kangistuneena pelosta odotti Dunja,
että hän löisi koiran kuoliaaksi. Tämä harmitti häntä. Hän pisti koiran
kylmäverisesti kainaloonsa, tarttui lakkiinsa ja poistui. Illalla hän
viskasi Dunjan silmille, että hän oli myynyt sen eräälle toverille
"tieteellisiin tarkoituksiin".

Feodor liikahti levottomasti. Hän näki koiran aivan kuin edessään.

Sen pieni ruusunpunainen turpa, jota Dunjalla oli tapana hyväillä,
vääntyi kidutuspihdeissä, ja pehmeän villatakin sisästä loistavat
älykkäät silmät kangistuivat kuin kuolintuskassa.

Niin, niin, mitäpä hän siitä silloin, mutta nyt hän tunsi omassa
ruumiissaan mitä merkitsi olla kidutuspenkillä. Maata, näin sokeana,
raajarikkona, — vihollisistaan riippuvana!

Hän koetti kääntyä. Vaikka hän ei tuntenut seinää, oli hänellä se

mielikuva, että hän makasi seinään päin. Kun hän kääntyisi, voisi
hän varmaan nähdä edes pienen valonkajastuksen — esimerkiksi
jostain ovenraosta.

Mutta kääntyminen tuotti hänelle ainoastaan kipua.

Valonkajastusta ei näkynyt, eivätkä ajatukset helpoittaneet.

Hänen täytyi taas ajatella Dunjaa. Jos Dunja eläisi, tuntuisi moni
asia toisenlaiselta. Mutta vaikka Feodor niin hyvin tunsi naiset, ja
vaikka hän niin tarkalleen oli osannut valita itselleen erinomaisen, oli
hän sittekin tehnyt laskuvirheen. Hän ei tietänyt, että tuollainen hyvä,
erinomainen vaimo voi murtua. Ja Dunja murtui.

Hän pani erehdyksen mieleensä vastaisen varaksi.

Dunja oli ollut hento, syväkatseinen olento. Hänessä oli kuutamon

surunvoittoista, kelmeätä kauneutta. Ottaessaan toisen otti Feodor
helakkavärisen, tummaihoisen ja tulisen: "Luuta minun luustani ja
lihaa minun lihastani."

Vera Konstantinovna oli ainoa nainen, joka joskus sai asetetuksi

sulkuja Feodorin tahdolle. Hän osasi sekä kiihoittaa Feodoria että
pysyttää häntä loitolla. Käskijäksi syntynyt ei voinut väistyä. Hänen
täytyi saada tahtonsa tapahtumaan. Sentähden hän Veran edessä
alentui pyytämään.

Heidän avioliittonsa oli taistelua. Feodor ei koskaan ollut varma

vaimostaan. Tämä saattoi milloin taliansa maksaa uskottomuuden
uskottomuudella. Sentähden Feodor milloin vihasi, milloin
intohimoisesti pyysi häntä.

Kun sota syttyi, olivat heidän välinsä kireät. Feodor astui vaimonsa
huoneeseen ilmoittaakseen hänelle aseisiinastumis-käskystä. Vera
seisoi silloin suuren seinäpeilin edessä koettelemassa uutta,
loppukesää varten ostettavaa hattua. Pitkin huonetta oli
muotiliikkeestä koeteltaviksi lähetettyjä hattuja. Vera otti niistä toisen
toisensa jälkeen, pani päähänsä ja koetteli.

— Vai sota! — Vera naurahti. — No, siihen sinä olet omiasi! —

Hän tutkisteli tarkoin, pukiko päässä oleva hattu häntä paremmin,
kun se oli suorassa tai kun se oli hieman vinossa. Hieman vinossa
sopi varmaan paraiten. — Sinä olet kuin luotu sota-aikoja varten,
huomautti hän ohimennen.

Feodoria raivostutti. Hän näki kaikesta, että hänen lähtönsä oli

Veralle mieleen. Ja hän kosti. Ennen kuin hän läksi rintamaan ajoi
hän
biilissä kotinsa ikkunoiden alatse nuoren, tumman kaunottaren
kanssa.
Vera seisoi ikkunassa, ja Feodor hiljensi biilin vauhtia.

Tämäkin muisto raivostutti häntä nyt. Vera oli voittanut. Hän oli
vapaa, vapaa tekemään mitä ikinä halutti. Hän tietysti maksoi
tuonkin illan. Ja sisimmässään hän ilkkui miestä, joka makasi
sokeana, raajarikkona sotavankina.

Feodor puri hammasta.

Pietarissa oli näihin aikoihin paljon kauniita, uljaita upseereja.

Heillä oli kaksin-, kertaiset palkat ja hyvä halu tuhlailla hyvyyttään
muillekin. Vera rakasti makeisia, kauniita vaatteita ja huvituksia.
Feodor ei tarvinnut paljon mielikuvitusta voidakseen seurata Veraa.
Hän näki kaikki — sokeudestaan huolimatta.

Ja täällä hän makasi!

Päivä päivältä kävi Feodorille yhä selvemmäksi, miten kokonaan

eristetty hän oli kaikista muista. Ainoa maailma, joka oli hänelle
avoin, oli ajatusten ja muistojen.

Hän rupesi kaipaamaan äitiä ja Dunjaa. Heiltä hän ainakin olisi

saanut hellyyttä. Ennen hän monesti oli ajatellut Dunjan
rakkaudesta, että se oli kuin koiran, joka nuolee häntä pieksevän
isännän kättä. Silloin se oli häntä kiusannut. Joskus kyllä oli ehkä
mielessä liikkunut jotain sentapaista, ettei hän osannut antaa arvoa
sille mitä sai, että hän ei ansainnut sitä. Mutta hän oli karistanut
kaikki sellaiset ajatukset luotaan. Ja se kävi helposti, kun oli
voimissaan, teki työtä ja antoi elämän kuohuvan virran kiskaista
muassaan. Mutta kun joutui tällaiseksi — — —

— Dunja, sanoi hän itsekseen, — minä olin kova ja minä petin

sinua usein.

Hm, niin! Ajatukset luistivat toiseen uomaan. Uskoton hän myöskin

oli ollut. Mutta kukapa sinä suhteessa oli toisenlainen? Se kuului
isän ja esi-isien laskuun.

Nyt hän kuitenkin katui sitä. Sokeana ja rampana maaten tuli

ihminen hentomieliseksi.

Oli sillä äidilläkin ollut yhtä ja toista kestettävänä. Hänen

ilmeensäkin oli pysyväisesti arka ja säikkyvä. Ainoastaan viime
vuosina oli se muuttunut. Feodorkaan ei silloin enää ollut kotona. Äiti
oli muuttanut vanhimman, naimisissa olevan tyttärensä luokse, ja
hänen oli siellä hyvä olla.

Feodorin valtasi äkkiä hänelle aivan sopimaton tunne. Hän ikävöi

äitiä. Hänestä tuntui siltä, kuin kipu hänen ruhjoutuneissa
jäsenissään ja noissa näkemättömissä silmissä asettuisi, jos äiti
laskisi kätensä hänen päälaelleen niinkuin silloin, kun hän vielä oli
hyvin, hyvin pieni.

Eikä hän olisi tahtonut ainoastaan saada ja vastaanottaa. Nyt

hänellä olisi ollut antaakin, sitä mitä äiti ehkä pitkin elämäänsä
turhaan oli kaivannut: hyviä, ystävällisiä sanoja.

Mutta äitikin oli poissa. Hän oli sairastellut pitkin kevättalvea, ja

pari kuukautta ennen sodan puhkeamista hän oli kuollut.

Se tapahtui juuri näihin aikoihin viime vuonna, kukaties vaikka juuri

tänä päivänä. Silloin oli kevät paraiksi puhjennut täyteen kukkaansa.
Nyt mahtoi olla samoin, päättäen niistä tuoksuvista tuulahduksista,
joita Feodor tässä maatessaan tunsi, arvatenkin jostain avatusta
ikkunasta.

Jos hän olisi ollut kotona, olisi hän tiedustellut. Siellä olisi hän
voinut seurata päivien kulkua aivan toisella tavalla kuin täällä. Mutta
täällä hän ei tahtonut. Jokainen tiedonanto tuntui armopalalta, joka
viskattiin hänelle kuin koiralle. Niillä, jotka hoitivat häntä, oli aina
kiire. Koko sairassali tuntui olevan täynnä kiireen touhua. Hän
ymmärsi sen oven avauksista, askelista ja ihmisten tavasta puhua.
Hän ei tahtonut armopaloja näiltä ihmisiltä.
 Ikkunasta lehahtavat tuulet panivat Feodorin tästäpuoleen aina
ajattelemaan äitiä. Tuntui viihdyttävältä selailla kaikkien varhaisimpia
lapsuuden muistoja. Niissä oli kaikesta huolimatta jotain hyvää ja
kaunista, jota jaksoi ajatella näin sairaana maatessaankin.

Sen hyvän, mikä sieltä löytyi, ojensi hänelle aina naisen käsi.
Tavallisesti äiti, joskus Tatjanakin, vanha uskollinen "njanja", jota hän
oli potkinut ja lyönyt, mutta joka sittekin rakasti häntä.

Sisarista ei hänellä ollut paljon muistoja. He olivat enimmäkseen

karttaneet häntä. Hyvin ymmärrettävistä syistä. Mutta äidin kuoltua
olivat he koettaneet lähennellä, etenkin vanhempi, jolta puoli vuotta
myöhemmin oli kuollut lapsi, älykäs, kaunis poika, jota todella
kannatti surra.

Sisar oli senjälkeen hyvin muuttunut. Siihen kai vaikutti sisaren

anoppimuorikin, joka asui talossa. Hän oli hyvin uskonnollinen
eukko, kuului johonkin lahkoon. Hänen omituisuuksiaan oli —
etenkin kuolemantapauksissa, — mutta usein muutenkin, puhua
"suuresta todistajien joukosta", "Taas on yksi liittynyt todistajien
joukkoon", se oli hänen lempilauseitaan.

Sisarenkin ajatukset olivat nähtävästi kääntyneet samaan

suuntaan. Feodor muisti erityisesti erästä hetkeä, jolloin he rinnan
seisoivat äidin arkun ääressä. Ketään muuta ei ollut läheisyydessä.

"He näkevät meidät sellaisina kuin olemme, — kaikessa

alastomuudessamme, sanoi sisar. — Täällä rakkaus kaunistaa
meitä, lisäsi hän kuin itsekseen. — Minä olen kärsinyt siitä, etteivät
toiset tiedä mitä sitä sisimmässään on."
 Feodor muisti, että häntä nauratti. Häh kysäsi mitä sisarella
oikeastaan oli tunnollaan. Eikö hän aina ollut viettänyt sangen
siveätä ja kunniallista elämää.

— Feodor, sanoi sisar äkkiä aivankuin heräten muistamaan

kysymystä, — he ovat menneet perimään jotain niin hyvää, niin
ihanaa, ettei ajatuksemme pysty sitä aavistamaankaan. Mutta he
eivät ole menneet ainoastaan saadakseen jotain parempaa, vaan
myöskin tehdäkseen meidät paremmiksi.

Feodor ei vastannut. Hän oli mies eikä kaivannut tuollaista

naismaista lohdutusta. Mutta hän sattui huomaamaan, että sisaren
katse kuin siunaten hyväili kuollutta, ja hän kuuli hiljaisen
kuiskauksen: Se suuri todistajien joukko auttaa meitä.

Kumma kun tuo kaikki sittekin oli tarttunut mieleen, huolimatta

siitä, ettei hän ensinkään siitä välittänyt.

Hänen tuli äkkiä ikävä sisarta. Varmaan olisi sisar hellä ja

osaaottava näin kovia kokeneelle veljelle. Hänessä oli aina ollut
jotain, joka oli muistuttanut äitiä, vaikka se oikeastaan vasta lapsen
kuoltua oli päässyt esille.

Ihmeellistä oli, että tuollaiset pienet lapset vaikuttivat niin paljon

vanhempiinsa. Eräs hänen upseeritoverinsakin, joka uskollisesti oli
ottanut osaa kaikkiin hänen hurjasteluihinsa, oli aivan kuin muuttunut
sen jälkeen kun hänelle syntyi kauan toivottu poika. Ja kuinka isä
rakasti sitä poikaa, vaikka tämä oli sokea, tuomittu kuten Feodorkin
ainaiseen pimeyteen. Isä syytti itseään siitä. Se se ehkä niin vaikutti
häneen. Mutta toiseksi muuttui sekä mies että koti, ainoastaan sen
pienen, sokean pojan kautta.
 Olisikohan lapsi voinut vaikuttaa Feodoriinkin? Hän ei oikeastaan
koskaan ennen ollut ajatellut sitä. Mutta olihan hän toivonut poikaa
nimensä jatkajaksi. Vaikka parempihan sittekin oli näin. Nyt etenkin,
kun hän oli tullut katsoneeksi asioita toiselta kannalta kuin ennen, ei
hän olisi suonut että toinen olisi peri — —

Hän käännähti levottomasti.

Olihan niitä maailmalla jossain. Aivan jäljettömiin ei hänenkään

elämänsä hukkuisi, ei, vaikka hän kuinka soisi. Hän oli
varhaisemmassa nuoruudessaan pitemmän aikaa asunut maalla iso-
äitinsä tilalla, ja — —

Feodorilta pääsi ärähtävä tuskan huudahdus. Huomasiko hän nyt

vasta, miten hänen ruhjottua ruumistaan särki, vai oliko siihen syynä
nuo muistot?

Hoitajatar kiiruhti hänen luokseen kysyen, saattoiko hän ehkä

auttaa jollain tavoin? Nyt hänellä oli aikaa.

Feodor pyysi vettä juodakseen. Sitte tiedusteli hän kelloa. Hän

ihmetteli tätä tehdessään itse sitä, että hänen äänensä, joka tähän
asti oli ilmaissut selvää vastenmielisyyttä jokaista viholliskansaan
kuuluvaa kohtaan, nyt oli lauhtunut, melkeinpä kohtelias.

Mutta tästä päivästä asti keskittyivät Feodorin ajatukset yhteen

ainoaan asiaan; siihen, miten hän pääsisi elämän taakasta. Hän ei
jaksanut kantaa tuskiaan enempää kuin noita muistoja, jotka joka
puolelta irvistivät häntä vastaan. Hän tunsi siinä todistajien suuren
joukon, ja hän vihasi sitä. Se vain korkeuksistaan ilkkui häntä ja
hänen tuskiaan.
 Feodor tarkkasi tästä puoleen ympäristöään vakoilevasti kuin
saalistaan vaaniva peto. Hänen kuulonsa oli äärimmäisyyteen asti
jännitetty. Hän voitti vastenmielisyytensä kyselläkseen ja
tiedustellakseen. Hän teki välimatkoja ja ympäristöä koskevia
johtopäätöksiä.

Kerran hän kuuli hoitajattaren läheisyydessä käsittelevän jotain

kilahtelevaa, arvatenkin saksia. Hoitajatar laski ne kädestään
läheiselle pöydälle.

Feodor teki laskelmiaan. Hänen toisella puolellaan makasi toinen

sokea, toisella oli vuode aamulla jäänyt tyhjäksi. Jos hän äkkiä
nousisi pystyyn terveelle säärelleen, voisi hän ehkä siepata sakset
käteensä ja työntää ne suoraan sydämeen.

Hän makasi jännitettynä odottaen hoitajattaren poistumista. Toinen

sisar liikkui tosin etäämpänä, mutta hän kuuli äänestä, että sinne oli
matkaa.

Nyt poistui sisar. Feodor kokosi kaikki voimansa ja ryntäsi pystyyn.

Mutta hänen ainoa käyttöön ja kannattamiseen tottumaton jalkansa
petti.
Kiljahtaen hän suistui maahan, tunsi kipeitten silmiensä kohdalla
tulista kipua ja menetti tajuntansa.

Ainoastaan vähitellen hän palasi muistamaan mitä oli tapahtunut.

Hän ymmärsi silloin, että hän oli tahtonut paeta, mutta että hänet sen
johdosta vain oli entistä kovemmin kytketty kidutuspihteihin.

Sotilas hänessä nousi. Hän oli aikonut paeta! Hän, käskijäksi

syntynyt
Feodor Feodorovits!
 Hän ei aikonut uudistaa tekoaan.

Kaatuessaan hän oli pahasti loukannut sekä silmiään että otsan

alaosaa. Ruumiilliset tuskat olivat entistä suuremmat. Siteitä
muutettaessa hän usein puri hammasta. Mutta hän ei
äännähtänytkään.

Lääkärin ja hoitajan käsistä päästyään hän makasi hiljaa ja

liikahtamatta. Hän tiesi, että hänen täytyi voittaa alistumalla. Ja se
mitä hän kärsi, ei ollut vain häneen kohdistuva kova, katkera kohtalo.
Se oli jotain, joka muodossa tai toisessa tuli jokaisen osaksi. Häntä
kidutuspenkissä pitelevä pihti oli hänen oma entisyytensä, ja se
kiertyi kerran, varemmin tai myöhemmin, eteen joka-ainoalle.

Feodor ei enää vihannut suurta todistajien joukkoa. Hän uskoi

niinkuin sisarkin, että kaikki siihen kuuluvat tahtoivat auttaa häntä
paremmaksi. Hän unohti yhä enemmän kaiken näkyvän. Suuri
todistajien joukko oli hänen seuranaan.

Sentähden hän hätkähti, kun hoitajattaren käsi kerran kosketti

häntä tavallista kepeämmin, ja ääni, jonka pehmeys oli kieltämätön,
hänelle ilmoitti: — te pääsette pian pois täältä — kotiin.

Kotiin! Mitä se merkitsi? Sisar oli puhunut kuoleville kotiin

menosta.
Oliko Feodorkin kuolemaisillaan.

— Ei, ei! Mitä te tarkoitatte? Minä en tahdo kuolla. Minä tahdon

kärsiä elämäni kiirastulen.

— Kuollako? — Feodorista tuntui siltä kuin sisar olisi hymyillyt. —

Ei kuolla. Saksa ja Venäjä vaihtavat sotavankeja. Teidät viedään
kotiin.

Koko matka oli hänelle kuin ihmeellinen uni. Häntä kuljetettiin

eteenpäin junassa, milloin maitse, milloin meren poikki. Hän kuuli
ympärillään ensin saksaa, sitte kieltä, jota hän ei ymmärtänyt, sitte
kotimaansa kieltä. Hän sai tietoja sodasta ja sen vaiheista, ja kaikki
olivat hyviä hänelle. Näkevät kertoivat näkemiään, kädelliset olivat
kätenä hänelle.

Hän ei voinut käsittää, että elämällä vielä oli niin paljon hyvää
hänelle.

— Te olette kadottaneet paljon, sanoi hänelle, "sisar", joka

hellävaroen muutti hänen siteitään läpi Suomen kulkevassa
sairasjunassa. Sisar oli muuttanut säären ja olkapään siteet ja siirtyi
nyt silmiin. Feodor kuuli samassa jotain nyyhkytyksen tapaista.

— Itkettekö, kysyi hän osaaottavasti. Vailla kättä, vailla jalkaa ja

ainaiseen pimeyteen tuomittu! Sisar ei saanut puhutuksi.

— Älkää itkekö, Feodorin täytyi lohduttaa. — Minä en saa nähdä

kotimaatani enkä omaisiani, mutta minä näen sen suuren todistajien
joukon.

Hoitajatar asetti hellävaroen uuden siteen paikoilleen. — Te

kestätte sankarillisesti, sanoi hän.

— Se suuri todistajien joukko auttaa minua, vastasi Feodor.

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