University of Tripoli - Engineering Faculty

Computer Engineering Department

EC 310: Electronic Materials & Devices

Dr. Amna Elhawil
A.elhawil@uot.edu.ly

CHAPTER (2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND

HOLES
Textbook: Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Chenming Calvin Hu

Chapter (2) of textbook

Outline
▪ Electric field
▪ Carrier Mobility
▪ Drift Velocity
▪ Drift Current
▪ Diffusion Current
▪Total Current Density
▪Conductivity & Resistivity

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 2

 Electric field (E)
▪ The electric field is proportional to the applied voltage
and inversely proportional to the distance between
charges.
E = V/L (V/m) (1)
− L is the distance in meter.
− V is the applied voltage

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 3

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 4
Carrier Mobility (µ)
The mobility is a measure how easily charge carriers move under the influence
of an applied field or µ determines how mobile the charge carriers are.

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 5

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 6
Drift Velocity (𝒗𝒅 )
▪ When electrons gains energy from the applied voltage source, they break the bonds and start
moving randomly. If an electron did not collide with the bound ions, its velocity would increase
indefinitely.

▪ The average velocity vd (m/ s) is called the drift velocity. It is proportional to the applied field
and is given by

𝑣𝑑 = −𝜇𝐸 (2)

where μ (m2 /V. s) is the electron mobility.

▪ The minus sign in Eq. (2) is required because the negative charge on the electron causes it to
move is a direction opposite to the field

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 7

• Form(1) of drift velocity

For electrons:
𝑉𝑑𝑛 𝑉𝑑𝑝
𝑉𝑑𝑛 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸 (2a) - +

For holes:
𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝜇𝑝 𝐸 (2b)

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 8

• Form(2) of drift velocity
1. Acceleration: is the rate of 2. Newton's second law: In classical
change of velocity (𝑣 ) of an mechanics, for a body with constant
object with respect to time. mass, the acceleration of the body's
center of mass (𝑚∗ ) is proportional to
𝑣 the net force (f)
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡
𝑓
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗
𝑚

𝑞𝐸
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ± ∗
𝑚

𝑞𝐸
𝑣=− ∗𝑡 For electrons
𝑚𝑛
𝑞𝐸
The average net velocity: 𝑣 = ∗𝑡 (3)
𝑚 𝑞𝐸
𝑣= 𝑡 For holes
𝑚𝑝∗
CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 9
• Form(3) of drift velocity

•How long does a carrier move in time before collision ?

➢The average time taken between collisions is called as relaxation time, τ (or mean free time)
•How far does a carrier move in space (distance) before a collision?
➢The average distance taken between collisions is called as mean free path l.

Drift velocity=mean free path / Mean free time

𝑙
𝑣𝑑 = (4)
𝜏

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 10

Forms of drift velocity

𝑞𝐸 𝑙
𝑣𝑑 = ±𝜇𝐸 (1) 𝑣𝑑 = ± ∗ 𝜏 (2) (3)
𝑚 𝑣𝑑 =
𝜏

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 11

 𝑞𝜏
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸 ⇒ 𝜇 = ∗
𝑚

Fig. 2.4
CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 12
 Drift Velocity and Mobility

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 13

 Drift Velocity

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 14

Example 1
Calculate the mean free time and mean free path for electrons in a piece of n-type silicon and for
holes in a piece of p-type silicon. Let 𝑉𝑑(𝑛) = 1.08 × 105 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑉𝑑(𝑝) = 1.05 × 105 𝑚/𝑠

Solution
𝜇𝑛 𝑚𝑛∗
𝜏𝑛 =
𝑞
𝜇𝑛 𝑚𝑛∗ 1500 × 1.08 × 9.11 x 10−31
For silicon, 𝑚𝑛∗ =1.08 m0 𝜏𝑛 = = = 10 −12 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑞 1.6 × 10−19

𝜇𝑝 𝑚𝑝∗ 475 × 0.56 × 9.11 x10−31

For silicon, 𝑚𝑝∗ =0.56 m0 𝜏𝑝 = = −19
= 1.54 × 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑞 1.6 × 10

The mean free path

𝑙𝑛 = 𝑉𝑑(𝑛) 𝜏𝑛 = 1.08 × 105 × 10−12 = 10−7 𝑚

𝑙𝑝 = 𝑉𝑑(𝑝) 𝜏𝑝 = 1.05 × 105 × 1.54 × 10−3 = 2.34 × 10−8 𝑚

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 15

Drift Current
The current passing the wire due the applied voltage or electric field is called drift current

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 16

Current Density
▪ The total current passing the wire is the total charge passing any area per
time:
𝑞𝑁
𝐼𝑛 = (5)
𝑡
− q is the electron charge.
− N number of charge (electrons)

▪ To relate the current in a conductor to the drift velocity of the moving

charges, consider a wire of length L and a cross section area A in which a
current I is flowing.
𝑞 𝑁𝐿 𝑞 𝑁 𝑣𝑑
𝐼𝑛 = = (6)
𝑡 𝐿 𝐿

𝐼𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = (A/m2) (7)
𝐴

▪ The current density J (A/m2) in a conductor is defined as the current per unit
area flowing in a particular direction.

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 17

Drift Current and drift velocity
• The drift current density (of electrons) Jn can be related to the drift velocity vd as follows:

qNvd
𝐽𝑛 = (A/m2) (8)
LA
▪ If we consider the electron concentration n equals to

𝑁
𝑛=
𝐿𝐴
▪ (8) can be reduced to

𝐽𝑛 = nq𝑣𝑑 (A/m2) (9)

▪ So the current is proportional to both the electron concentration and the drift velocity.
▪ Since the drift velocity is limited one can increase the current by increasing the carrier
concentration.

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 18

 Drift current
The drift current density due to electrons The drift current density due to holes

𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓(𝑛) = −nq𝑣𝑑𝑛 𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓(𝑝) = pq𝑣𝑑𝑝

𝑣𝑑𝑛 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸 𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 𝜇𝑝 𝐸

𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓(𝑛) = −nq(−𝜇𝑛 𝐸) 𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓(𝑝) = 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝐸

𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓(𝑛) = nq𝜇𝑛 𝐸 𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓(𝑝) = 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝐸

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 19

 The total drift current density of intrinsic
semiconductors
▪ Both holes and electrons contribute to the conduction process.

Jdrift =Jn, drift + Jp, drift

▪ The current density J results from an electric field E :

Jdrift= q(n µn + p µp) E (A/m3) (10)

▪ To increase the current density either we increase the applied voltage (electric field) or
the carrier concentration (n).
▪ In intrinsic semiconductor the concentration of electrons equals to that of holes (n = p)

Jdrift= qn(µn + µp) E (A/m3) (11)

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 20

 Conductivity (𝝈)
▪ we can relate the drift current density J to the electric field E as follows:

Electrons Holes

𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝐸 (A/m2 ) 𝐽 = 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝐸 (A/m2 )

𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
▪ The conductivity σ ( Ω−1m−1) is given by ▪ The conductivity σ ( Ω−1m−1) is given by

𝜎 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝜎 = 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝

The total conductivity

𝜎 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝 ( Ω−1m−1) (12)

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 21

Example 2
Consider a gallium arsenide sample at T = 300 K with doping concentrations of Na = 0 and Nd = 1016
cm-3. Assume complete ionization and assume electron and hole mobilities given in Table 2.2.
Calculate the drift current density if the applied electric field is E = 10 V/cm.
Solution
Since Nd >> Na, the semiconductor is n type and the majority carrier electron
concentration,
𝑁𝐷 = 𝑛 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3

𝑛𝑖2 1.8 × 106 2 −4 ≈ 0 𝑐𝑚−3

𝑝= = = 3.24 × 10
𝑁𝐷 1016
• For this extrinsic n-type semiconductor, the drift current density is
Jdrift= q (nµn + p µp) E = 1.6 × 10−19 × 1016 × 8500 + 3.24 × 10−4 × 400 × 10 = 136 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 22

Diffusion Current
Diffusion current is due to the movement of the carriers from high concentration region to low
concentration region

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 23

➢ The movement of these electrons (or holes) creates an electrical current called
diffusion current.

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 24

 Electrons Holes
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑛,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 𝐽𝑝,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑛,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝐽𝑝,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Dn: electron diffusion coefficient (cm2/s) Dp: hole diffusion coefficient (cm2/s)
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝐷𝑛 = 𝜇 𝐷𝑝 = 𝜇
𝑞 𝑛 ➔ Einstein relationship  𝑞 𝑝

The total diffusion current

𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑝 (13)
𝐽(𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓) = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 − 𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
A positive slope of carrier concentration produces a positive electron
diffusion current (a), but a negative hole diffusion current (b).
(a) (b)

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 25

Example 3
Assume that, in an n-type gallium arsenide semiconductor at T = 300 K, the electron concentration
varies linearly from 1 x 1018 to 7 x1017 cm-3 over a distance of 0.10 cm. Calculate the diffusion
current density if the electron diffusion coefficient is Dn =225 cm2/s.

Solution
From (2.18)

𝑑𝑛 1.6 × 10−19 ×× 225 × (1 × 1018 − 7 × 1017 )

𝐽𝑛(𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓) = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 = = 108 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2
𝑑𝑥 0.1

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 26

Total Current Density
Total Current Density: drift current + diffusion current

Electrons Holes

𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝐸 + 𝑞𝐷𝑛 − 𝑞𝐷𝑝 (14)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 27

Resistivity (ρ)
▪ The inverse of the conductivity is called resistivity:

𝜌=1/σ (Ω.m) (15)

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 28

Resistivity (ρ) and Resistance (R)
▪ The resistivity is related to the resistance of the material as following
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝐼 = 𝜎𝐸𝐴
▪ Considering the applied voltage E= V/ L:

𝜎𝐴𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝐿 𝑅
𝐿
where 𝑅 = , or
𝜎𝐴
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 (16)
𝐴

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 29

EC310 - CHAPTER (2): CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR 30
Resistivity of some materials at 20º C
Resistivity
Material
(Ω.m)
Silver 1.59 x 10-8
Copper 1.68 x 10-8
Conductors
Aluminum 2.65 x 10-8
Iron 9.71 x 10-8
Glass 1-10000 x 109
Insulators Quartz 7.5 x 1017
Rubber 1-100 x 1013

EC310 - CHAPTER (2): CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR 31

Example 4
Intrinsic silicon bar of 3 mm long and rectangular cross-section of 50 x 100 µm. Determine the voltage and
electric field across the bar when a current of 1 µA is measured. (Resistivity of Si at 300 K is 2.3 x 105 Ω.cm)
Solution
𝐿
The resistance of silicon bar is calculated using 𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
−3
5 −2
3 × 10 𝑚
𝑅 = (2.3 × 10 × 10 Ω. 𝑚)
50 × 100 × 10−12 𝑚2
𝑅 = 1.38 × 109 Ω
From Ohm’s law, the voltage
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 1 𝜇𝐴 × 1.38 × 109 Ω = 1380 V !!!!
and the electric field
𝐸 = 𝑉ൗ𝐿 = 1380ൗ −3 = 4.6 × 10−3 𝑉/𝑚
3 × 10

EC310 - CHAPTER (2): CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR 32

▪ Note, very high voltage 1380 V is required just to produce 1 µA !!!!!!!
▪ However, intrinsic semiconductors behave as insulators.
▪ Its structure can be improved to increase its conductivity by adding dopants. In this
case the conductivity (resistivity) becomes function of the doping concentration.

EC310 - CHAPTER (2): CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR 33

Example 5
The concentration of donor impurity atoms in silicon is Nd = 1015 cm-3. Assume an electron mobility of
𝜇𝑛 = 1300 cm2/V-s and a hole mobility of 𝜇𝑝 = 450 cm2/V-s.
a. What is the conductivity of the material?
b. Calculate the resistivity of the material.

Solution

For n-type semiconductor

𝜎 = 𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛 + 𝑞𝑝𝜇𝑝
To find the holes concentration (p)
𝑛𝑖2 (1.5 × 1010 )2 5 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑝= = = 2.25 × 10
𝑁𝐷 1015
The conductivity

𝜎 = 1.6 × 10−19 1015 × 1300 + 2.25 × 105 × 450 = 0.208(Ω. 𝑐𝑚)−1

1
The resistivity 𝜌= = 4.8 Ω. 𝑐𝑚
𝜎

EC310 - CHAPTER (2): CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR 34

Example 6
If the same silicon material described in example 5 is used with a length of 3 mm long and
rectangular cross-section of 50 x 100 µm. Determine the voltage across the bar when a current of 1
µA is measured.
Solution
The resistance of silicon bar is calculated using
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
From Example 3.5, the resistivity of silicon equals 4.8 x 10-2 Ω. 𝑚
−3
−2
3 × 10 𝑚
𝑅 = (4.8 × 10 Ω. 𝑚)
50 × 100 × 10−12 𝑚2
𝑅 = 2.88 × 104 Ω
From Ohm’s law, the voltage
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 1 𝜇𝐴 × 2.88 × 104 Ω = 0.0288 V = 28.8 mV

CH(2): MOTION AND RECOMBINATION OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES 35

▪ In intrinsic semiconductors (Example 4) we need 1380 V to produce 1 µA .
▪ In extrinsic semiconductors (Example 5) we need only 28.8 mV to produce 1 µA

EC310 - CHAPTER (2): CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR 36

Example 7
Suppose we have a piece of solid aluminum bar, 4 cm wide by 3 cm tall by 125 cm long. What is the end-
to-end resistance?

Solution
• First, the cross-sectional area of the bar:
Area= width x height
𝐴 = 4 𝑐𝑚 × 3 𝑐𝑚 = 12 𝑐𝑚2
• The resistance of aluminum is calculated using (16)
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
• From the table the resistivity of the aluminum equals 2.65 x 10-8

125 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 = (2.65 × 10−8 )
12 𝑐𝑚2
𝑅 = 27.6 𝜇Ω
EC310 - CHAPTER (2): CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR 37