★ Molecular geometry

- Molecular geometry
CHEM 01
I. GEOMETRY OF MOLECULES
- Molecular geometry, or molecular
structure, refers to how atoms are
arranged in a molecule in three
dimensions.
Lewis structure
- a representation of a molecule or ion
that shows the arrangement of atoms
and valence electrons.
- uses symbols for atoms and dots to
represent electrons.
Electron group
- can be an electron pair, a lone pair, a
single unpaired electron, a double
bond, or a triple bond on the center
atom
considers both electron
groups and lone pairs. If all
electron groups are bond
pairs, the geometry is named
the same as the
electron-group geometry.
- Molecular and electron-group
geometries coincide when
there are no lone pairs,
denoted as AXn in VSEPR
notation. When lone pairs are
present, the notation includes
"Ex," indicating the number
of lone pairs, such as AX2E2
for a molecule with two bond
pairs and two lone pairs.
★ Geometry of Molecules Chart

VSEPR (valence-shell electron-pair

repulsion) theory
- states that electron pairs will spread
as far from each other as possible
whether or not they are in bond or
lone pairs.
- Has two categories: electron-group
geometry and molecular geometry.

★ Electron-group geometry
# of electron Name of electron
groups group geometry

2 linear

3 trigonal-planar

4 tetrahedral
 II. POLARITY OF MOLECULES
Bond polarity
- a measure of how equally or
unequally the electrons in any
covalent bond are shared.
- Due to a difference in
electronegativity of the two atoms in
a bond.
Nonpolar covalent electrons are shared
bond equally.
III. STOICHIOMETRY
- Greek stoicheion, “element,”
and metron, “measure”
- understanding of atomic
masses, chemical formulas,
and the law of conservation
of mass.
Antoine Lavoisier
- French nobleman and scientist who
discovered this important chemical
law during the late 1700s.

Polar covalent electrons are shared

bond unequally.
ᐟᐟ☆ Atomic Weights, Formula Weights,
Ionic bond Electrons and Molecular Weights
transferred from
one atom to another
Formula weight (FW)
- substance is the sum of the atomic
Electronegativity weights (AW) of the atoms in the
- The tendency of an atom in a bond to chemical formula of the substance
attract electrons to itself. using atomic weights from the
periodic table.
- For molecules like covalent
compounds or polyatomic elements,
the formula weight (FW) is also
known as the molecular weight
(MW).

Round off the atomic weights to one

decimal place (review sig figs)
Electronegativity is NOT the same as
electron affinity .ᐟ
Atomic weight
Electron affinity - the average mass of its atoms, taking
- The energy change is associated with into account the relative abundance
an atom gaining an electron. of isotopes.
- measured in atomic mass units (amu)
and is usually found on the periodic
table.
 ★ Interconverting Masses and Moles

ᐟᐟ☆ Avogrado’s Number and the Mole

In chemistry the counting unit for numbers

of atoms, ions, or molecules in a
laboratory-size sample is the mole,
abbreviated mol.

Step 1. Find mole of the asked

Amedo Avogrado (1776-1856)
Step 2. Find the mass of the asked using the
- Italian scientist
result of mole from step 1
Avogrado’s number - 6.02 x 10²³
example.
example. 1. Calculate the number of moles of
1. Calculate the number of H atoms in glucose in C₆H₁₂O₆ in a 5.380 g
0.350 mol of C₆H₁₂O₆. sample.
solution:

★ Interconverting Masses and Numbers

of Particles
ᐟᐟ☆ Molar Mass

- mass in grams of one mole (1 mol)

of a substance (that is, the mass in example.
grams per mole) is called the molar
mass of the substance.
- molar mass in grams per mole of
any substance is numerically equal
to its formula weight in atomic
mass units.
IV. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION ᐟᐟ☆ Molecular Formulas from Empirical
FROM CHEMICAL FORMULAS Formulas and Molar Mass

Percentage composition Empirical formula

- the percentage by mass contributed
by each element in the substance.
- Calculating the percentage
composition of any element in a
substance (sometimes called the
elemental composition of a
substance) is straightforward if the
chemical formula is known.
- Consists of the symbols of all the
elements present in the compound,
with the subscripts showing the
smallest whole-number ratio of the
atoms in the compound.
Molecular formula
- Gives the actual number of each kind
of atom present in a molecule of the
compound.

Given the empirical formula of a compound

and its molecular weight or molar mass, we
can find the molecular formula. The
subscripts in the molecular formula are
V. EMPIRICAL FORMULAS whole-number multiples of those in the
FROM ANALYSES empirical formula.

Empirical formula
- It represents the simplest, most
reduced ratio of the different
elements present in the compound. It
tells us the relative number of atoms
of each element in the substance.
- Mole ratio for elements in a
compound gives the subscripts in its
empirical formula, making moles a
useful tool for finding empirical
formulas.

(ps. gi copy ra nako ang naa sa module ani na part ueueue)

 Atoms are neither created nor destroyed
VI. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS during a chemical reaction.

We represent chemical reactions by Law of conservation of matter/mass

chemical equations - In any reaction, the total mass of
reactants is equal to the total mass of
Reactants the products.
- The chemical formulas to the left of
the arrow represent the starting reactants → product .ᐟ
substances

Coefficients
Products
- the numbers in front of the formulas
- The chemical formulas to the right of
indicate the relative numbers of
the arrow represent substances
molecules of each kind involved in
produced in the reaction
the reaction.
Symbols indicate the physical state of each
reactant and product are often shown in a balanced equation should contain the
chemical equations. smallest possible whole-number
coefficients (the coefficient 1 is usually
∆ (Greek uppercase not written).
(s) solid delta)
- a delta above
Subscripts
(l) liquid the reaction
- small numbers in a chemical
arrow
formula, indicating the number of
(g) gas indicates the
atoms for each element.
addition of
(aq) aqueous heat.
ᐟᐟ☆ Quantitive Information from
Balanced Equations

ᐟᐟ☆ Balancing Chemical Equations

Chemists often use unbalanced equations to

figure out what's reacting and what's being
produced. But to find out how much product
is made or how much of a reactant is
needed, the chemical equation needs to be
balanced.
 Stoichiometrically equivalent quantities
- The quantities 2 mol H2, 1 mol O2,
and 2 mol H2O given by the
coefficients in the chemical equation
above
Excess reactant
- The other reactants
ᐟᐟ☆ Strategy from sir gubs .ᐟ

Step 1. Get mole/mass product using each given

VII. TYPES OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
3 types of chemical reactions
1. Combination reactions
2. Decomposition reactions
3. Combustion reactions
of the reactant
Step 2. Determining the LR (limiting reactant) =
the reactant that gave the least amount of
product
Step 3. Determine ER (excess reactant)
Step 4. Calculate the amount in excess
Lesser amount = true product .ᐟ

★ Combination reactions
- two or more substances react
to form one product.
- A + B = AB
- Sir gubs calls it “nag uyab”
★ Decomposition reactions
- one substance undergoes a
reaction to produce two or
more other substances.
- AB = A + B
- “nag buwag”
★ Combustion reactions
- rapid reactions that produce a
flame.
- CxHy + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
- “basta naay H₂O”
IX. THEORETICAL AND PERCENT
YIELD
Theoretical yield
- the quantity of product calculated to
form when all of a limiting reactant
is consumed
Actual yield
- the amount of product obtained and
almost always less than (and can
never be greater than) the theoretical
yield

VIII. LIMITING REACTANTS

Limiting reactant
- reactant that is completely consumed
in a reaction (ps. in case lang ni ang actual ug theoretical)
- Amount of limiting reactant that
determines the true amount of the
product(s).