BDwbU

12
B‡jKUªb I †dvUb
f~wgKv

GKwU c−vw÷‡Ki mi“ `Û‡K cï‡jvg (fur) Øviv Nl‡j †`Lv hvq c−vw÷‡Ki jvwV FYvZ¥K AvavbcÖvß nq|
Dwbk kZ‡Ki Av‡M GB FYvZ¥K Avavb m¤ú‡K© †Kvb cwi®‹vi aviYv wQj bv| Dwbk kZ‡Ki †klw`‡K Rvbv
hvq †h FYvZ¥K AvavbwU AwZ ¶z`ª KYv we‡kl, Gi bvg †`qv nq B‡jKUªb| weÁvbx †R. †R _gmb (J.J.
Thomson) 1897 mv‡j B‡jKUªb Avwe®‹vi K‡ib| 1913 mv‡j †Wbgv‡K©i weÁvbx bxjm †evi GB aviYv
†`b †h cigvYyi †K‡›`ª wbDwK¬qvm (Nucleus) hv abvZ¥K Avavbhy³ Ges wbDwK¬qv‡mi PZz©w`‡K wewfbœ
K¶c‡_ B‡jKUªb N~Y©vqgvb| B‡jKUª‡bi fi 9.11 × 10-31 †KwR Ges Avavb 1.60 × 10-19 Kzj¤^|
B‡jKUªb‡K GKwU †gŠwjK e¯—zKYv aiv nq|
†dvUb AviI GKwU e¯—zKYv hvi †Kvb fi ev Avavb †bB| m~h© †_‡K †mŠikw³ †dvU‡bi gva¨‡g mÂvwjZ
n‡q c„w_ex‡Z Av‡m| Av‡jvK BDwbU 11 †Z Zi½ wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kiv n‡q‡Q| Av‡jv‡K e¯—zKYv wn‡m‡eI MY¨
Kiv nq Ges G e¯—zKYvi bvg †dvUb| cÖK…Zc‡¶ Av‡jv‡K GKwU gy`ªvi mv‡_ Zzjbv Kiv hvq| gy`ªvi `ywU
wcV _v‡K wKš—z `ywU wcV GKmv‡_ †`Lv hvq bv| cÖK…Zc‡¶ Av‡jvi we‡klZ¡ n‡jv GwU GKvav‡i Zi½
(wave) Ges ¶z`ª e¯—zKYv (Particle) †dvUb| Z‡e GKB cÖwµqvq (Phenomenon) Av‡jvi Dfq
we‡klZ¡‡K cÖZ¨¶ Kiv hvq bv| G BDwb‡U Avgiv Av‡jv‡K †dvUb wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kie|
GBP Gm wm †cÖvMÖvg

wbæPv‡c M¨v‡m we`y¨Z cwienb, c−vRgv Ae¯’v, iÄbiwk¥i Dcv`vb, ˆewkó¨ I

cvV 1
e¨envi
D‡Ïk¨
 GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb-


wbæPv‡c M¨v‡m we`y¨Z cwienb cÖwµqv Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
c−vRgv Ae¯’v Kv‡K e‡j Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
 K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ m¤ú‡K© Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
 iÄb iwk¥i Dcv`vbmg~n Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
 iÄb iwk¥i e¨envi m¤ú‡K© Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|

12.1.1 : wbæPv‡c M¨v‡m we`y¨r cwienb (Flow of electricity in gases under low pressure); ¯^vfvweK Pvc
I ZvcgvÎvq M¨vm Zwor cwievnK b‡n| Z‡e wbæPv‡c M¨v‡m we`y¨r cwienb GKwU RwUj wKš—z AZ¨š— cwiwPZ NUbv|
†hgb Avgiv evwYwR¨K cÖwZôv‡bi mvBb‡evW© ivw·ejv R¡jR¡j Ki‡Z †`wL| GwU wbæPv‡c M¨v‡m we`y¨r cwien‡bi
GKwU cwiwPZ D`vniY|
†Kvb KvuPb‡ji `y'cÖv‡š— B‡jK‡UªvW jvwM‡q †fZ‡i †Kvb M¨vm AZ¨š— wbæPv‡c (0.1 mm cvi` ¯—‡¤¢i Pv‡ci mgvb ev
bx‡P) †i‡L b‡ji `yB gyL eÜ K‡i| `yB B‡jK‡Uªv‡Wi g‡a¨ K‡qK nvRvi †fvë wefe cv_©K¨ ivLv n‡j b‡ji †fZi
w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡q _v‡K|
GKwU ¶viK bj (discharge tube) †bqv hvK hvi †fZi wbæPv‡c M¨vm †i‡L `yB cÖv‡š— `ywU B‡jK‡UªvW ewm‡q `yB
gyL eÜ K‡i †`qv nq| Gevi B‡jK‡UªvW ؇q K‡qK nvRvi †fvë wefe cv_©K¨ cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j cÖ_‡g FYvZ¥K
B‡jK‡UªvW †_‡K ùzwj½ wn‡m‡e B‡jKUªb wb:m„Z n‡q abvZ¥K B‡jK‡Uªv‡Wi w`‡K avweZ nq| cw_g‡a¨ M¨v‡mi mv‡_
B‡jKUª‡bi msN‡l©i Kvi‡Y M¨v‡mi cigvYy AvqwbZ (ionized) nq Ges M¨v‡mi FYvZ¡K Avqb¸wjI abvZ¥K
B‡jK‡Uªv‡Wi w`‡K avweZ nq Ges †kl ch©š— abvZ¥K B‡jK‡Uªv‡W B‡jKUªb ev FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi Avavb ¯’vbvš—wiZ
nq| Gfv‡e M¨v‡mi ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ nq| GLv‡b we‡klfv‡e D‡j−L¨ †h M¨vm wbæPv‡c _vK‡j M¨v‡mi
cigvYymg~n A‡bK `~‡i `~‡i _v‡K Ges B‡jKUªb ev Avqb cieZ©x M¨vm cigvYyi m‡½ msN‡l©i (interaction) c~‡e©
`yB B‡jK‡Uªv‡Wi wefe cv_©‡K¨i d‡j Z¡wiZ (accelerated) nq Ges h‡_ó MwZkw³ jvf K‡i| dj¯^iƒc Ab¨vb¨
M¨vm cigvYy‡K AvqwbZ Ki‡Z cv‡i| ¯^vfvweK Pv‡c M¨vm _vK‡j B‡jKUªb ev Avqb M¨vm cigvYymg~n‡K AZ¨š—
KvQvKvwQ cvq Ges ci¯úi msNl© GZ `ª“Z nq †h B‡jKUªb ev Avqb Z¡wiZ n‡Z cv‡i bv e‡jB abvZ¥K B‡jK‡UªvW
ch©š— †cŠuQv‡Z cv‡i bv| Avevi abvZ¥K B‡jK‡UªvW †_‡K abvZ¥K Avavbmn †Kvb KYv †ei n‡Z cv‡i bv Zvi KviY,
(1) abvZ¥K Avavb †cÖvU‡b _v‡K Ges cigvYyi †cÖvUb †K‡›`ª wbDwK¬qv‡mi g‡a¨ _v‡K Ges wbDwK¬qvm †_‡K †cÖvUb
†ei n‡Z cv‡i bv KviY †cÖvUb wbDwK¬q ej (Nuclear furce) AwZµg Ki‡Z cv‡i bv; (2) †cÖvU‡bi fi 1.673 *
10-27†KwR hv B‡jKUª‡bi f‡ii 1800 ¸Y †ewk [B‡jKUª‡bi fi 9.11×10-31 kg]| B‡jKUªb avZe B‡jK‡Uªv‡W
cÖvq gy³ Ae¯’vq _v‡K|

12.1.2 : c−vRgv Ae¯’v (Plasma state) mijZg cigvY~ n‡”Q nvB‡Wªv‡Rb (Hydrogen), nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYyi
wbDwK¬qv‡m GKwU gvÎ †cªvUb (Proton) Ges K¶c‡_ GKwUgvÎ B‡jKUªb _v‡K| B‡jKUªb‡K hw` †Kvbfv‡e h‡_ó
kw³ cÖ`vb Kiv hvq Z‡e B‡jKUªb Zvi K¶c_ †_‡K †ei n‡q Avm‡Z cv‡i| †Kvb †Kvb †¶‡Î Zvi MwZkw³
GgbI n‡Z cv‡i †h Zv wbDwK¬qvm †_‡K `~‡i P‡j †h‡Z cv‡i| G Ae¯’vq †d‡j Avmv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy abvZ¥K
Avq‡b cwiYZ nq Ges H+ wPý e¨eüZ nq| M¨v‡m Pig Ae¯’vq K‡qK nvRvi ZvcgvÎvq B‡jKUª‡bi kw³ GZ
†e‡o hvq †h †m wbDwK¬qvm †_‡K `~‡i gy³ B‡jKUªb Ges wbDwK¬qvm abvZ¥K Avavbhy³ wbDwK¬qvm wn‡m‡e _v‡K|
A_©vr M¨vm AvqwbZ Ae¯’vq _v‡K| Giƒc AvqwbZ M¨vm‡K c−vRgv (Plasma) ejv nq| mvaviYZ m~h© ev Ab¨vb¨
ZviKvi g‡a¨ D”P ZvcgvÎvi Kvi‡Y M¨vm c−vRgv Ae¯’vq _v‡K| cÖvq `k j¶ wWMÖx †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡m
Avqbvqb (ionization) c~Y© nq Ges mKj c`v_© c−vRgv Ae¯’vq _v‡K| mvaviYZ weMjb (fusion) c×wZ‡Z c−vRgv
m„wó nq| K…wÎg Dcv‡q c−vRgv eZ©gv‡b cix¶vMv‡i m„wó Kiv n‡”Q Ges c−vRgv‡K a‡i ivLvi Rb¨ Py¤^Kxq Av½yix
e¨envi Kiv nq|
BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-306
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12.1.3 : K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ (Cathode rays): 12.1.1 Aby‡”Q‡` ¶iY b‡j `yB B‡jK‡Uªv‡W wefe cv_©K¨ m„wó K‡i
B‡jKUªb wb:m„Z nq e‡j aviYv †`qv n‡q‡Q| FYvZ¥K B‡jK‡UªvW‡K K¨v‡_vW e‡j Ges abvZ¥K B‡jK‡UªvW‡K
G‡bvW e‡j| mvg‡b avZe ev Abyiƒc e¯—z ivL‡j cÖwZcÖf c`©vq H e¯—zi AvK…wZ AÜKvi I Kg D¾¡j †`Lvq|
Pjgvb B‡jKUªb exg we`y¨r Kv‡i›U wn‡m‡e Mgb K‡i e‡j Zvi PZzw`©‡K Py¤^Kxq †¶Î ˆZwi nq| AZGe Pjgvb
B‡jKUªb ex‡gi PZzw`©‡K Zwor‡¶Î I Py¤^Kxq †¶Î e¨envi K‡i B‡jKUªb ex‡gi wemiY (Deflection) NUv‡bv hvq|
d‡j cÖwZcÖf c`©vq B”QvgZ D¾¡j †iLv ˆZwi Kiv hvq| Am&wm‡jv‡¯‹vc, Kw¤úDUvi gwbU‡i Pjgvb B‡j±ªb exg‡K
K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ (Cathode rays) wnmv‡e e¨envi Kiv nq| 1897 mv‡j weÁvbx †R. †R. _gmb (J.J. Thomson)
K¨v‡_vW iwk¥i cix¶v Pvwj‡q cÖgvY K‡ib K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ Pjgvb KYvmg~n hv B‡jKUªb Qvov wKQyB bq|

12.1.4 : iÄb iwk¥i Dcv`vb, ˆewkó¨ I e¨envi (Elements of Rontzen rays, characteristics and uses) :
Rvg©vb weÁvbx wfj‡nj&g iÄb (Wilhelm Rontzen) j¶ K‡ib hLb D”P MwZkxj B‡jKUªb 103 ev 106 †fvë
wefe cv_©‡K¨ Z¡wiZ (accelerated) n‡q †Kvb avZzi Ici AvcwZZ nq ZLb H avZzi cv‡k Av‡jvK wPÎ wd¤§
_vK‡j Zv cwiùzU‡bi ci Kv‡jv `vM c‡o| iÄb G wm×v‡š— DcwbZ nb †h Zvi cix¶vq Ggb †Kvb iwk¥ Drcbœ nq
hv †Pv‡L `„k¨gvb bq| GRb¨ G iwk¥‡K wZwb A‡Pbv e‡j GK&m iwk¥ (X-rays) bvg †`b| iÄb Gi Avwe¯‹vi‡K
¯§iY ivLvi Rb¨ G iwk¥‡K iÄb iwk¥ (Rontzen rays) ejv nq| c‡i iÄb iwk¥‡K Zwor †PŠ¤^K Zi½
(Electromagnetic waves) wnmv‡e mbv³ Kiv nq hvi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 1×10-11 meter †_‡K 10-9 meter Gi g‡a¨
c‡o| †Kjvm Øviv iÄb iwk¥i AceZ©‡bi mvnv‡h¨ iÄb iwk¥i Zi½‰`N¨ m~²fv‡e gvcv hvq| iÄb iwk¥‡K GK&m
iwk¥ Ges GK&m-iwk¥ †dvUbI ejv nq|
GKwU Zvc-Av‡qvwbK K¨v‡_vW Ges G‡bvW KvuPb‡ji †fZi †i‡L KuvP bj‡K evqyk~b¨ K‡i b‡ji `yB gyL eÜ K‡i
†`qv nq| wP‡Î iÄb iwk¥ bj †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| `ywU c„_K cÖwµqvq iÄb iwk¥ Drcbœ Kiv hvq|
Kmnm kJgt
Tq

uãq TqJPoJc

FPjJc
V

X
wPÎ-12.1 : iÄb iwk¥ DrcbœKvix bj|

K. kw³kvwj B‡jKUªb †mªvZ‡K G‡bvW Øviv evav cÖ`vb Kiv nq| G‡Z B‡jKUª‡bi MwZkw³‡K mivmwi iÄb iwk¥‡Z
cwiYZ Kiv nq| Giƒc iÄb iwk¥‡K wbiwew”Qbœ (continious) iÄb iwk¥ e‡j|
L. B‡jKUªb hLb GZB kw³kvjx nq hv‡Z j¶¨ G‡bvW cigvYyi me©Af¨š—ixb K †LvjK (K-shell) Gi
B‡jKUªb‡K ewn®‹vi K‡i AwaK kw³mn L †LvjK ev M †Lvj‡K †cuŠ‡Q †`q ZLb H ewn¯‹…Z B‡jKUªb Avevi
K †Lvj‡K †diZ Avm‡Z eva¨ nq †Kbbv L †LvjK ev M †Lvj‡K B‡jKUªbwU D‡ËwRZ Ae¯’vq _v‡K| K
†Lvj‡K †diZ Avmvi mgq B‡jKUªb Zvi kw³i evowZ Ask wb:miY K‡i| K, L, M BZ¨vw` †Lvj‡Ki g‡a¨
Ae¯’vb Ki‡Z B‡jKUªb wbw`©ó kw³‡Z _v‡K| B‡jKUª‡bi G wb:m„Z kw³ ˆewkó¨ (characteristics) iÄbiwk¥
bv‡g cwiwPZ| wPÎ 12.2 †Z GKwU wbiwew”Qbœ I ˆewkó¨ iÄb iwk¥i ZxeªZv Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ †jLwPÎ †`Lv‡bv nj|

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-307

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30

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10

0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
frñ ‰hWt
q A
wPÎ: 12.2
12.2 wP‡Î 0.35 Ao †_‡K 0.6Ao ch©š— wbiwew”Qbœ iÄb iwk¥ †`Lv hv‡”Q| Zvi c‡iB Kβ Ges Kα iwk¥ †`Lv
hv‡”Q| Kβ iwk¥ n‡”Q B‡jKUªb K-†LvjK †_‡K M-†Lvj‡K wM‡q Avevi K-†Lvj‡K †diZ Avmvi Kvi‡Y
B‡jKUª‡bi evowZ kw³ wb:m„Z nIqvi Drcbœ ˆewkó¨ iÄb iwk¥| Kα n‡”Q B‡jKUªb K-†LvjK †_‡K L-†Lvj‡K
wM‡q Avevi K-†Lvj‡K †diZ Avmvi Kvi‡Y B‡jKUª‡bi evowZ kw³ wb:m„Z nIqvq Drcbœ ˆewkó¨ iÄb iwk¥|
†h‡nZz K–†LvjK M–†LvjK kw³ cv_©K¨ K–†LvjK L– †LvjK kw³ cv_©‡K¨i †P‡q AwaK GBRb¨ Kβ iÄb iwk¥i
kw³ Kα iÄb iwk¥i kw³i †P‡q †ewk| AZGe Kβ iÄbiwk¥i Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ Kα iÄb iwk¥i Zi½ ˆ`‡N©¨i †P‡q †QvU|
iÄb iwk¥i ˆewkó¨ (Properties of Rontzen Rays):
1. iÄb iwk¥ ZvwoZ †PŠ¤^K Avo Zi½
2. iÄb iwk¥ mij‡iLvq Mgb K‡i
3. iÄb iwk¥i Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 10-11 m n‡Z 10-9 m ch©š— nq|
4. iÄb iwk¥i MwZ‡eM Av‡jvi MwZ‡e‡Mi mgvb (3×108 m/sec.)
5. iÄb iwk¥ †f`b ¶gZv (Penetrating Power) m¤úbœ
6. iÄb iwk¥i †Kvb Avavb bvB
7. iÄb iwk¥ M¨v‡mi ga¨ w`‡q hvevi mgq M¨vm‡K AvqbvwqZ Ki‡Z m¶g|

iÄb iwk¥i e¨envi (Uses of Rontzen Rays)

1. iÄb iwk¥ wPwKrmv kv‡¯¿ e¨eüZ n‡q _v‡K| iÄb iwk¥ gvs‡mi †fZi w`‡q mn‡RB P‡j †h‡Z cv‡i wKš—z nvo ev
Abyiƒc wKQyi ga¨ w`‡q †h‡Z cv‡i bv| GKvi‡Y kix‡ii nvo †f‡O †M‡j ev ¯’vbPy¨Z n‡j iÄbiwk¥i mvnv‡h¨ Zv
mbv³ Kiv hvq| Z‡e Gi me‡P‡q †ewk e¨envi nq dzmdz‡mi g‡a¨ †Kvb RwUjZv Av‡Q wKbv cix¶v Kivi
Rb¨| ¯^vfvweK Ae¯’vq dzmdz‡mi †fZi w`‡q iÄb iwk¥ P‡j †h‡Z cv‡i| wKš—z e¨vK‡Uwiqv BZ¨vw` dzmdz‡mi
¶wZmvab Ki‡j Zv iÄb iwk¥‡Z aiv c‡o|
2. †Mv‡q›`v wefv‡M iÄbiwk¥ e¨envi K‡i jy°vwqZ †Kvb wbwl× e¯—z ev †mvbv, iƒcv A_ev e›`y‡Ki ey‡j‡Ui Dcw¯’wZ
aiv nq|
3. wk퇶‡Î †Kvb Drcbœ e¯—zi g‡a¨ dvUj Av‡Q wKbv Zv iÄb iwk¥i mvnv‡h¨ aiv hvq|
4. iÄb iwk¥i e¨envi M‡elYvi Kv‡R me©vwaK| iÄb iwk¥i Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ c`v‡_©i cigvYyi cvkvcvwk Ae¯’v‡bi
`~i‡Z¡i cÖvq KvQvKvwQ|
†Kjvm (Crystal) Gi g‡a¨ cigvY~mg~n wÎgvwÎK †MÖwUs wn‡m‡e ićb iwk¥i AceZ©b NUvq| ZvB †Kvb e¯—z‡K
†KjvwmZ (Crystalized) K‡i iÄb iwk¥i AceZ©b NwU‡q e¯—zi MVb Rvbv hvq|

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-308

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mvims‡¶c
c−vRgv Ae¯’v : AZ¨vwaK ZvcgvÎvq AvqwbZ M¨vm‡K c−vRgv Ae¯’v e‡j|
K¨v‡_vW iwk¥: DËß wdjv‡g›U †_‡K B‡jKUªb wb:m„Z n‡q G‡bv‡Wi w`‡K Mgb K‡i cÖwZcÖf c`©vq D¾¡jZv m„wó
K‡i| cÖK…Z c‡¶ K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ B‡jKUªb KwYKvi †mªvZ|
iÄb iwk¥: kw³kvjx B‡jKUªb †mªvZ avZe j‡¶¨i Dci cwZZ n‡j iÄb iwk¥ Drcbœ nq| iÄb iwk¥ Zwor
†PŠ¤^K Zi½| Gi e¨envi wPwKrmv, wkí, †Mv‡q›`v wefvM I M‡elYv Kv‡h© n‡q _v‡K|

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb 12.1

ˆbe©¨w³K cÖkœ
mwVK Dˇii cv‡k wUK (√) wPý w`b
1. c−vRgv Ae¯’v ejv nq-
K. AvqwYZ M¨vm L. c−vw÷K `Û
M. we‡kl ai‡bi Kvco N. wbw®Œq M¨vm
2. K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ e¨envi nq
K. iv¯—vq evwZ R¡vjv‡Z L. wPwKrmv kv‡¯¿
M. Amwm‡jv‡¯‹v‡c N. †`vKv‡b wbqb evwZ R¡vjv‡Z

msw¶ß cÖkœ : wb‡Pi Lvwj ¯’v‡b wjLyb

1. wbæPv‡c we`y¨Z wKfv‡e cÖevwnZ nq e¨vL¨v Ki“b (12.1.1 Aby‡”Q` †`Lyb)
2. K¨v‡_vW iwk¥i eY©bv w`b (12.1.3 Aby‡”Q` †`Lyb)
3. c−vRgv Ae¯’v wKfv‡e m„wó nq e¨vL¨v Ki“b| (12.1.2 Aby‡”Q` †`Lyb)
4. iÄb iwk¥i e¨envi eY©bv Ki“b| (12.1.4 Aby‡”Q` †`Lyb)

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-309

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cvV 2 K…ò e¯—z wewKi‡Yi e¨vL¨vq wPivqZ c`v_© weÁv‡bi e¨_©Zv, c−¨vs‡Ki ZË¡
I †dvUb, d‡Uv B‡jK‡UªK wµqv I AvBb÷vB‡bi mgxKiY
D‡Ïk¨
 GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb-
 K…ò e¯—z wewKiY e¨vL¨vq wPivqZ c`v_© weÁv‡bi e¨_©Zvi KviY Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
 c−¨vs‡Ki ZË¡ I †dvUb m¤ú‡K© Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
 d‡Uv B‡jKwUªK wµqv m¤ú‡K© Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
 d‡Uv B‡jKwUªK wµqvi †¶‡Î AvBbóvB‡bi mgxKiY Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|

12.2.1 K…ò e¯—z wewKiY e¨vL¨vq wPivqZ c`v_© weÁv‡bi e¨_©Zv

(Failure of classical Physics ot explain black body raiation)
†Kvb e¯—z DËß n‡j Zvc wewKiY K‡i, Avevi e¯—zi cvwicv‡k¦©i PvB‡Z e¯—z VvÛv n‡j Zvc MÖnY K‡i| †ewk DËß n‡j
e¯—z cÖ_‡g jvj eY© aviY K‡i Ges AviI DËß n‡j †k¦Z eY© aviY K‡i Av‡jv wewKiY K‡i| weKxY© Zi‡½i Zi½
ˆ`N©¨ wewfbœ n‡Z cv‡i| †h mKj e¯—z mKj Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ m¤úbœ Zi½mg~n‡K †kvlY Ki‡Z cv‡i Zv‡K e‡j K…òe¯—z
(Black body)| K…òe¯—z †h‡nZz mKj Zi½ ˆ`‡N©¨i Zwor †PŠ¤^K Zi½mg~n‡K †kvlY K‡i †bq, ZvB cwi‡k‡l
Avevi wewKiY Ki‡Z eva¨| ¶z`ª weei (Cavity) hy³ †Kvb KwVb c`v_© Øviv weei weKxiK (Cavity raditor) ˆZwi
K‡i †Kvb Zwor †PŠ¤^K Zi½ wee‡ii ga¨ w`‡q †fZ‡i cÖ‡ek Kiv‡j Zi½ Avi †ei n‡Z cv‡i bv| AZGe Abyiƒc
weei weKxiK (Cavity radiator) †K K…ò e¯—z wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kiv hvq|
aiv hvK wZb cÖKvi avZzwbwg©Z wZbwU weei weKxiK ˆZwi Kiv nj| G‡¶‡Î †`Lv hvq wfbœ avZzi ˆZwi weKxi‡Ki c„ô
†_‡K wewKiY wfbœ wKš—z weei (Cavity) †_‡K weKxY©Zvi ˆewkó¨ wZb †¶‡ÎB mgvb|
mvaviYZ: wPivqZ c`v_© weÁv‡b wee‡ii weKxY©Zv Rc †K †jLv hvq|
Rc = eσT4 [GLv‡b σ = †÷dvb eëg¨vb aª“eK (Stefan Bolzmann cunstant), T= †Kjwfb
†¯‹‡j ZvcgvÎv Ges e = avZzi Dci wbf©ikxj wb:m„wZ]
wKš—z wee‡ii †¶‡Î †`Lv hvq mKj avZzi †¶‡Î|
Rc = eσT4 ... ... ... ... (12.1)

wPivqZ c`v_© weÁvb Øviv G Miwgj e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq bv|

12.2.2 c−¨vs‡Ki ZË¡ I †dvUb : 1900 mv‡j g¨v· c−¨v¼ wbæwjwLZ e¨vL¨v cÖ`vb K‡ib: weei-weKxi‡Ki wee‡ii
†`qv‡j †h cigvY~ i‡q‡Q Zv‡K ¯ú›`K we‡ePbv Kiv hvq Ges ¯ú›`‡Ki kw³ E = nhγ ... ... ... ... (12.2)
GLv‡b, n = c~Y© msL¨v hv‡K †Kvqv›Uvg msL¨v e‡j
h = c−¨vsK aª“eK hvi gvb 6.63 * 10-34 Joul-sec.
γ = ¯ú›`‡Ki K¤úvsK
¯ú›`K †Kvb Ae¯’v‡ZB Ggb kw³ wewKiY Ki‡Z cv‡i bv hv‡Z n fMœvsk nq| ¯ú›`‡Ki kw³ wbiwew”Qbœ n‡Z cv‡i
bv Ges hγ-Gi ¸wYZK n‡Z n‡e| mgxKiY 12.2 †K c−¨vs‡Ki m~Î e‡j Ges hγ cwigvY kw³‡K ejv nq †dvUb|

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-310

 c`v_© weÁvb 2q cÎ

12.2.3 d‡Uv B‡jKwUªK wµqv I AvBb÷vB‡bi mgxKiY t Photoelectric effect and Einsteins equation :
d‡Uv B‡jKwUªK wµqv nj c`v_©-wewKiY (Matter radiation) Gi wg_w¯Œqv (Interaction) mg~‡ni g‡a¨ GKwU wPÎ
12.3-G d‡Uv B‡jKwUªK wµqv †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q|

J
Ju
\tJj
mJ~M
vN
jq \Ja
J~
ßT
c IJkKff IJPuJ
E
i

i
A

Ð +

wPÎ- 12.3

δ K¤úvsK wewkó GKeY©x Av‡jv avZe c„‡ô (emitter E) AvcwZZ Kiv nj| hw` K¤úvsK δ h‡_ó †ewk nq Zvn‡j
Av‡jv avZe c„ô †_‡K B‡jKUªb ewn®‹vi Ki‡e Ges E msMÖvnK C-Gi g‡a¨ wefe cv_©K¨ V-Gi e¨e¯’v Ki‡j
d‡UvB‡jKUªb msMÖn Kiv hv‡e Ges d‡UvB‡jKwUªK Kv‡i›U (Photoelectric current) i cwigvc Kiv hv‡e|
Z‡e wb:miK E Ges msMÖvnK C wfbœ avZzi ˆZwi nIqv‡Z GKwU myß Zwor PvjK ej (Electro motive force)
_v‡K|
∴ v = Vext + Vcpd [Vcpd = E I C Gi ms¯úk© wefe (contact potentice)]

i Kmax

O + V
Vo kṕM
Ü Kmnm Tq
kJgt
(KZ©b K¤úv¼)
wPÎ 12.4(K) wPÎ 12.4 (L)

wPÎ 12.4(K) G i – v †jLwPÎ †`Lv‡bv nj| wPÎ 12.4 (L) †Z †`Lv hv‡”Q K¤úvsK wbw`©ó gvb γο Gi Kg n‡j
d‡Uv B‡jKUªb Drcbœ nqbv Ges Kv‡i›U i cvIqv hvq bv| γο †K KZ©b K¤úvsK (cut off frequency) ejv nq|
(wPÎ 12.4 (L) `ªóe¨)

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-311

GBP Gm wm †cÖvMÖvg

AvBb÷vB‡bi †dvUb ZË¡ I mgxKiY : 1905 mv‡j AvBb÷vBb GKwU †dvUb KwYKvi kw³‡K Giƒ‡c cÖKvk K‡ib
E=hγ ... ... ... (12.5)|

d‡UvB‡jKUªwbK wµqv‡Z †dvUb KwYKvi aviYv w`‡q AvBb÷vB‡bi d‡UvB‡jKUªwbK mgxKiY Gfv‡e †jLv hvq,
hγ = φ + Kmax ... ... ... ... (12.6)|

GKwU B‡jKUªb GKK †dvU‡bi kw³ hγ †K †kvlb K‡i Ges Gi GK Ask φ †K Kvh©v‡c¶K (work function)
e‡j hv avZe c„ô †_‡K B‡jKUªb‡K wb®ŒgY Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRb nq Ges Ab¨ Ask Kmax nj avZe c„‡ôi evB‡i
d‡UvB‡jKUª‡bi m‡e©v”P MwZkw³|

mgxKiY 12.6 †K AvBb÷vB‡bi d‡UvB‡jKUªwbK mgxKiY (Einstein's Photoelectronic equation) ejv nq|

D`vniY 1. cix¶v n‡Z cvIqv †Mj †mvwWqv‡gi KZ©b K¤úvsK (cut off frequency) nj δο = 4.59 × 1014
Hz| †mvwWqv‡gi Kvh©v‡c¶K (work function) KZ?
mgvavb: m~Î g‡Z Kvh©v‡c¶K φ = hγ
= 6.63 × 10-34 Joul-sec. × 4.39 × 101.1 Hz
= 2.91 × 10-19 J
= 1.82 e.V

mvims‡¶c
K…ò e¯—z : †h e¯—z mKj Zi½ ˆ`‡N©¨i Zwor †PŠ¤^K Zi½mg~n‡K †kvlb K‡i Zv K…ò e¯—z e‡j|
d‡UvB‡jKwUªK wµqv: wbw`ó K¤úv¼ δο-Gi D‡×© K¤úv¼ wewkó Av‡jv †Kvb avZzi g‡a¨ cwZZ n‡j avZz †_‡K
B‡jKUªb ewn¯‹…Z nq Ges B‡jKwUªK Kv‡i›U Drcbœ nq| GB cÖwµqv‡K d‡UvB‡jKwUªK wµqv ejv nq|

[cÖ‡qvRbxq mgxKiY]
wee‡ii weKxY©Zv Rc = σT4
c−vs‡Ki ZË¡ E = nhγ
AvBb÷vB‡bi mgxKiY hγ = φ + Kmax

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-312

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cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb
ˆbe©¨w³K cÖkœ
mwVK Dˇii cv‡k (√) wPý w`b
1. K…ò e¯—z ejv nq
K. Kv‡jv is-Gi Av‡jv cÖ`vbKvix e¯—z‡K
L. †h e¯—z mKj Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ m¤úbœ iwk¥‡K †kvlY K‡i
M. †h e¯—z mKj Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ m¤úbœ iwk¥‡K †kvlY Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|
N. †h e¯—z GZB D¾j †h †Pv‡L euvav jvwM‡q †`q|
2. hγ cwigvY kw³ _v‡K
K. †dvUb KwYKvi
L. B‡jKUªb KwYKvi
M. Pjgvb mKj cÖKvi KwYKvi
N. †cÖvU‡bi

msw¶ß cÖkœ
1. ¶z`ª weeihy³ KwVb c`v_© Øviv ˆZwi e¯—z‡K K…ò e¯—z wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kiv nq †Kb? (Aby‡”Q` 12.2.1 †`Lyb)
2. d‡UvB‡jKwUªK wµqv e¨vL¨v Ki“b (Aby‡”Q` 12.2.3 †`Lyb)

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GBP Gm wm †cÖvMÖvg

cvV 3 †jRvi I Zvi cÖ‡qvM

D‡Ïk¨
 GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb-


†jRvi wK Zv Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb
†jRvi wKfv‡e Drcbœ Kiv hvq Zv Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb
 †jRv‡ii cÖ‡qvM m¤^‡Ü Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|

12.3.1 †jRvi (Laser) : †jRvi n‡”Q GKwU msw¶ß bvg h_v Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emmission of Radiation Gi cÖ_g A¶i Øviv MwVZ LASER| Gi A_© nj wewKi‡Yi DÏxcxZ wb:mi‡Y
Av‡jvK weea©b| AvBb÷vBb me©cÖ_g DÏxwcZ wewKiY (Stimulated Radiution) K_vwU 1917 mv‡j Dc¯’vcb
K‡ib| hw`I Kvh©Ki †jRvi 1960 mv‡ji c~e© ch©š— Drcbœ Kiv m¤¢e nqwb| †jRvi DrcbœKvix hš¿ Ggb hv
Av‡jvK exg (Light beam) ˆZwi K‡i wKQy we‡kl ag©mn| ag©¸‡jv nj:
1. Av‡jv nq msm³ (coherent) hLb mKj Zi½ mgvb `kvq _v‡K|
2. Av‡jv cÖvq GKeY©x (monochromatic)
3. †jRvi ex‡gi AcmvwiZv (Divergenee) †bB ej‡jB P‡j|
4. †jRvi exg AZ¨š— Zxeª| mvaviY Av‡jvi Giƒc ZxeªZv Avb‡Z 1030 †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎv cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e|

xJiJre IJPuJ

FTmet
L IxÄxÜ IJPuJ

FTmet
L xÄxÜ IJPuJ

wPÎ- 12.5

aiv hvK GKwU cigvYy ¯^vfvweK Ae¯’vq Eo kw³ m¤úbœ, AwZwi³ GK †Kvqv›Uvg kw³ (one quantam energy)
hδ †kvlY Kij| G cÖwµqv‡K e‡j Avweó †kvlY (induced absorption)| G Ae¯’vq cigvYywU hγ kw³ wb:miY
K‡i Avevi Eo kw³ Ae¯’vq †diZ hvq| G cÖwµqv‡K e‡j ¯^Z:ùzZ© wb:miY (sponteneous emission)|
AvUb÷vB‡bi 1917 mv‡ji Dc¯’vcbvq Z…Zxq GKwU m¤¢vebv wQj hv‡K Avweó wb:miY (induced emission) ejv
n‡q‡Q| wPÎ 12.6 G GB wZb Ae¯’v †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q|

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-314

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E1
hγ

hγ hγ hγ
hγ

Eo IJKmÓ ßvJwe
˝f:°á
ftKj:xre IJKmÓ Kj:xre
wPÎ- 12.6

Avweó wb:miK‡K GKwU Qw›`Z ¯ú›`K Gi mv‡_ Zzjbv Kiv hvq| G c×wZ‡Z AviI AwaK msL¨K cigvYy‡K Avweó
wb:miY Kiv‡bv hvq Ges †klch©š— mKj cigvYymg~n †_‡K hγ kw³ m¤úbœ Zi½ Ggbfv‡e Drcbœ Kiv hvq hv‡Z
mKj Zi½mg~n hyMcrfv‡e GKB Zi½‰`N©¨ ev K¤úvsK wewkó I msm³ (coherent) nq ev GKB `kvq (in phase)
_v‡K|
DrcwËi w`K †_‡K we‡ePbv Ki‡j †jRvi‡K cÖavbZ: cuvP fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq| h_v:
1. i“ex †jRvi (Ruby Laser): GwU me©cÖ_g Drcbœ †jRvi hv i“ex †Kjvm (Ruby Crystal) e¨envi K‡i Drcbœ
Kiv n‡qwQj|
2. wnwjqvg-wbqb-M¨vm †jRvi (Helium-Neon-Gas Laser)
3. Kve©b WvB A·vBW †jRvi (Carbon dioxide Laser)
4. Aa©cwievnx †jRvi (Semiconductor Laser)
5. ivmvqwbK †jRvi (Chemical Laser)

15.3.2- †jRvi Gi cÖ‡qvM (Application of Laser) :

1. kw³i ZxeªZv cÖ‡qvM: †jRv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ ¶gZv Drcv` (Power output) w`b w`b e„w× cv‡”Q| m~² †gwmb
ˆZwi, SvjvB Gi KvR BZ¨vw`‡Z †jRvi e¨eüZ nq|
2. ivmvqwbK, d‡Uv ivmvqwbK Ges ˆRe cÖ‡qvM: †jRvi ivmvqwbK I d‡UvivmvqwbK cÖwµqvq e¨eüZ nq| †h‡nZz
†jRvi‡K GKwU we›`y‡Z †dvKvm Kiv hvq ZvB i³cvZ wenxb kj¨ wPwKrmv (surgury) we‡kl K‡i K¨vbmvi ev
m~² wkiv †hgb †Pv‡Li †fZi G RvZxq kj¨ wPwKrmvq †jRvi e¨eüZ n‡q _v‡K, GQvovI `š—‡ivM wPwKrmvq
†jRvi e¨eüZ nq|
3. eY©vjx‡Z cÖ‡qvM: Av‡jvKwPÎ Ges Avbyex¶bxK cÖ‡qv‡M †jRvi e¨eüZ nq| GQvov we‡kl †Kvb c`©v QvovB
wÎgvwÎK Qwe ev n‡jvMÖvg m„wó Ki‡Z †jRvi we‡klfv‡e e¨eüZ n‡q _v‡K| ivgvb wb:miY (Raman
emission) I c−vRgv M‡elYv‡ZI †jRvi e¨eüZ n‡q _v‡K|
4. `~iZ¡ wel‡q cÖ‡qvM: †jRvi exg AZ¨š— mi“ nIqvq †Kvb e¯—zi `~iZ¡ I Ae¯’vb wbY©q Ki‡Z ivWvi (Radar) G
†jRvi e¨eüZ nq| D‡j−L¨, c„w_ex †_‡K G‡cv‡jv-11 KZ©„K P‡›`ª ¯’vwcZ `c©‡b †jRvi exg cÖwZdwjZ K‡i
Avevi c„w_ex‡Z exg aiv m¤¢e n‡q‡Q Ges c„w_ex †_‡K P‡›`ªi `~iZ¡ m~²fv‡e cwigvc m¤¢e n‡q‡Q| mvaviY
Av‡jv Øviv †Kvb Ae¯’v‡ZB GZ `~i †_‡K cÖwZdjb NwU‡q cwigvc m¤¢e nZ bv|
5. AceZ©b cÖ‡qvM: †jRvi iwk¥ AZ¨š— Zxeª mgvš—ivj I mi“ AcmvixZv wenxb (Non-divergent) nIqvi Kvi‡Y
†MÖwUs Gi mvnv‡h¨ AceZ©b NwU‡q M‡elYv Kiv hvq|

mvims‡¶c
†jRvi (LASER) n‡”Q AZ¨š— Zxeª, mshy³, mKjiwk¥ mg`kv m¤úbœ, AcmvwiZv wenxb GKeY©x Av‡jv|
†jRv‡ii cÖ‡qvM nq m~² †gwkb ˆZwi, SvjvB KvR, ivmvqwbK I d‡UvivmvqwbK wµqv, ivWv‡ii e¨env‡i Ges `~iZ¡
wbY©‡q|

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cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb
ˆbe©¨w³K cÖkœ
mwVK Dˇii cv‡k wUK (√) wPý w`b
1. †jRvi iwk¥ mg~n
K. GKB `kvq _v‡K Ges msmy³ L. wewfbœ `kvq _vK‡Z cv‡i wKš—z msmy³
M. Zwor †PŠ¤^K Zi½ bq N. wfbœ K¤úv¼ wewkó

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ
1. c−vRgv Ae¯’v I K¨v‡_vW iwk¥ e¨vL¨v Ki“b| iÄb iwk¥ wK fv‡e Drcbœ Kiv hvq eY©bv w`b|
2. K…òe¯—zi wewKi‡Yi e¨vL¨vq wPivqZ c`v_© weÁvb e¨_© nIqvi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki“b| cix¶‡Yi mvnv‡h¨
d‡UvB‡jwUªK wµqvi eY©bv w`b|
3. †jRvi iwk¥ Kv‡K e‡j? †jRvi iwk¥i cÖ‡qvM wK wK?

MvwYwZK mgm¨v
1. d‡UvB‡jKwUªK wµqv cix¶Y †_‡K †`Lv †Mj KZ©b K¤úv¼ γο = 4.4 × 1014 Hz, Kvh©v‡c¶K φ = 4.4 ×
1019 J; avZe c„‡ô cwZZ Av‡jvi K¤úv¼ 6 × 1016 Hz 1 Kmax KZ?
DËi: .025

DËigvjv
ˆbe¨w³K cÖkœ
12.1. 1. K 2. N
12.2 1. L 2. K
12.3 1. K

BDwbU GMvi c„ôv-316