МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ і НАУКИ МОЛОДІ та СПОРТУ УКРАЇНИ

ДЕРЖАВНИЙ ВИЩИЙ НАВЧАЛЬНИЙ ЗАКЛАД

«КИЇВСЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ ЕКОНОМІЧНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ
імені ВАДИМА ГЕТЬМАНА»

Друзь Ю.М., KoпитькoT.В., Лобановa В.А.,

Люлька Л.А., Зaвiдoнoвa Н.І.
(за загальною редакцією Друзя Ю.М.)

ENGLISH
for
ECONOMICS
and
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Навчальний посібник з англійської мови

для студентів 1 курсу економічних спеціальностей

Kиїв, 2012
1
 ПЕРЕДМОВА
Сьогодні кожна людина, яка працює в діловому світі, повинна володіти
іноземною мовою для того, щоб бути успішною. Спілкуючись з партнерами
по бізнесу чи з клієнтами, обговорюючи різноманітні проекти, складаючи
нові бізнес-плани, шукаючи необхідну інформацію, все частіше й об’ємніше
ділові люди застосовують свої знання англійської мови.

Даний посібник має на меті розвивати іншомовні компетенції з

врахуванням основних вимог до підготовки бакалаврів з економіки та
менеджменту. Він також може використовуватись широким колом осіб, які
самостійно вивчають англійську мову і прагнуть засвоїти ділову лексику. За
своїм змістом це є практичний курс, який складається з великої кількості
різноманітних видів робіт над окремими сторонами мовленнєвої діяльності
студентів – читання, говоріння, аудіювання й письма. Процес оволодіння
іншомовним мовленням є тривалим і вимагає наряду з повсякденним
розвитком навичок мовлення враховувати специфіку професійної діяльності.

До вивчення пропонуються вісім тем професійного спрямування: “Що

таке економіка” (What is economics), “Фактори виробництва” (Factors of
production), “Типи економічних систем” (Types of economic systems), “Попит і
пропозиція” (Demand and supply), “Економіка вільного підприємництва”
(Free enterprise economy), “Форми організації бізнесу” (Forms of business
organisation), “Гроші” (Money), “Податки” (Taxes), до складу яких входить
ряд текстів відповідно до тематики, лексичних та граматичних вправ.
Групування мовного матеріалу довкола тексту дає змогу забезпечити
комплексне та систематичне повторення раніше вивченого та продовжити
формування навичок застосовування здобутих знань на практиці.

Особливий інтерес становить подана в посібнику система ситуативних

вправ для розвитку умінь і навичок усного діалогічного спілкування, що є
важливою умовою повноцінного опанування мови: вісім тем для розвитку

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комунікативних мовленнєвих компетенцій: “Знайомства” (Introductions),
“Призначення ділової зустрічі” (Making an appointment), “В аеропорту” (At
the airport), “У готелі” (At the hotel), “В офісі” (In the office), “Спілкування по
телефону” (On the phone), “Як дістатися до місця призначення” (Finding the
way), “Про компанію” (About your company).

Теоретичний матеріал з граматики (Nouns, Articles, Determiners,

Pronouns, Numbers, Present Tenses, Past Tenses, Future Tenses, Imperatives,
Adjectives, Adverbs, Comparison) поєднується з запропонованою до
практичного виконання системою вправ. Значна частина теоретичного
граматичного матеріалу оформлена в таблицях, що сприяє кращій візуалізації
та систематизації знань.

Посібник також містить додатки: граматичні тести, граматичний

довідник, глосарій та тексти для додаткового читання.

Запропоновані матеріали базуються на здобутках мовознавчої,

педагогічної, методичної та психологічної наук, забезпечують додержання
принципів наступності й перспективності, комунікативно-діяльнісного
підходу, а також особистісно орієнтованого навчання.

Автори посібника висловлюють подяку доцентам І.С. Бахову, Т.А.

Мірончук, М.М. Гавришу, Л.І.Чеботарьовійзацінні поради і зауваження під
час обговорення.

Навчальний посібник призначається для студентів першого курсу

економічних спеціальностей.

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 Unit 1. WHAT IS ECONOMICS?

TEXT A: What is economics?

TEXT B: What economics isn't
TEXT C: Micro, macro and fantasy economics
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Introductions
GRAMMAR: Present Tenses. The Present Simple and the Present Continuous Tenses

The ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right
and when they are wrong, are more powerful than is commonly understood.
John Maynard Keynes (1883 – 1946),
a British economist

LEAD-IN
1. The dictionary defines economics as “the study of the production of wealth and the
consumption of goods and services in a society”. List five economic issues relating to
production and consumption that your national or local government has to deal with today.
2. Why do you think everyone should understand basic economics?
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills
Ex.1. Practice reading the following words.
tion [ʃn]: action, nation, station, dictation, translation, position, condition
ssion, ssian [ʃ(ə)n]: session, expression, impression, permission, Prussian, Russian
cia [ʃə], cean [ʃ(ə)n]: ocean, special, especially, official, politician, musician, social
a [a:] перед ss, sk, sp, st, ns, nd, nt, ft, th, nce: class, glass, grass, pass; after, craft, raft, daft;
ask, task, answer, father, rather, bath, path; fast, faster, last, past, master, castle, can't; gasp,
grasp; command, demand, plant, grant; chance, dance, glance, France.

Ex.2. Read the words in the following groups. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
answer, numbers, household, human, market, concept, actually, services, product, produce (n),
surplus, previous, limit, object (n), purchase, action, labour, labourer, capital, enterprise, timber,
profit, business, scarcity, satisfy, constitute, income, option, benefit, equity, issue;
b) words withthe stress on the second syllable:

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economy, economist, accept, resources, statistics, specifically, behaviour, endeavour, defence,
invisible, amount, variety, sufficient, incentive, produce (v), abandon, interpret, production,
tentative, explain, decision, desire, consume, consumer, consumption, activity, object (v),
attempt, perform, except, combine, reward, machinery, available, unlimited;
c) polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:
administration, availability, economics, economic, economical, economically, complicated,
constitution, constitutional, constitutionally, publication, comprehensive, influential, insufficient,
definition, distribution, individual, satisfaction, satisfactory, unemployment, microeconomics,
macroeconomics.

В. Word formation with the help of suffixes

Ex.3. Explain the difference between the words in groups.

a) act, acting, active, activity, action;
b) consume, consumer, consumption, consumerism;
c) economy, economics, economic, economical, economically;
d) satisfy, satisfaction, satisfactory;
e) product, produce, produce, productive, productivity, production.

Ex.4. Make up nouns as in the model:

a) from the verbs
Model: verb + -ment → noun
e.g. govern - government
Enjoy, employ, develop, accomplish, encourage, punish, fulfil, equip, agree, adjust,
acknowledge, commit, enrich, establish, move, judge, measure, recruit, manage;

b) from the adjectives

Model: adjective + -ity → noun
e.g. reliable - reliability
Possible, probable, responsible, familiar, complex, hilarious, curious, prosperous, punctual, real,
senior, special, able, public, similar, sensitive, active, minor, scarce.

Ex.5. Make up
a) adjectives from the following nouns:
Model: noun + -ant → adjective
e.g.assistance (n) → assistant (adj)
Distance, significance, importance, resistance, brilliance, consultancy, dependence;

b) adjectives from the verbs:

Model: verb + -less → adjective
e.g. hope (v) → hopeless (adj)
End, use, care, aim, thank, fear, harm, rest, mind, brake, doubt, dream, form, love.

TEXT A: WHAT IS ECONOMICS?

Active Vocabulary

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Key terms: economics, social science, management of a household, free market, productive
resources, information resources, rational human behaviour, needs and wants, surplus, market,
incentives, scarcity, factors of production, economic activity, opportunity cost, minimizing costs,
inflation, consumer, microeconomics, macroeconomics, unemployment, gross domestic product,
taxation, government expenditures, trade-offs, "invisible hand", competing uses, variety of goods
and services, production, distribution and consumption of goods and services, satisfy wants,
needs and desires, expenditures.
Other words and expressions: to browse, to constitute, complicated, endeavour, to abandon,
action, activity, available, to satisfy, benefit, to allocate, to determine, a wide range, required,
demanded, to interact, phenomena.
Linking words and phrases: hence, more specifically, such as, except for, thus, therefore,
though, in this connection, in order to.

There's no one universally accepted answer to the question "What is economics?"

Browsing different information resources, you will find various answers to that question.
Economics may appear to be the study of complicated tables and charts, statistics and numbers,
but, more specifically, it is the study of what constitutes rational human behaviour in the
endeavour to fulfil needs and wants.
The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek oikonomia, the word composed of
oikos (“house”) and nomos ( “custom” or “law”), hence, “rules of the house (hold)”. Modern
economics began in 1776, with the publication of Adam Smith's “Wealth of Nations”. This was
the first comprehensive defence of the free market, and continues to be an influential work to this
day. Central to the work was the concept of the “invisible hand”, the idea that the market, while
appearing chaotic, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods and
services. If there are insufficient goods, there will be great economic incentives to produce
more; if there are surplus goods, there will be an economic incentive to produce less or different
types of goods. Smith's work was so influential that previous tentative schools of economics
were abandoned after its publication.
Modern definition of economics interprets it as a social science, which analyses the
production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, studies human behaviour and
explains how individuals and groups make decisions with limited resources as to best satisfy
their wants, needs and desires.
Wants and needs refer to people’s desires to consume certain goods and services. In
economic terms, a good is a physical object that can be purchased. A service is an action or
activity done for others for a fee. The term product is often used to refer to both goods and
services.
Economics often uses such categories as factors of production, which are basic elements
used to produce goods and services. In essence, land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship are
main productive resources. Land represents all natural resources, such as timber and gold used
in the production of a good. Labour is all of the work that labourers and workers perform at all
levels of an organisation, except for the entrepreneur. The entrepreneur is an individual who
takes an idea and attempts to make an economic profit from it by combining all other factors of
production. The entrepreneur also takes on all of the risks and rewards of the business. The
capital is all of the tools and machinery used to produce a good or service.
The need for making choices arises from the problem of scarcity. Scarcity exists because
people’s wants and needs are greater than the resources available to satisfy them. From here it
can be easily understood that scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of having seemingly
unlimited human needs and wants in the world of limited resources. Scarcity means that people
want more than is available. Thus, people must choose how best to use their available resources
to satisfy the greatest number of wants and needs. Scarcity limits us both as individuals and as a
society. As individuals, limited income (time or ability) keeps us from doing and having all that

6
we might like. As a society, limited resources (such as manpower, machinery, and natural
resources) fix a maximum on the amount of goods and services that can be produced. Economics
is sometimes called the study of scarcity because economic activity would not exist if scarcity
did not force people to make choices. People must choose which of their desires they will satisfy
and which they will leave unsatisfied.
When there is scarcity and choice, there are costs. The cost of any choice is the option or
options that a person gives up. Most of economics is based on the simple idea that people make
choices by comparing the benefits of options of different goods and choosing the one with the
highest benefit. The opportunity cost of a particular choice is the satisfaction that would have
been derived from the next best alternative foregone. It is the cost of any activity measured in
terms of the value of the best alternative that is not chosen.
Economics is the study of how people choose to allocate scarce resources to satisfy their
unlimited wants. In the situation of scarce resources and unlimited human needs, economics has
a very important task of minimizing costs while producing different goods and services. The
main problem in economics is the question of allocating scarce resources between competing
uses. In this connection very significant decisions must be made about three basic economic
questions: What to produce? For whom to produce? and How to produce?
What products and services should be produced? In order to answer this question we
need to determine the needs of individual consumers as well as the economy in general. A wide
range of goods and services needs to be produced in order to cater for many and varied needs of
consumers. The demand from consumers and available resources will normally determine what
products and services to produce.
How much of each product and service should be produced? The amount of each product
to produce will be determined by the demand for the various products as well as the availability
of the resources required to produce those goods and services.
For whom should goods and services be produced? The demand for goods and services
will largely determine for whom they will be produced. Goods are therefore produced for those
consumers who demand the goods, and have the ability to pay for the goods demanded.
Two main branches of economics are: microeconomics and macroeconomics.
Microeconomics examines the actions of individuals and firms, and how they interact.
Macroeconomics studies the economy at large, examining such phenomena as inflation,
unemployment and gross domestic product.
No aspect of life is untouched by economics - though it can be hard to convey its central
importance in human lives. Economics has things to say, and to teach, about the importance of
education, about taxation and government expenditures, about why some companies succeed and
others go bust. It teaches why some countries grow rapidly and others struggle to grow at all.

Language notes:
great economic incentives – великі економічні стимули;
surplus goods – надлишкові товари;
tentative schools of economics – експериментальні економічні школи;
opportunity cost – альтернативний вибір;
economic activity would not exist if scarcity did not force people to make choices – не існувало
б господарської діяльності, якби дефіцит не змушував людей робити вибір;
to take risks and rewards – йти на ризик і заробляти винагороди;
to go bust – збанкрутувати, розоритися;
rational judgments – обґрунтовані судження;
trade-off –альтернатива, компроміс.

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

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Економічна діяльність; дефіцит; обмежені ресурси; управління господарством; вивчати
складні таблиці та графіки; недостатньо товарів; виробляти більше; сучасне визначення
економіки; бажання споживати певні товари та послуги; ризики та винагороди бізнесу;
задовольняти необмежені людські потреби та бажання; розподіл дефіцитних ресурсів;
широкий асортимент товарів та послуг; попит на різну продукцію; основні питання, що
впливають на нас.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and phrases.

To allocate scarce resources between competing uses; government expenditures; demand from
consumers; rational human behaviour in the endeavour to fulfil needs and wants; the first
comprehensive defence of the free market; an economic incentive to produce less or different
types of goods; production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; to produce the
right amount and variety of goods and services; inflation; unemployment; gross domestic
product; taxation; the best alternative foregone; minimizing costs; available resources; unlimited
human needs and wants; force people to make choices; to satisfy wants, needs, and desires; to
consume certain goods and services.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these verbs in the
text.
Find, come, begin, be, do, take, make, arise, keep, leave, give, choose, have, teach, say, go,
grow.

Ex.4. Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
1 scarcity a the study of the way in which money and goods are produced and
used
2 consumer b a continuing increase in prices, or the rate at which prices increase
3 economics c a subject or problem that is often discussed or argued about,
especially a social or political matter that affects the interests of a lot
of people
4 demand d a situation in which there is not enough of something
5 distribution e the number of people in a particular country or area who cannot get a
job
6 inflation F a balance between two opposing things that you are willing to accept
in order to achieve something
7 unemployment g someone who buys and uses products and services
8 issue h all the people who live together in one house
9 costs I an advantage, improvement, or help that you get from something
10 GDP J the need or desire that people have for particular goods and services
11 trade-off k the money that you must regularly spend in order to run a business, a
home, a car, etc
12 surplus L the act of sharing things among a large group of people in a planned
way
13 benefit m the total value of all goods and services produced in a country in one
year, except for income received from abroad
14 income n an amount of something that is more than what is needed or used
15 household o the money that you earn from your work or that you receive from
investments, the government, etc

Ex.5. Make up verb + noun collocations (there may be several variants).

to satisfy scarce resources
to make economics
to allocate answers
8
 to provide wants and needs
to produce tools
to determine products
to find decisions
to study demand for goods
to design goods and services
to purchase rational judgements

Ex.6. Choose an appropriate word or phrase to complete the following sentences.

Economic profit, factors of production, fee, goods and services, Nations, needs and wants, option
or options, products and services, resources, unlimited wants.

1. Economics is the study of what constitutes rational human behaviour in the endeavour to
fulfil _________.
2. Modern economics began in 1776, with the publication of Adam Smith's Wealth of
_________.
3. Modern definition of economics interprets it as the social science, which analyzes the
production, distribution, and consumption of _________.
4. A service is an action or activity done for others for a _________.
5. _________are basic elements used to produce goods and services.
6. The entrepreneur is an individual who takes an idea and attempts to make an
_________from it by combining all other factors of production.
7. Scarcity exists because people’s wants and needs are greater than the _________available to
satisfy them.
8. The cost of any choice is the _________that a person gives up.
9. Economics is the study of how people choose to allocate scarce resources to satisfy their
_________.
10. The demand from consumers and available resources will normally determine what
_________to produce.

Ex.7. Fill in the gaps with appropriate prepositions or adverbs.

1. Browsing different information resources, you will find various answers ______ that
question.
2. Economics is the study ______ what constitutes rational human behaviour.
3. Modern economics began ______ 1776.
4. Central ______ the Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations was the concept ______ the “invisible
hand”.
5. If there are surplus goods, there will be an economic incentive to produce ______ or different
types of goods.
6. Modern definition ______ economics interprets it as a social science.
7. A service is an action or activity done ______ others ______ a fee.
8. The need ______ making choices arises ______ the problem of scarcity.
9. Scarcity means that people want ______ than is available.
10. The cost ______ choice is the option or options that a person gives up.
11. Most ______ economics is based ______ the simple idea that people make choices.
12. Economics has a very important task ______ minimizing costs ______ producing different
goods and services.
13. Very significant decisions must be made _____three basic economic questions.
14. The demand _____ consumers and available resources will normally determine
what products and services to produce.
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15. Goods are produced ______ those consumers who demand the goods, and have the ability to
pay ______ the goods demanded.

Ex.8. Combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.

1 Economics may appear to be the study of a the production, distribution, and
complicated consumption of goods and services.
2 Economics is the study of what constitutes b allocating scarce resources between
rational human competing uses.
3 Modern economics began in 1776, with the c limited resources as to best satisfy their
wants, needs, and desires.
4 Modern definition of economics interprets it d an economic profit from it by combining
as the social science, which analyzes all other factors of production.
5 Economics studies human behaviour and e the benefits of options of different goods
explains how individuals and groups make and choosing the one with the highest
decisions with benefit.
6 Economics is called the study of scarcity f scarce resources to satisfy their
because economic activity unlimited wants.
7 The entrepreneur is an individual who takes g publication of Adam Smith's Wealth of
an idea and attempts to make Nations.
8 The main problem in economics is the h tables and charts, statistics and numbers.
question of
9 Most of economics is based on the simple i behaviour in the endeavour to fulfil
idea that people make choices by comparing needs and wants.
1 Economics is the study of how people j would not exist if scarcity did not force
0 choose to allocate people to make choices.

Ex.9. Look through the text again and replace the words/phrases in italics with similar
ones.
1. The term “economics” comes from the Ancient Greek “oikonomia”, the word composed of
“oikos” ("house") and “nomos” ( “custom” or “law”), thus, “rules of the house(hold)”.
2. Wants and needs refer to people’s wants to consume certain goods and services.
3. In economic terms, a good is a physical object that can be bought.
4. Economics often uses such categories as factors of production, which are basic elements used
to manufacture goods and services.
5. Scarcity exists because people’s wants and needs are greater than the resources available to
meet them.
6. The main problem in economics is the question of allocating limited resources between
competing uses.
7. That’s why very significant decisions must be made about three basic economic questions:
What to produce? For whom to produce? and How to produce?
8. For the purpose of answering this question we need to determine the needs of individual
consumers as well as the economy in general.
9. Goods are thus produced for those consumers who demand the goods, and have the ability to
pay for the goods demanded.
10. No aspect of life is untouched by economics – despite the fact that it can be hard to convey
its central importance in human lives.

Ex.10. Translate into English.

1. Економіка - це наука, що вивчає закони і категорії суспільного виробництва,
розподілу, обміну і споживання, методи і форми організації та управління
виробництвом.
2. Вивчення кожної науки починається з визначення її предмета, цілей, і методів.

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3. Вперше поняття "економіка" ввів грецький мислитель Арістотель (III ст. до н. е.).
4. Арістотель пояснив суть економіки як науки про домашнє господарство: грецьке
"ойкос" означає дім, господарство, "номос" - вчення, закон.
5. Проте економіка як наука, як систематизоване знання про суть господарської
діяльності виникла лише в ХVII-ХVIII ст., тобто в період капіталізму.
6. Щоб визначити предмет економіки, необхідно розкрити дві найважливіші категорії:
"економіка" та "економічна теорія".
7. Слід зауважити, що теорія дає уявлення про дійсність як систему.
8. Економіка – це наука про виробничу діяльність та обмін її результатами між людьми.
9. Економіка вивчає рух економічного життя - тенденції в розвитку цін, виробництва,
безробіття тощо.
10. Економічна наука допомагає виробити політику, за якої уряд може впливати на
економічне життя.
11. Економіка - наука вибору, яка вивчає, як люди вибирають спосіб використання
обмежених виробничих ресурсів (землі, праці, обладнання, технічних знань) для
виготовлення різних товарів і розподілу їх між різними членами суспільства.
12. Економіка вивчає, яким чином людина організує виробництво і споживання.
13. Економіка вивчає гроші, капітал, його форми й багатство.
14. Економічна освіта кадрів – це процес овoлодіння економічними знаннями, уміннями і
навичкамита підготовка фахівців з вищою економічною освітою.
15. Економічна освіта кадрів – це також підвищення рівня економічних знань керівних
господарських та інженерно-технічних працівників.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Ex.11. Ask questions to which the following sentences may be answers.

1. There's no one universally accepted answer.
2. In 1776, with the publication of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations.
3. The first comprehensive defence of the free market.
4. Because previous tentative schools of economics were abandoned.
5. They are land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
6. It arises from the problem of scarcity.
7. Because people want more than is available.
8. Limited income (time or ability) keeps us from doing and having all that we might like.
9. The option or options that a person gives up.
10. The opportunity cost of a particular choice.
11. What to produce? For whom to produce? How to produce?
12. To determine the needs of individual consumers.
13. In order to cater for many and varied needs of consumers.
14. The demand from consumers and available resources.
15. By the demand for the various products as well as the availability of the resources required
to produce those goods and services.

Ex.12. Answer the following questions.

1. How can you answer the question “What is economics?”
2. What is the central concept of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations?
3. What is the difference between a good and a service?
4. Which factors of production are there?
5. What does land represent?
6. What kind of work do labourers perform?

11
7. Who can be called an entrepreneur?
8. What is capital?
9. Why is economics sometimes called the study of scarcity?
10. What is the cost of any choice?
11. What is the task of economics in the situation of scarce resources and unlimited human
needs?
12. Name the main problem in economics.
13. What are the main branches of economics?
14. Explain the difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics.
15. What does economics teach, provide and help to understand?

Ex. 13. Make a presentation of the topic “What is economics”.

WRITING

Ex.14. Write a plan for a summary of Text A.

Ex. 15. Write a brief summary (25-30 sentences) of Text A.

Ex. 16. Write an essay (100 – 150 words) about:

- the problem of scarcity and opportunity cost.

DISCUSSION POINTS

Ex.17. Answer the following questions.

1. What is economics?
2. What is scarcity? Give some examples of rich people and poor people facing scarcity.
3. Why does scarcity force us to make choices?
4. Why do we care about what goods and services are produced? Give some examples of goods
that you value highly and goods on which you place a low value.
5. Why do we care about how goods and services are produced? (Think about cost.)
6. Why do we care about when or where goods and services are produced?
7. Why do we care about who gets the goods and services that are produced?
8. What do we mean by the related ideas of trade-off and opportunity cost? Give some examples
of trade-offs that you have made today and of opportunity costs that you have incurred.
9. Explain why for the economy, as a whole, expenditure equals income and the value of
production.
10. Why does unemployment occur? Is all unemployment a problem?

Ex.18. Name as many famous economists as you know. Explain their role in the development
of economic science.

Ex.19. Economics has been called “the study of scarcity and choice”. How does this relate to
your budget for the week? How does this relate to your nation’s budget?

TEXT B: WHAT ECONOMICS ISN'T

Ex.20. Scan the text below and give headlines to each paragraph.
Let's start with what economics isn't. Economics isn't a meal ticket to make lots of money
in the stock market, although economics helps you understand how stock markets and other
markets work. Economics also isn't a business degree, although economics teaches important
business skills. (1) ____________. As such, economics helps to explain the mysteries of how

12
people and society operate.
Economics is defined as the study of how people choose to use their scarce resources in
an attempt to satisfy their unlimited wants. (2) ____________. Think, for example, why you
don't own a Ferrari or a Porsche (if you do, congratulations). You probably can't afford to
purchase these expensive automobiles, or even if you can, this is not the best use of your money.
You may want a Ferrari, and in fact there is no prohibition against your buying a Ferrari. But you
don't have the resources - namely, money - to buy a Ferrari.
Take this one step further. Why don't you go to the movies every night, or go out dancing
until 2 AM every evening? You may want to, even prefer to, but you can't because you have
homework, or a job, or both. Even if you could financially afford this lifestyle, your time is a
scarce resource. (3) ____________.
Economics builds scientific models to explain why people behave the way they do. And
economists use these models, in conjunction with their observations of the world, to analyze and
explain why things happen the way they do.
Does this sound boring? It shouldn't. (4) ____________. Even more, economics is about
finding the truth, even if the truth may go counter to what you, and most people, may intuitively
believe. As one economist put it, economics is about paradoxes, about providing answers to
riddles that are contrary to accepted opinion yet are true. Think about a few such paradoxes:
Supermodels and athletes may be better off bypassing college for professional work than
by attending college. Why? The potential income they forego by attending school is greater than
the benefit a college degree brings to a supermodel or star athlete. This is not to say that
education is bad, or supermodels can't afford college; rather, it simply says that the allocation of
time is better spent working than by attending school.
(5) ____________. Traffic jams seem to be a necessary evil, right? What if drivers
needed to pay a toll, say $1, during busy rush hours. This would certainly prevent some drivers
who didn't need to drive from driving during rush hour, and traffic congestion would lessen. In
economics, driving is a want and freeways, time, and money are resources. If we could better
allocate these resources, then we could lessen traffic.
This is what economics is all about - finding answers to problems that are not always as they
seem to be.
Why major in economics? Economics teaches valuable skills and problem-solving
techniques that will help you solve the mysteries life presents. But there's another reason. (6)
____________. In addition to academia and government, economists work in all facets of the
business world, including manufacturing, mining, banking, insurance, and retailing. Not to
mention sports, recreation, entertainment, and technology.
Why do businesses need economists? First, economists are trained to think analytically
and critically to solve complex problems. Second, and relatedly, (7) ____________, and as such
economists are trained to recognize human behaviour in relation to work, production,
distribution and consumption, the fundamental operations of most businesses.
Businesses began to hire economists in increasing numbers shortly after World War II,
and the economics profession has grown rapidly ever since. Both large and small firms hire
economists. Large firms tend to have whole divisions dedicated to economic research, with a
number of economists addressing specialized areas. Smaller firms, on the other hand, tend to hire
only one or two economists to address a number of general areas: planning, forecasting, finance,
and other duties.
(8) ____________. Economists analyze data and provide information; the manager uses
this information to make decisions. The public profile may not be there, but the power of the
information is great. This may explain why so many corporate CEOs rose to their positions
through the economics division.

Ex.21. Read the text. Choose the best sentence A-G to fill each of the gaps 1-8. Do not use
any of them more than once.

13
A Again, economics is about solving problems.
B Economics is a social science
C In other words, we have unlimited possibilities in life to do whatever we want, but we are
limited by the resources we have to do these things.
D Namely, jobs, and decent-paying ones at that.
E The role of the economist may differ from that of the manager.
F Traffic jams can be prevented.
G You need to spend time studying or working which prevents you from movie watching and
dancing.
H Economics, first and foremost, is a social science.

Ex.22. Read the text and decide whether the following statements are true or false. Correct
the false statements.
1. Economics helps you understand how stock markets and other markets work.
2. Economics is a business degree.
3. Economics teaches important business skills.
4. Economics helps to explain the mysteries of how people and society operate.
5. Economics is defined as the study of how people choose to use their unlimited resources in an
attempt to satisfy their scarce wants.
6. Economics builds scientific models to explain why people behave the way they do.
7. In economics, driving is a resource and freeways, time, and money are wants.
8. Economists work in all facets of the business world, including manufacturing, mining,
banking, insurance, and retailing.
9. Economists are trained to think analytically and critically to solve complex problems.
10. Only large firms hire economists.
11. Large firms tend to have whole divisions dedicated to economic research, with a number of
economists addressing specialised areas.

Ex.23. Read text B again and answer the following questions.

1. What is not economics?
2. How is economics defined?
3. Why does economics build scientific models?
4. How do economists use these models?
5. What is economics about?
6. Why do businesses need economists?
7. When did businesses begin to hire economists?
8. How do large and small firms hire economists?
9. What is the role of the economist?
10. What does the manager use to make decisions?

TEXT C: MICRO, MACRO AND FANTASY ECONOMICS

Ex.24. Before reading

Can you anticipate what ‘fantasy economics’ is about?

Ex.25. Reading
(1) There are two branches of genuine economics, the micro and the macro, and a third
and phoney one, the fantasy economics that feeds on wishful thinking demagogy and the rantings
of pretentious charlatans. As micro and macro are tangled up in one of their periodic conflicts of
mutual misunderstanding, the hour is to the fantasy economics "new order," "need, not greed,"
"equitable distribution," "stability," and so forth. None of this rhetoric is harmless, and the
seductive apple-pie-and-motherhood language it uses makes it difficult to combat. Micro-

14
economics finds support in common sense, the lessons of everyday life and perhaps also in
inherited instincts that favoured genetic survival in evolutionary selection. Micro-economics
teaches that no sane man will try to increase his income by borrowing more heavily on his credit
card so that his increased consumption should stimulate consumption, fill factory order books,
and permit him to earn more by doing overtime. Yet macro-economics suggests that something
of the sort is a quite plausible sequence of events. Plausible, however, is sometimes mistaken for
necessarily true. "It all depends"; macro-economic plausibility may or may not point to correct
conclusions.
(2) When in 2000 France's socialist government reduced the "legal" work week to 35
hours the main plea was that this will spread the available work among more people, i.e. reduce
unemployment, which of course it did not. It increased costs and caused much disruption. On the
other hand, when in 2008-2009 a large proportion of German employers reduced both the work
week and wages, the result was that German unemployment rose significantly less than that in
neighbouring countries. Could this be a negation of the French experience? It was nothing of the
sort; it was simple that other things were not equal, in one experience labour costs increased, in
the other they did not. Micro and macro are fairly unanimous that you do not increase the
demand for labour by making it more expensive. Higher unemployment pay has no direct
incidence on wage cost, because it is paid out of general tax revenue and leaves unemployment
insurance rates (a kind of payroll tax) unchanged. However, wherever the incidence of a higher
cost first hits the economy, the indirect incidence will inevitably work through to labour cost,
too.
(3) The contemporary quarrel between micro and macro rages around the sustainability of
growing government debt, the potential of the fiscal stimulus to induce growth and create jobs,
and the risks of unorthodox central banking. In all these areas, the instinctive, micro-oriented
"know-nothings" confront the educated Keynesians. The latter keep desperately trying to
hammer into the thick skulls of the former the basic blueprint of John Maynard Keynes's system.
More government spending (i.e. dissaving) generates income that is greater than the spending
itself, with part of the income being consumed and part saved to generate the saving that matches
the government dissaving. In Keynesian parlance there is the multiplier effect and it is greater
than 1. As long as there is spare capacity (unemployment) in the economy, the government ought
to go on spending more, working through the multiplier, because the extra private saving takes
care of the government dissaving and the extra consumption is, so to speak, a welcome windfall
gain. Timidly refusing to generate it is criminal waste.
(4) Fantasy economics as a study of warfare or at best a bitterly fought football game
helps to understand the self-inflicted pain most of Europe is currently suffering in the "crisis" of
the euro - a "crisis" that is increasingly looking like a quasi-permanent state of affairs. The euro
replaced national currencies in 1999 partly because it was promised to raise economic growth
rates "in the region by 5 per cent or more, and partly because it would enable Europe "to look the
dollar in the face" or, better still, to become its equal as a global reserve currency. Milton
Friedman was convinced that, failing fiscal unification, the euro experiment will collapse in a
matter of months. Instead, it is still subsisting, though it has signally failed to fulfil the promises
of growth and especially of prestige that had been made for it. It is being maintained by the
Herculean efforts of the more solvent of the member states that seem determined to throw good
money after bad to save their nearly insolvent fellow members without admitting that at least
some of this money can be regarded as already gone down the drain. The mystery is that doing
this is unanimously acclaimed as wise, constructive and necessary because it preserves the
integrity of the Eurozone. There is ominous talk of "fragilisation" and "contamination" from
Greece to Ireland, Ireland to Portugal, Portugal to Spain and so on, ending in some unspecified
but catastrophic collapse. Nobody feels the need to ask why such language is the right one to use,
and why the "integrity" of the zone and its common currency is so precious as to warrant the
most painful economic and political contortions. Heavily loaded metaphors suffice to convince
us that Greece, Portugal, Spain or Italy reverting to their own separate currencies would be a bad

15
thing for anyone, let alone (as is being asserted) for everyone.
(5) What is saddening is that it is not solid understanding of micro and macro theory, the
depressing history of exchange controls, fixed rates and commodity price stabilisation schemes,
not the vacuity of fantasy economics that will preserve us from these hoary panaceas, but rather
the sheer unlikelihood of reaching unanimous agreement among sovereign states on anything
substantive, however foolish it may be.

Task 1. Discuss how micro and macro are tangled up in conflicts of mutual misunderstanding.
(para.1)
Task 2. Explain why higher unemployment pay has no direct incidence on wage cost. (para.2)
Task 3. If something is constructive (para.4), is it
a) involving the use of imagination to produce new ideas or things;
b) useful and helpful, or likely to produce good results;
c) designed for building?
Task 4. What way out of the crisis does the author see? (para.5)
Task 5. What does the author mean by “hoary panaceas”? (para.5) Which of them does he focus
on in the above text?

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTIONS

How to Say Hello

Dolly: Hello! Hello there, how are you? Oh Hello!
Horace: You know too many people.
Dolly: Total strangers!
Horace: Then why do you greet them?
Dolly: It makes me feel good to have so many friends.
Horace: Oh, say hello for me too then.
Dolly: I already did.

Conversation Practice
Notes:
1. It is not common to use titles (Mr., Mrs., Dr., etc.) when referring to yourself. However, it is
polite to use titles with others in formal situations, unless they give you permission to do
otherwise.
Examples:
I'm Mr. Robert Smith. (Title is not necessary here.)
I'm Robert Smith. (Better.)
I'm Dr. Sampson. (Okay if you want to keep the relationship formal.)
After an introduction:
Nice to meet you, Mr. Smith.
Oh, please call me "Bob."

2. Do not use titles with first names, and do not use last names alone without titles.
Hello, Mr. Bob (Wrong!)
Hi, Bob (Okay.)
Good morning, Smith (Wrong!)
Good morning, Mrs. Smith (Correct.)

Ex.1. Do you know the other people in the class? Introduce yourself to everyone.

16
 Good morning. My name is __________ . I am from __________ .
Listen to others introducing themselves. Say "Nice to meet you" and repeat their names. Smile
(and shake hands if appropriate).

Ex.2. When do we say Good morning? Good afternoon? Good evening?

Ex.3. Put the following sentences into the correct order to make a conversation.
Helen: Please call me Helen.
Paul: Morning, Jane. How are you?
Jane: Yes, it is. Let me introduce you … Excuse me, Mrs Anderson’. May I introduce you to
Paul Carroll?
Jane: Good morning, Paul.
Paul: Pleased to meet you, Mrs Anderson.
Jane: Fine, thanks, and you?
Paul: And please call me Paul.
Helen: How do you do?
Paul: Fine. Is that Mrs Anderson over there?

Ex.4. Read the conversation. Fill in the blanks with the question words.
Who, what, how, why, when, where.

Alex:______ do you do? My name is Alex Smith.

Peter:______ do you do? Nice to meet you. Peter Brown.
Alex: Ah! You are giving a talk on computer software.
Peter: That’s right. ______ are you from, Mr Smith?
Alex: New York.
Peter: And ______ do you work for?
Alex: Shell.
Peter: Ah, yes! You are giving a talk on transmission systems.
Alex: That’s right.
Peter: I’d like to hear it. ______ is it?
Alex: After lunch. ______ don’t you come along?
Peter: I’d like to. ______ time does it start?

Ex.5. Match the questions to the correct reply.

1 Where do you come from? a About half an hour.
2 How do you do? b Ukraine.
3 How are you? c By metro.
4 How long does it take? d KNEU.
5 Who do you work for? e Fine, thanks, and you?
6 What business are you in? f I’m a lecturer.
7 How do you get to work? g Advertising.
8 What do you do? h How do you do?

Ex.6. Ask Peter some questions about Alex.

You: Who is that man over there?
Peter: His name is Alex Smith.
You: _______________________ ?
Peter: New York.
You: _______________________ ?
Peter: No, he is Russian, actually, but he was born in the USA.
You: _______________________ ?

17
Peter: Shell.
You: _______________________ ?
Peter: He’s an engineer.
You: _______________________ ?
Peter: He’s the Technical Director.

Ex.7. Practice making introductions. Introduce:

1. Two people in a formal situation.
2. Two people in an informal situation.
3. Yourself at a company reception desk.
4. Yourself to a new colleague.
5. Yourself to a foreign visitor you are meeting at the airport.

Useful language
May I introduce you to … ? … this is … How do you do? How do you do?
Do you know … ? … this is … Hello./Hi. Nice to meet you.
Good morning. My name is … I have an appointment to see …
I don’t think we’ve met. I’m …
Excuse me. Are you Ms Peterson? I’m …

Ex.8. Read the text. Some parts of the text have bееn taken out. These extracts аre given
below. Complete each gap with the appropriate extract.
Having trouble introducing yourself? While introductions come easy to the extrovert, the
introvert will go as far as feeling anxiety when surrounded by people whom they do not know.
Some tips to try: 1. Look people straight in the eyes - eye contact is important because
__________ and also shows self confidence. 2. Smile - it is important to keep a __________
(and fresh breath too). 3. Your smile is your icebreaker, it draws people to you because you will
look __________ . 4. Handshake - a firm handshake, once again, demonstrates your __________
, but be sure you don't break the other person's arm or hand. 5. Just __________ hand shake you
will definitely gain your confidence. 6. Say your name and immediately ask for theirs -
__________ - "It's a pleasure to meet you, John" or "Nice to meet you, Jane" - repeating the
person's name will help you remember their name and, again, will also show you care. 7. Have a
great conversation. Make sure you introduce yourself with both __________ . 8. Giving a
nickname is absolutely ok, but __________ is your nickname. 9. It is an awkward joke if
__________ . 10. Always give notice it's a nickname, i.e. "My name's Mike, but they
__________ . 11. You may tell a little bit of your background in order to start your
conversation.
a) like a happy, stable person
b) then repeat their name while saying
c) never appropriate to say your name
d) call me 'The Stunner'
e) it shows that you care
f) first and last names
g) you consider it a joke
h) nice, bright smile
i) a squeeze and control
j) self-confidence.

Questions for discussion

1. Express your opinion: what were business cards created for?
2. Why do you think people exchange business cards with each other?
3.Imagine you have to design a business card, how would you do it?

18
Ex.9. Choose the most suitable verb to complete the sentences:
May, bring, can, choose, use, show, give, forget.
1. It ______ be as simple as deciding to ______ 5 or 10 cards away every day. 2. It ______ mean
printing labels describing your current promotion, sticking them to the back of your cards, and
pinning them to bulletin boards. 3. Whatever! The point is that if you consciously figure out a
way to ______ your business cards to ______ in business, you're much less likely to ______
them. 4. Invest in a quality business card case, one that you're proud to______off and ______5.
Business card cases______ be conversation starters themselves. 6. There are so many unusual,
classic and artistic choices available to ______ from.

Ex.10. Combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.

1 Many important contacts and business card exchanges can a network and exchange business
cards.
2 The best method of keeping your cards in neat form is b your new contact.
3 Informal meetings are one of the best times to c should wait for them to offer their
card to you first.
4 If the person you are speaking with seems interested in your d front counter for business cards to
product or service you represent, be posted.
5 When accepting a business card, have a good e business card from them.
6 Only give one business card to f your back pocket.
7 When you first meet someone, it's ok to request a g take place in the most unlikely
places.
8 If the person is of a higher position than yourself, you h offer that person a business card.
9 Never place the card in a wallet that will be put in i a business card case.
1 Local restaurants often hang a bulletin board near the j look at it for a few seconds.
0

Ex.11. Read the text and translate it into Ukrainian.

Forgetting your business card is a social faux pas. "Sorry, all my business cards are at
the office..." Those could be the "famous last words" of the forgetful entrepreneur.
If you habitually find yourself without a business card, you're habitually losing money; or
at least the chance of making money. Your business card, more than any other marketing weapon
in your arsenal, is what prospects and colleagues rely upon to remind them why they should do
business with you.
Forgetting a business card is a marketing mistake of significant proportions. We're so
inundated with advertising messages that most of us learn to tune them out. Yet every time
you're asked for a business card, and sheepishly reply that you don't have one with you, you're
missing an invitation to market to someone.
Being asked for a business card is a compliment. Not having one with you at that critical
moment is subtly offensive. It puts both you and the person requesting the card in an
embarrassing situation. And it nonverbally tells your prospect that you're not quite the business
person they thought. You're not really serious about your business, or too careless and forgetful
to be entrusted with theirs.
If you're determined not to be caught cardless again, here are some tips to help you
remember:
a) Invest in new cards.
If you haven't ordered business cards within the past two years, there's a good chance that
the information or photo is out of date by now. And if your last order was for 1000 cards and
there are still 990 cards left, ask yourself why you haven't been passing them out. If it's because
you dislike the cards, pitch them and get business cards you're proud of!

19
 b) Draft and practice a business card presentation.
Unless you're comfortable and confident when handing out your card, you won't do it.
Besides, the words and actions that accompany your business card when you give it to someone
can really cement a positive first impression.
c) Tuck a few business cards everywhere.
Your car's glove compartment. Your briefcase. Your gym bag. Your wife's purse. Next to
the front door on the table where you keep your keys. Your desk drawer. Your secretary's desk.
The pocket of your coat. Your suitcase.

A. Look at the phrases and words in italics in the text and explain what they mean.

B. Answer the following questions:

1. What tips about business cards do you find interesting?
2. How to invest in new cards?
3. To your mind, which method of remembering about cards is better?
4. How can your business card cement a positive first impression?
5. Where would you keep your business cards?

C. Complete the sentences:

1. If it's because you dislike the cards, pitch them and ____________________.
2. If you haven't ordered business cards within the past two years, there's a good chance that
____________________________________________________.
3. Besides, the words and actions that accompany your business card when you give it
to______________________________________________________.
4. If your last order was for 1000 cards and there are still 990 cards left, ask yourself
______________________________________________________.
5. Forgetting your business card is __________________________________.

GRAMMAR

PRESENT TENSES
Ex.1. Find the verbs in the sentences below, define their tense forms and translate the
sentences into Ukrainian.
Model:
Every morning my grandfather reads a fresh newspaper. (Present Simple) He is reading his
favourite newspaper now. (Present Continuous) He has been reading it for half an hour.
(Present Perfect Continuous) Oh, he has read the newspaper, and is now discussing the news
with my father. (1- Present Perfect; 2 – Present Continuous)
1. The factory produces electric motors. The factory has been producing electric motors for 50
years. Recently, the factory has produced a new model. The factory is launching a new
model these days.
2. Lucy is a florist. She works for Evelyne’s. She has been working there for two years. This
week Lucy is working at the exhibition of flowers.
3. - Maggie, it’s time to go.
- Has it stopped raining?
- No, but it isn’t raining heavily.
- Paul, it has been raining all day. I don’t want to leave home and get wet.
4. - What are you watching?
- BBC weekly news.
- Do you know what is on after the news?

20
 - A serial. This soap opera has been running for about a year. You won’t believe this; my
mom has already seen more than two hundred series.

Ex.2. Define what tense forms should be used in the following micro-situations. Refer to the
Table of Present Tenses if necessary. You don’t need to translate the sentences.
1. Алекс, ти керуєш машиною? – Ні, але я вчуся. Ось уже два тижні, як я хожу на курси
водіїв.
2. Сьюзан, де Фред? – Він в аналітичному відділі. Вони з Мaйклом з самого ранку
коректують базу даних.
3. Энтонi, м-р Райт вже підписав документи? – Ні. М-ра Райта немає на місці. Я чекаю на
нього. Між іншим, я чекаю на нього з 3-ої години.
4. Що ти шукаєш на моєму столі, Мері? – Вибач, Хелен, нашому босу знадобився лист
від М&S. Ми з Евелін шукаємо його з самого ранку.
5. Займайтесь своїми справами. Я вже віддала йому листа.
6. Дивись, Люсі знову з кимось розмовляє по телефону. Наша нова співробітниця
забагато теревенить з подружками.
7. Може, зараз вона розмовляє по справі? – Навряд, ось вже хвилин 10 як вона обговорює
з кимось колір нової сумочки або щось там ще.
8. Ви вже надрукували звіт? – Ні ще, я якраз цим займаюсь. – Єво, але ви друкуєте цю
сторінку вже цілу годину.

THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

Ex.3. Write the 3rd person singular of the following verbs. Classify the verbs into three
groups as it is shown below.
Work, go, fly, destroy, do, pass, rush, buy, pay, try, sell, love, laugh, know, serve, clean, catch,
manage, agree, buy, fix, brush, kiss, study, finish, wash, copy, watch, stay, wash, write, read,
drive

+s works, destroys,
+es goes,

+ies flies,

Ex.4. Put the verbs into three groups according to the reading rules and read them.
Start, begin, stop, stay, finish, close, open, make, catch, copy, say, like, put, miss, manage, mix,
teach, type, try, laugh, fly, freeze, dry, crash, pass, push, lose, drop, fall, rise, save, wish,
change

[s] – starts, _________________________________________________________

[z] – begins, ________________________________________________________
[iz] – finishes, ______________________________________________________

Ex.5. Write and read the he/she/it forms.

1. I take – he takes
2. I give – he _________
3. we watch – he _________
4. we buy – she _________
5. you repair – she _________
6. you work – she _________
7. they cost – it _________
8. they close – it _________

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9. I have all the necessary data on computer. - He _________________________.
10. Banks open at 9 a.m. - This bank ____________________________________.
11. You often leave a message on the answer phone. -Your friend _____________.
12. You look so much like your mum. - Susan ____________________________.
13. You actually do nothing on your day off. - She _________________________.
14. They spend a lot of time driving. - Michael ____________________________.

Ex.6. Read and write the opposite (positive or negative).

1. I understand. – I don’t understand.
2. Fred doesn’t smoke. – He smokes.
3. Paula doesn’t live in Rome. – She ____________________.
4. They all know. – _______________________________.
5. Miss Crown doesn’t like it. – ________________________.
6. Samantha loves you. – ___________________________.
7. You are right. – ______________________________.
8. He is married. – _____________________________.
9. We don’t use it. – ______________________________.
10. It happens very often. – ____________________________.
11. I don’t work for a big company. – ____________________.
12. It costs a lot of money. – _________________________.
13. David doesn’t speak English. – _____________________.
14. Jill and Dick usually wear jeans. – ______________________.
15. The shop doesn’t work on Sunday. – ___________________.

Ex.7. Choose the correct variant.

My sister Floy and I are twins, but we are very different. Floy love/loves classical music, but I
like/likes dance music. She usually get/gets up very early, and I hate/hates getting up early. On
Sundays, I usually wake /wakes up at about 11. Floy is a vegetarian, she never eat/eats meat. As
for me, I eat/eats meat, fish, vegetables, and everything tasty. I often wear/wear jeans, but my
sister don’t/doesn’t wear jeans at all. But we both like/likes dancing, using the Internet and a lot
of other interesting things.

Ex.8. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Simple.

1. Angela _________ (work) in a bank
2. It _________ (take) her about an hour to get there.
3. My sister _________ (like) her job but she _________ (not like) to get up early in the
morning.
4. Sometimes she _________ (oversleep) and _________ (miss) her bus.
5. So she _________ (try) to catch a taxi in order not to be late for work.
6. My mom _________ (say) it _________ (be) very unreasonable and even stupid of her to go
to work by taxi.
7. Today ________ (be) my day off. I never _________ (stay) at home on Sundays.
8. But it _________ (look) like rain. You know, it often _________ (rain) here in September.
9. I _________ (not feel) like going out in such weather. Instead, I think I’ll watch a Eurovision
Song Contest on TV. It _________ (start) in two hours.
10. Whatever the weather, Angela and her friends usually _________ (travel) somewhere.

Ex.9. Add suitable question tags to the following sentences. Read them with the correct
intonation at the end of the tag to show that you are asking if something is true (1-7) and
that you are only inviting the listener to agree with you (8-13).
Model: She doesn’t often agree with us, does she?

22
You are not really asking a question, you are only inviting the listener to agree with you. So your
voice goes down at the end of the tag.
I am late, aren’t I?
You are asking if you’re late. So the voice goes up.

1. It’s a lovely day today, _________? – Yes, it’s absolutely wonderful.

2. I hear you speak fluent French, ________ .
3. There is something wrong, __________.
4. She is our new secretary, ________.
5. You know my telephone number, _________ .
6. You remember my address, __________.
7. He finishes work at 6.00, _________.
8. She is busy, _________.
9. It’s cold, _______.
10. The meeting is at three o’clock, _________.
11. These figures don’t astonish our boss, _________.
12. Jack enjoys fast driving, _________.
13. They don’t work at weekend, _________ .
14. She doesn’t care about him, ________.

Ex.10. Fill in the gaps with the correct auxiliary verb to complete the song.
Love Song
… she love him? Yes, she …
… she happy? Yes, she …
… he know it? Yes, he … Yes, he knows it.
… he love her? Yes, he …
… he happy? Yes, he …
…she know it? Yes, she … Yes, she knows it.
… they happy? Yes, they …
... they lucky? Yes, they ...
... they know it? Yes, they ... Yes, they know it.

Ex.11. Complete the questions.

A few months ago Derek bought a second-hand Mustang. The car was cheap, and he was happy.
Unfortunately, the car often breaks down. His friend Ron is a mechanic. He does not like the car
but he always helps him to repair it.
1. What _________ Derek’s car like?
2. His car often breaks down, _________ it?
3. Does his car _________ ?
4. Does his car _________ often or only rarely?
5. Why _________it break down?
6. Who _________ him to repair the car?
7. _________ Ron a sales manager or a mechanic?
8. Ron doesn’t like this car, _________ he?
9. How often _________ Ron _________ him to repair the car?
10. _________ you think Derek is happy with his car?

Ex.12. Match the questions with the answers.

1. Do you work or study, or both? a. I am a student, and I also work part time.
2. Where do you study? b. Actually, it doesn’t matter. I just like good
3. You are interested in economics, films, though I hardly ever watch horror films.

23
 aren’t you?
4. What is your job?
5. Do you work every day?
6. Is it far from your home?
7. Do you live with your parents?
8. What do you do in the evening?
9. How often do you go to the cinema?
10. What films do you prefer: comedies,
romantic films, thrillers or horror
films?
c. I usually go out.
d. No, only three days a week.
e. No, I live in a hostel. My parents live in another
city.
f. KNEU. I want to be a specialist in marketing.
g. I’m an advertising agent.
h. About twice a month.
i. Yes, I am.
j. No, I usually walk to work.

Ex.13. Alice is at a job interview at the moment.

a) Make up questions the interviewer may ask her. Here are some prompts to help you.
Model: why/ want this job → Why do you want this job?

1.have any experience in this kind of work

2.what/ foreign languages/ speak
3.know/ how to send a fax
4.have any computer skills
5.what/ your strengths and weaknesses
6.make decisions quickly and independently
7.feel comfortable meeting new people
8.can/ work under pressure
9.why/ you think/ you are the right person for this job
10.have any questions you’d like to ask us

b) Now formulate questions Alice is likely to ask the interviewer.

1. offer/ you/ a training programme / a social package
2. there are/ any promotion prospects
3. how many/ people/ work in this department
4. they/ work overtime/ very often
5. when/ the job/ start
6. what/ the salary scale
7. how long/ the probation (випробний термін)

Ex.14. Work in pairs and try to improvise an interview of your own. You can use some of
the questions in Exercise 6. Think about answers.

Ex.15. Open the brackets and put the time expressions in the right place. The first two
sentences have been done for you as an example.
1. Don’t call him. You know he is very busy at work. (always) – He is always very busy at
work.
2. They give me a welcome (always) when I go there. – They always give me a welcome when I
go there.
3. I have a cup of green tea in the morning. (usually) – _____________________
4. My brother drinks coffee. (always) – _________________________________
5. He doesn’t take sugar in his coffee. (usually) – __________________________
6. Oliver is a manager. He gets to work by 9. (normally) – ___________________
7. He drives to the office. (generally) – __________________________________
8. He is late for work (never) but he stays at the office until late in the evening. (often) –
________________________________________________________
9. Does he travel on business? – Yes, he does. (often) – ____________________

24
 No, he does. (never) – ____________________
10. Psychologists say that people who have red cars drive fast and aggressively.
(usually) – _______________________________________________________

Ex.16. Complete the following proverbs and sayings inserting often, always or never in the
right place. Match the proverbs with the Ukrainian equivalents. Give your own
interpretation of them.
1. The morning sun lasts a day.
2. Lost time is found again.
3. The best is the enemy of the good.
4. The customer is right.
Не можна повернути втрачений час. Клієнт завжди правий. Ніщо не є вічним під місяцем.
Краще часто є ворогом хорошого.

Ex.17. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. Everyone ask for advice, but few listen.
2. Mother – the bank where we deposit our hurts and worries.
3. Our boss asks us often to work overtime.
4. I am usually start work at half past eight.
5. Nobody doesn’t work at this desk.
6. Do you and Sally go often to the cinema?
7. Your sister likes comedies and romantic films, isn’t she?
8. Does your brother always drive so fast?
9. She is often goes to the park on Sundays.
10. How often you visit your relatives in Vienna?
11. It is rarely raining in Kuwait.
12. What does this sign means?
13. Excuse me, what time is Flight 757 from Warsaw arrive?
14. The moon is turn round the earth every 28 days.
15. Luckily I’m having a friend who speaks Spanish.

Ex.18. Translate into English.

1. Фіоно, це твій брат на світлині?
2. Так, це Семен, а це його партнери; спеціалісти з Німеччини.
3. Семен – бізнесмен. Він часто їздить у відрядження до Німеччини.
4. Він розмовляє німецькою? – Так, досить гарно.
5. Семен читає книги в оригіналі, іноді він дивиться фільми німецькою.
6. Хелен, а ти володієш якою-небудь іноземною мовою? – Так, розмовляю іспанською,
тільки трохи.
7. У вас є уроки іспанської в університеті?
8. Так, двічі на тиждень. Крім того, по понеділках і четвергах я ходжу на курси
іспанської (take a Spanish course).
9. Я теж хочу вивчати іспанську.
10. Чому б тобі не приєднатися до мене і не розпочати навчання на курсах?

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Ex.19. Add –ing to the verbs. Make spelling changes where necessary.
A.
hope – hoping hop – hopping
give – sit –
argue – plan –

25
 use – swim –
change – rub –
note – put –

B.
refer – referring
begin –
control –
omit –
upset –
but:
open -

C.
copy – copying tie – tying
study – lie –
fly - die -
employ –
buy –

Ex.20. Add –ing to the verbs in these sentences.

1. Where are you _________ ? (go)
2. I’m _________ to catch a taxi. (try)
3. He is _________ of thirst. (die)
4. I’m coming. I’m just _________ on my shoes. (put)
5. Nellie is _________ the contract at the moment. (copy)
6. He is _________ the process. (control)
7. I can’t believe a word. You’re always _________ (lie).
8. Why are you _________ important details? (omit)
9. Listen to him! He is _________ sense. (talk)
10. We _________ to make some renovation in the house next year. (plan)

Ex.21. Read the following sentences and match them with a, b, с, d, e. Explain the use of
the Present Continuous in every case. Translate the sentences.
a - actions taking place now, at the moment of speaking;
b - temporary actions or situations happening around now;
c - actions which happen too often and we want to express our annoyance or criticism;
d. - actions which we have planned and arranged to do in the near future;
e. - changing or developing situations

1. Don’t rush me. I’m doing it as fast as I can.

2. We are moving into our new flat next Friday.
3. This actor.... I’m always forgetting his name.
4. Why are you packing the suitcase? – I’m helping Paul. He’s flying to Paris tomorrow
morning.
5. Nowadays, it seems everything is changing in the world. Even the climate is getting warmer.
6. Steve is still in the office. He is working so hard these days.
7. What time are your parents arriving? – At 9.30.
8. You are never happy. You are always complaining about something.
9. Catherine, I hear you are looking for a new job, aren’t you?
10. The economic situation in the country is bad and it is getting worse and worse.
11. We are attending a seminar on Wednesday.

26
Ex.22. Read the following description of one morning in the life of Gregory and the way he
is getting to work. Choose the correct tense form to complete the sentences.
1. It is 8 o’clock in the morning. Gregory drives/is driving to the furniture factory.
2. His trip usually takes/is taking 25 minutes. This morning it takes/is taking much longer,
because workers repair/are repairing the highway.
3. So Gregory has to use Larson Road. He usually does not use/is not using Larson Road.
4. Normally, he takes/is taking M 25.
5. Traffic always moves/is moving faster on this road.
6. Today, the weather slows down/is slowing down the traffic.
7. It rains/is raining heavily, and the roads are slippery.
8. Gregory doesn’t like/is not liking to drive in the rain.
9. He is a careful driver, and he always drives/is driving slowly when the roads are wet.
10. The radio in his car is on, and Gregory listens/is listening to the traffic report.
11. He always listens/is listening to the radio on his way to work.
12. The announcer describes/is describing an accident on Larson Road.
13. Gregory doesn’t want/is not wanting to be late for work, but there is nothing he can do about
the traffic conditions.
14. Cars actually don’t move/are not moving, and he gets/is getting more and more nervous.
15. He understands/is understanding that it isn’t the best idea to drive to work while the main
road is under repair.

Ex.23. Match two parts of the sentences in the box to make up logical sentences describing
people’s criticism, annoyance or surprise.
BEGINNING
1. You are always interrupting me
2. Boys at school are always bullying Sherry
because of
3. My wife is always nagging me
4. Alan’s mom is always criticizing
5. It’s so strange. I’m always meeting
6. Mary says she wants to lose weight, but she
is always eating
7. I don’t want to invite Helen. She is always
flirting
8. Why are you always finding
9. You’re always asking me
ENDING
a) fault with whatever I do?
b) to buy her a red Ferrari.
c) her red curly hair. She refuses to go to
school.
d) Alice Marshal in the supermarket.
e) when I’m talking.
f) with my brother. His wife doesn’t like it.
g) silly questions.
h) something between having meals.
i) me and the way we live.

Ex.24. In these dialogues, finish the replies using the construction ‘be always + –ing’.
Model: - I’m afraid I’ve lost my glasses again.
- Oh no, not again! You’re always losing your glasses, Granny.

1. - Phil, have you paid the phone bill?

- Sorry, Sue, I’ve completely forgotten.
- You ________________________________________________.

2. - Look, Nick! You’ve made the same mistake again.

- My god! I ____________________________________________.

3. - Lucy, we can’t go to Bristol today. Our car has broken down again.

27
 - This car is absolutely useless! It ___________________________.

4. - Why are you laughing at our new manager?

- Because he ______________________________ (forget my name).

5. - I’ve no patience with Betty.

- Why?
- Because she __________________________ (talk only about herself).

6. - And I have no patience with Nick.

- You? Why?
- Because he ______________ (boast of his great sporting achievements).

7. - Pete, the teacher is angry with you.

- Is she really? Why?
- Because you _____________________ (cheat in tests).

8. - Lucy, stop nagging!

- It’s so annoying! You ______________(grumble at me).

9.- I’m going to sell my laptop.

- Are you really? Why?
- Because something _______________ (go wrong with it).

Ex.25. Make up dialogues using the words and expressions in the box. Refer to the first
dialogue as a pattern.
DVD get on my nerves
fridge get out of order
record player make a strange noise
mobile phone let me down

1. - I’m going to sell my car.

- Are you really? Why? It isn’t old.
- Because something’s always going wrong with it.
- In that case you’d better get rid of it.
2. - I’m going to sell my notebook.
- ______________________________
- Because it’s always ______________
- _______________________________
3 - I’m going to sell my ______________
- Are you really? Why?
- _______________________________
- _______________________________
4. - I’m going ______________________
- ________________________________
- ________________________________
- ________________________________
5. - I’m _____________________________

Ex.26. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. Look! They try to open the door of your car.
28
2. We are needing an answer from you before Thursday.
3. The taxi is arriving in 15 minutes.
4. Excuse me, what platform is the London train leaving?
5. It’s getting hotter and hotter these days.
6. I’m not believing a word he’s saying.
7. I think about buying a new car soon. - Why? I am thinking your car is fine. You don’t need a
new one.
8. Why are you smell the fish? - I think it is smelling a bit strange.
9. Nellie can’t come to the phone, she has a shower now.
10. I can’t find the TV programme. Rebecca, when is this film starting?
11. The technician mends the photocopier so you can’t use it right now.
12. I’m studying a lot now because we having exams next week.
13. She always leaving her computer on.
14. I make coffee. Would you like some?
15. Attention! Flight BA 125 to Stockholm is boarding now. All passengers please go to Gate
20.

Ex.27. Translate into English.

1. Я знаю, ви переїжджаєте до нового офісу днями.
2. Я телефоную, щоб дізнатися вашу нову адресу.
3. Завтра я зустрічаюсь з менеджером. Я думаю обговорити з ним це питання.
4. Здається, у них зараз проблеми з замовленнями.
5. Заспокойтесь (calm down), Шері. Ти завжди панікуєш.
6. Поки ми всі дивимось телевізор, Ганна готує вечерю. Люсі, давай допоможемо їй.
7. Правда, що Чарльз і Мелані одружуються наступного тижня?
8. До речі, ти йдеш на вечірку до Метью у цю суботу?
9. Ні, не йду. Я не хочу зіткнутися (bump into) там зі своїм попереднім бой-френдом.
10. Усе міняється у наші дні. Все більше людей кидають села і перебираються до міст.
Міста ростуть. Населення збільшується.
11. Так, часи змінюються, і ми змінюємося з часом.
12. Тільки не наш Роберт. Мій молодший брат як і раніше позичає у мене гроші і не хоче
повертати. Так, Роббі, ти завжди забуваєш свої борги.

THE PRESENT SIMPLE versus THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Ex.28. Open the brackets, putting the verbs into the correct form, the Present Continuous
or the Present Simple. Compare the sentences, try to elicit the difference.
1. Why _____ you _________ (not/listen) to me? – I _________ (listen) to you very attentively.
I always (listen) to you attentively.
2. Why _____ you _________ (yawn)? – I _________ (yawn) because I’m very tired and it is
already late. I always _________ (yawn) when I’m tired.
3. Do I like our new flat? Sure. It is large and light and it _________ (have) a balcony facing
the sea. We ________(have) a party this Sunday. Can you come?
4. Look! Vivien _________ (wear) the same shoes like me.
5. Why ____ you never _______ (wear) your red jacket? It is so stylish.
6. Look! It _________ (snow). - Oh, how beautiful! This is the first time I’ve seen snow. It
_________ (not snow) in my country.
7. Mark Brown is a computer consultant. He _________ (work) for a firm which is based in
Geneva but he _________ (work) in Bradford these days. He _________ (set up) a new
quality control system at the moment.
8. You know, I _________ (leave) for Warsaw tonight. Му train ________ (leave) at 8 p.m.
9. The river Danube _________ (cut) Budapest in two.

29
10. Have a smoke, Vic. – No, thank you. I _________ (cut down) on cigarettes. At least, I’m
trying to.

Ex.29. Match the questions and answers.

1. What language do they speak?
2. What language are they speaking?
3. What does he do?
4. What is he doing?
5. Does your daughter play the piano?
6. Is your daughter playing the piano?
7. Who drinks champagne?
8. Who is drinking champagne?
9. Where do you work?
10. Where are you working this week?
a. Me, on special occasions.
b. Me. Only a little, please.
c. Yes, she does.
d. They mostly speak English. Though his wife
Margo is from France, she fluently speaks
English.
e. Actually, that’s her CD.
f. He’s a student.
g. I’m at the exhibition “Tourism” this week.
h. I’m not sure. It sounds like Spanish.
i. I guess he wants to get the car started.
j. In a big travel agency.

Ex.30. Fill in the gaps with the verbs in brackets. Be careful in choosing the tense form: the
words have different meaning when used in the Present Simple or Present Continuous.
1. - Shall we go shopping?
- Oh no, Nora, I can’t. I am seeing my boyfriend tonight. (to see)
2. Can I call you later? We ___________________ lunch right now. (to have)
3. - I see you ______________ the fish, Clare. (to smell)
- It _____________ a bit strange. I’m afraid it might have gone off. (to smell)
4. I _______________ we should postpone the decision until Friday. (to think)
5. - How much _______this chicken _______? (to weigh)
- I don’t know. The shop assistant ____________it now. (to weigh)
6. - I like this suit. It ____________ you like a glove. (to fit)
- Shall we take it?
7. Thank you for the flowers. The roses are lovely and they __________ so nice. (to smell)
8. We ________________ at the photos of you in the Vatican. (to look)
9. - The meat ____________ awful. (to taste)
- I think I overcooked it.
10. I ___________ what you mean. (to see) It’s a good idea!
11. You _____________ fabulous in this dress. (to look)
12. We _____________ a new kitchen next week. (to fit)
13. I ________________ about Richard’s comment. (to think) Maybe he is right.
14. - Why ________ you ________ the baby’s drink? (to taste)
- I ______________ it to see if it is OK.
15. Why don’t we go for our summer holiday to my relatives in Palermo? They _________ a
very good villa by the sea. (to have)

Ex.31. Translate into English.

1. Кожний школяр знає, що вода кипить при 100ºС.
2. Чайник кипить. Виключи, будь ласка.
3. Бабуся, що ти печеш (bake)? Пахне дуже смачно.
4. Наша бабуся завжди щось пече у неділю.
5. Що ти тут робиш, Бетті? – Куштую бабусин пиріг. Смачно!
6. Знаєш, Джон і Мері шукають нову квартиру. Вони бажають орендувати більшу
квартиру.
7. У наш час все дуже змінюється. Усе більше і більше людей подорожують і бувають у
різних містах і країнах.

30
8. Так, і ціни зростають. А ти, між іншим витрачаєш багато грошей на свої креми і різні
дрібнички. (knick-knacks)
9. Нік, ти вічно буркотиш з приводу грошей. (grumble about)
10. До речі, ти завтра вранці летиш до Ліона, чи не так? О котрій ти виїжджаєш з дому? –
Мій рейс о 9-ій. Я маю бути там до 7-ої години.

31
 Unit 2. FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

TEXT A: Factors of production

TEXT B: Entrepreneurship
TEXT C: Factors of production for an innovation economy
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: In the office
GRAMMAR: Present Tenses. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Tenses

“The supply-side claim is not a claim. It is empirically true and historically

convincing that with lower rates of taxation on labor and capital, the factors of
production, you'll get a bigger economy.”
Jack Kemp(1935 –2009),an American politician, a
collegiate and professional football player

LEAD-IN
1. Would you like to own your own business? Why or why not?
2. Would you prefer to buy an existing business or start one yourself?
3. What product or service would you provide?
4. Where would you want to locate the business and for what reason?
5. How would you recruit employees?

PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills
Ex.1. Practice reading the following words.
y/i [aɪ] rye, fly, sky, dry, try, ply, dye, by-product, type, byte, cycle; lifestyle, item, size, dive,
sizable
[aɪ] falsify, intensify, notify, signify, specify
[ɪ] myth, symbol, system, syndicate, Sydney
[ɪ] security, property, economically, secondary, duty, baby, lady, study, noisy, lobby, pony,
sorry, lorry, sym'phonic
[aiə] tyre, tire, hire, fire
y [j] yes, yet, you, yell, yelp, yield, youthful, yard, yawn
u [ju:] use, mule, tune, due, suit

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u [ʌ] but, must, run, sun, up
u [u:] rule, true, fruit, blue, flu
[ɔ] – [ʌ] not – nut, boss – bus, dock – duck, lock – luck, sock - suck

Rhyme, single, rhythm, rivalry, yawn, risky, syllable, sight, historically, multiply, mind, pretty,
think, nymph, yesterday, child, pyjamas, memory, kind, wish, analytic, behind, picture, category,
yucca, desire, light, exactly, king, candy, miner, syndicate, typist, hymn, rice, myself, risk,
pyramid, nylon, mineral, line, hydrant.

Ex.2. Read the words in the groups below. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
access, acre, actual, balance, benefit, broker, capital, dwelling, enterprise, forecast, hectare,
tangible, labour, luxury, maintenance, management, owner, ownership, parking, property,
suburbs, quality, quantity, scarce, scarcity, service, urban, utilize;
b) words with the stress on the second syllable:
accumulate, accomplishment, consumer, commodity, delivery, environment, estate, inherit,
inheritance, intangible, location, necessity, securities, utility;
c) polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:
acquisition, competition, exploitation, externalities, information,entrepreneur, entrepreneurial,
entrepreneurship, privatization, profitability, relocate, substitution, telecommunication,
termination, urbanization,undercapitalization, utilization.

Ex.3. Read the following two-syllable words in the box. Pay special attention to the word
stress - it is different for noun and verb.
Verb Noun
conduct conduct
discount discount
object object
permit permit
produce produce
reject reject
subject subject
transpor transport
t

Now, read and translate the sentences with some of the words from Ex.3.
1. Ethical conduct is a particular concern among more vulnerable service users.
2. We are conducting a survey of consumer attitudes towards organic food.
3. Employees can buy books at a discount.
4. Games were discounted to as little as $5.
5. My object was to explain the decision simply.
6. Robson strongly objected to the terms of the contract.
7. Dogs are not permitted inside the shop.
8. Hikers need a camping permit for overnight stays in the park.
9. The factory produces an incredible 100 cars per hour.
10. We sell tinned goods and fresh produce in our shop.
11. These two plates are factory rejects because they’re slightly cracked in the middle.
12. The agency sent five possible candidates for the job and we rejected two.
13. Genetic engineering is very much a subject for debate.
14. He didn’t want to subject his child to the long journey.
15. The pipeline was constructed to transport oil across Alaska to parts on the coast.

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B. Word-formation
Ex.4. Using the endings -er, -or, -ian, -ee, -ant and -ist, change each of the following words
into a noun referring to people.
Model: law +-er → lawyer; audit + -or → auditor.
Technical, employ, consult, scientific, drive, program, propriety, music, train, act, art, bake, bike,
carry, correspond, dental, football, govern, humour, instruct, jog.

Ex.5. Complete each sentence with a noun that refers to the type of person described.
1. He works at the reception desk so he is a __________ .
2. To do this work an employer had to hire a new __________ .
3. She wants to work for the legal department so she is a __________ .
4. As an __________ he audits the company’s accounts.
5. She plays the violin perfectly so she is a __________ .
6. He studied electricity and became an __________ .
7. She works for a very popular newspaper so she is a __________ .
8. He reports on sport events for the ICTV so he is a __________ .
9. Over 100 people applied for the job; we didn’t expect so many __________ .
10. I’ve got bad toothache; I need to go to the __________ .

Ex.6. Make up nouns from the verbs and adjectives given.

Verb → Noun: accept, promote, enter, initiate, occur, protect, store, waste, refer, recruit.
Adjective → Noun: effective, free, reliable, social, real, aware, liable, important, competitive,
industrial.

TEXT A: FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

Active Vocabulary
Key terms: factors of production, (permanent/recyclable) land, labour, (human) capital,
workforce, information, goods and services, natural resources, satisfaction, value, human capital,
labour supply, human resource, human efforts, revenue, wage, salary, demand (for), activities,
facilities, utility, enterprise, productive output, contribution.
Other words and expressions: available to, reusable, fixed, irreproducible, expansible,
compressible, substitutional, transportable, to consume smth, diffusive, shareable, to derive from,
contribution of smth, to depend on, decision-makers, to be extended into, endangered species, to
protect from, to depreciate from time and use, to be in perpetuity, to be applied to smth.
Linking words and phrases: that is, in fact, such as, as well as, in contrast, whenever, however,
either … or, thus, ultimately, in turn, not only … but also.

Choices concerning what goods and services to produce are choices about an economy’s
use of its factors of production, the resources available to it for the production of goods and
services. The value, or satisfaction, that people derive from the goods and services they consume
and the activities they pursue are called utility. Ultimately, then, economy’s factors of production
create utility; they serve the interests of people.
The factors of production in an economy are its labour, capital, enterprise and natural
resources. Labour is the human effort that can be applied to the production of goods and
services. People who are employed or would like to be are considered part of the labour available
to the economy. Capital is a factor of production that has been produced for use in the
production of other goods and services. Office buildings, machinery, and tools are examples of
capital. Enterprise means the activities of profit-seeking decision makers who determine which
economic activities to undertake and how they should be implemented. Natural resources are
the resources of nature that can be used for the production of goods and services.

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 The fifth factor -information– is sometimes included as a factor of production in modern
economics.
Natural resources – land and mineral deposits
The factor of production land comprises not only the actual land on which the firm has
its factory or offices but also all the natural resources, such as the minerals, raw materials,
vegetation and wildlife that can be extracted from it.
Land is not produced, it was created. It is the world, the planet from which man evolved,
with the sun that energizes it and the orbit that tempers it. Mankind did not create the Earth with
its space and resources, nor can we add to them. We can only acquire them, often by fighting, or
rent-seeking, or in other counterproductive ways. Man at best improves and develops capacities
inherent in the free gift.
"Land" in economics means all natural resources and agents, with their sites (locations
and extensions in space).
Economic land excludes many things, too. It excludes land-fill, for example, by which
many cities are extended into shallow waters. The site and seabed are properly land; the land-fill
is an improvement. There is no "made land" in the economic sense: it is reallocated from other
uses. Expanding cities take farmland from producing food and fibre, much of it for the
expanding city itself. Filled land in shallow water near cities is taken away from anglers and
sailors and viewers and ecologists, who now organize to save it from being "made" away with.
Drained and filled wetlands are taken away from endangered species, as well as from their
primal role as filters protecting coastal waters from river trash and pollutants.
Land as site is permanent and recyclable. Land as "site" (location plus extension) does
not normally wear out, depreciate, spoil, obsolesce, nor gets used up by human activities incident
to occupancy and production. In contrast, capital depreciates from time and use. After being
formed, it must be conserved from entropy by continual maintenance, repair, remodelling,
safeguarding against theft and fire, and so on. Land normally does not depreciate as a function of
time. Most attributes of land also withstand use and abuse. Population, capital, and demands all
grow while land remains fixed.
Land is reusable. All the land we have is second-hand, most of it previously-owned. Our
descendants, in turn, will have nothing but our hand-me-downs. As there is never any new
supply, the old is recycled periodically, and will be in perpetuity, without changing form or
location.
Land supply is fixed. Being both irreproducible and permanent, land remains fixed. Both
the overall quantity and the special qualities of specific lands remain fixed.
Human resources – labour
In order to produce the things we desire, a human resource must be used. That human
resource consists of the productive contributions of labour made by individuals who work. The
contribution of labour to the production process can be increased. Whenever potential workers
obtain schooling and training and whenever actual workers obtain new skills, labour’s
contribution to productive output will increase.
The terms “labour” and “human resources” have essentially the same meaning in this
context and are often used synonymously. These terms refer to the productive abilities of people.
Labour, or human resources, is also limited. There are only so many people at any given time.
However the skills, knowledge and talents of people can be improved or made more productive
through education and training.
Labour is human effort that can be applied to production. People who work to repair
tires, pilot airplanes, teach children, or enforce laws are all part of the economy’s labour. People
who would like to work but have not found employment (unemployed) are also considered part
of the labour available to the economy.
In some contexts, it is useful to distinguish two forms of labour. The first is the human
equivalent of a natural resource. It is the natural ability an untrained, uneducated person brings to
a particular production process. But most workers bring far more. The skills a worker has as a

35
result of education, training, or experience that can be used in production are called human
capital. Students who are attending a college or university are acquiring human capital. Workers
who are gaining skills through experience or through training are acquiring human capital.
Children who are learning to read are acquiring human capital.
The amount of labour available to an economy can be increased in two ways. One is to
increase the total quantity of labour, either by increasing the number of people available to work
or by increasing the average number of hours of work per week. The other is to increase the
amount of human capital possessed by workers.
Labour is a meaningful activity with the aim to create goods and services. Labour does
not exist itself; the bearer of labour is the man. Revenue for labour is wage.
Demand for labour depends on wages, other resources of production, amount of capital,
used technology. Demand for labour also depends on marginal product of labour and marginal
revenue product of labour. Marginal revenue product of labour is wage. If the labour force
increases, wages decrease.
Labour supply depends on: wage in comparison to social benefits; population; a part of
population which forms labour force (both the employees and unemployed); average number of
working hours a year (number of working days/daily working hours); quality and quantity of
work.
Labour is the workforce of an economy and it is important to analyse labour in two
ways:
1. The quantity of labour – obviously the numbers of workers (16-60/65 –population of
working age) is finite. A low activity rate could indicate a high level of unemployment and/or
high number of students / housewives / early retired.
Many developed countries, including the UK, are suffering from falling birth rates and
therefore there are fewer people joining the workforce. There are options open to the government
for solving this problem such as a raising the retirement age or raising immigration.
2. The quality of labour – note that some workers are more productive than others. If
workers receive more or better training they will be capable of producing more goods and
services and this will raise an economy’s labour productivity (output per worker). The value of a
worker is called human capital.
Also, it is worth noting that labour can be geographically and occupationally immobile.
Geographically people can be unwilling to move area (e.g. family /friends' ties, schools for
children, house prices and cost of living) and people are often unwilling to change jobs due to
the retraining involved.
From a certain point wages are so high that some people value more free time than higher
wage.
Unemployment is measured by unemployment rate and is given in %.
Forms of wages:
Hourly rate is a reward for certain time of hour.
Piece rate is derived from the performance standards - how many pieces on average are
made per hour.
Nominal wage is the amount of money we get as a wage.
Real wage is the amount of goods and services which we can buy for the nominal wage.
It depends on: the level of nominal wage; the level of prices of goods and services; taxation.
Information as a factor of production
As a factor of production, information is unlike any of the other factors in many
important aspects. These differences cause the need for decision-makers to re-evaluate the way
in which productive factors are combined to produce goods and services. Information is
expansible, compressible, substitutional, transportable, diffusive, and shareable.
Information is Expansible. Most information tends to expand with use. Thus, as
information is used — even more is generated. The only limits on the use of information would
be the capacity of users to analyze, store and retrieve it. The non-scarce nature of information

36
must bring about a rethinking of the calculus of utility maximization or cost minimization.
Information is Compressible. It is possible to concentrate, integrate, or summarize vast
amounts of information for easier handling. Through the selection and compression of
information into knowledge and wisdom, some of it is necessarily lost.
Information is Substitutional. The evolution of mental processes which leads managers
to think of information as a factor of production must also cause them to grasp the idea that
information can be substituted for land, labour, capital, entrepreneurial ability and management.
When other resources are used more efficiently (i.e. less of the resource is used due to the use of
new information), the net result is a substitution of information for the more efficiently used
resource in the productive process.
Information is Transportable. Using telecommunications technology, information can
be transported at the speed of light! Thus, it provides a lightning response time for decisions.
While some cost is involved in the "transportation" of information, its speed and lack of physical
bulk should keep this cost relatively low.
Information is Diffusive. Information tends to leak. Because information lends itself to
diffusion; secrecy, property rights, and confidentiality, are called into question. Yet, because
information is easily "transported," potentially authorized users can have ready access to it. At
the same time, processes can be established to deny, or limit, its pilferage. That is, ways should
be found to secure it in much the same manner as the other factors of production without overly
restricting the legitimate "transportation" of information.
Information is Shareable. That is, I may give information to you without losing it
myself. If information is shared — we both have it! My stock is not diminished because yours is
increased. In fact, the same information can be sold or exchanged again.

Language notes:
endangered species – зникаючі види
output – обсягвиробництва, готовапродукція, виробництво
marginal product of labour – граничний продукт праці
piece rate – відрядна розцінка, розцінка від виробітку
the salient characteristics - основні характеристики
ready access – вільний доступ
pilferage – розкрадання
overly restrict – надмірно обмежувати

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Товари та послуги; служити інтересам людей; робоча сила, наявна в народному
господарстві країни; осушені і засипані водно-болотні угіддя; загальна кількість та
особливі якості; не змінюючи форму чи місце розташування; капітал зношується з часом;
внесок працівників у процес виробництва; потенційні працівники отримують освіту та
практику; носієм робочої сили є людина; збільшення середньої кількості робочого часу за
тиждень; граничний продукт у грошовій формі; середня кількість робочих годин на рік;
спад рівня народжуваності;вирішення проблеми; виробіток на одного працівника;
погодинна оплата; здатність користувачів аналізувати; мінімізація витрат; підприємницькі
здібності; більш ефективно використаний ресурс; вартість передачі інформації; право
власності; запас інформації не зменшується.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and phrases.

Factors of production; an economy’s factors of production create utility; the human effort that
can be applied to; raw materials, vegetation and wildlife; the expanding city; capital depreciates
from time and use; productive contributions of labour; actual workers obtain new skills; the aim

37
to create goods and services; to increase the number of people available to work; revenue for
labour; marginal product of labour; the employees and unemployed; а low activity rate; to join
the workforce; to raise the retirement age; an economy’s labour productivity; unemployment
rate; the level of nominal wage; to expand with use; the calculus of utility maximization; vast
amounts of information; selection and compression of information; other resources are used
more efficiently; at the speed of light.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these verbs in the
text.
Can, be, have, undertake, do, mean, make, take, wear, get, grow, find, bring, learn, read, fall,
rise, raise, lose, lead, think, cost, keep, leak, lend, give, sell.

Ex.4. Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
1 factor of A the worth of something in terms of money or other goods for which it
production can be exchanged
2 Land B pay, usually of nonmanual workers, often expressed in annual terms
3 Labour C the total satisfaction derived from the consumption of goods and
services
4 Capital D an input such as land or any natural resources, labour, capital, and
entrepreneurship, combined in the production process to produce
goods and services in an economy
5 Information E payment for the work done
6 Goods F equipment for doing something
7 Services G a business firm
8 Resources H accumulated wealth, especially as used in further production
9 salary I the human effort required to produce goods and services
10 Value J tangible commodities or merchandise
11 Wage K quantity of goods and services produced or provided by a business
organization or economy
12 Facilities L stock that can be drawn on
13 Utility m the factor of production which comprises not just land itself but all
natural resources. (Shoals of fish, natural forests, the atmosphere,
and rivers).
14 Enterprise N what is told, knowledge
15 Output O tangible commodity or merchandise

Ex.5. Make up verb+noun collocations (there may be several variants).

to produce Activities
to derive from the interests
to pursue food
to serve resources
to undertake goods and services
to acquire new skills
to obtain laws
to improve quantity of labour
to enforce knowledge
to increase human capital

Ex.6. Choose an appropriate word or phrase to complete the following sentences.

38
Capital stock, factor of production, human capital, human effort, labour, land, physical and
mental, production process, resources, wages.

1. 'Factors of production' may also refer specifically to the primary factors, which are stocks
including land, __________ (the ability to work), and capital goods applied to production.
2. The primary factors facilitate production but neither become part of the product (as with raw
materials) nor become significantly transformed by the __________ (as with fuel used to
power machinery).
3. 'Land' includes not only the site of production but natural __________ above or below the
soil.
4. Recent usage has distinguished __________ (the stock of knowledge in the labour force) from
labour.
5. Entrepreneurship is also sometimes considered a __________ .
6. Labour is __________ used in production which also includes technical and marketing
expertise.
7. The payment for someone else's labour and all income received from one’s own labour
is__________ .
8. Labour can also be classified as the __________ contribution of an employee to the
production of the good(s).
9. Money, however, was not considered to be a factor of production in the sense of __________
since it is not used to directly produce any good.
10. Land is often referred to as "capital", in the sense that one can buy __________ and use it as
a "capital investment".

Ex.7. Fill in the gaps with appropriate prepositions or adverbs.

1. The factors _____ production _____ an economy are its labour, capital, enterprise and
natural resources.
2. Capital is a factor _____ production that has been produced _____ use _____ the production
_____ other goods and services.
3. Human resource consists _____ the productive contributions _____ labour made _____
individuals who work.
4. Land _____ economics means all natural resources and agents_____their sites.
5. Many developed countries are suffering _____ falling birth rates and therefore there are
fewer people joining the workforce.
6. _____ a certain point wages are so high that some people value _____ free time than higher
wage.
7. Real wage is amount _____ goods and services which we can buy _____ the nominal wage.
8. The non-scarce nature _____ information must bring _____ a rethinking _____ the calculus
_____ utility maximization or cost minimization.
9. _____ the selection and compression _____ information _____ knowledge and wisdom,
some _____ it is necessarily lost.
10. Choices concerning what goods and services to produce are choices _____ an economy’s
use _____ its factors _____ production, the resources available _____ it _____ the
production _____ goods and services.

Ex.8. Combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.

1 In economics, factors of production (or a water, air, soil, minerals, flora and fauna
productive inputs or resources) are that are used in the creation of products.
2 Land or natural resource – naturally b in the production of other goods.
occurring goods such as
3 Labour is human effort used in production c any commodities or services used to
which also produce goods and services.

39
4 The capital stock – human-made goods (or d future structures, buy machines and pay
means of production) which are used wages.
5 Acquired skills (as opposed to "know-how," e buildings, machinery, tools and other
an attribute of society rather than productive resources used in the process
individuals) have come to be of creating goods and services.
6 Capital is money needed to build f includes technical and marketing
expertise.
7 Physical capital are things that have already g production together to make a good or
been produced and service.
8 Financial capital refers to money that h information, but also “knowledge,
business people use to buy collaboration, process-engagement, and
time quality”.
9 An entrepreneur is someone who puts all the i viewed as analogous to physical
factors of equipment, capable of yielding their
owners a return.
1 The general opinion seems to be that the j then are used in production of other
0 “new factor of production” is “intellectual goods and services.
capital”, an umbrella term that includes

Ex.9. Look through the text again and replace the words/phrases in italics with similar
ones.
1. Finally, economy’s factors of production create utility; they serve the interests of people.
2. Drained and filled wetlands are taken away from endangered species, and in addition, from
their primal role as filters protecting coastal waters from river trash and pollutants.
3. Whenever potential workers obtain schooling and training and whenever actual workers
obtain new skills, labour’s contribution to productive output will rise.
4. Although the skills, knowledge and talents of people can be improved or made more
productive through education and training.
5. If the labour force increases, wages fall.
6. A low activity rate could show a high level of unemployment and/or high number of students
/ housewives / early retired.
7. Therefore, as information is used — even more is generated.
8. Because of the selection and compression of information into knowledge and wisdom, some
of it is necessarily lost.

Ex.10. Translate into English

1. Фактори виробництва — це ресурси, необхідні для виробництватоварів або послуг.
2. Класичними факторами виробництва є робоча сила (всі розумові та фізичні здібності
людей), земля (природні багатства), капітал (вже існуючі/вироблені засоби
виробництва, а також фінансовий капітал).
3. Четвертим фактором виробництва вважається підприємливість, яка об'єднує
попередні три фактори.
4. Інформація може бути включена як п’ятий фактор виробництва.
5. Підприємницькі здібності – це особливий вид людського капіталу, який передбачає
використання ініціативи, винахідливості та ризику в організації виробництва.
6. Підприємництво – це діяльність по координації та комбінуванню всіх інших факторів
виробництва з метою створення благ та послуг.
7. Природні ресурси — це все те, що людина бере з природи і за допомогою своєї праці
перетворює на продукт задоволення власних потреб.
8. Земля – це природно-сировинні ресурси, а також повітря, клімат, вода, ґрунти, тобто
все те, що дає природа в розпорядження людини і використовується у виробництві
товарів і послуг.

40
9. Робоча сила є особистим фактором виробництва і головною творчою продуктивною
силою суспільства.
10. Робоча сила - це здатність людини до праці, результатом якої є продукт або благо.
11. Первинними факторами виробництва були земля і праця.
12. Капітал як фактор виробництва - це майно (засоби виробництва), що належать
підприємцям або іншим власникам і використовуються в процесі створення товарів і
послуг.
13. Особливістю капіталу є те, що він має бути кимось накопичений, створений.
14. Капітал існує лише у продуктивному використанні, саме тоді, коли його власниками
одержуються доходи від користування та володіння своїм майном.
15. Обмеженнями використання інформації є здатність користувачів аналізувати,
зберігати та відтворювати її.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Ex.11. Ask questions to which the following sentences may be answers.

1. The choices about an economy’s use of its factors of production, the resources available to it
for the production of goods and services.
2. The value, or satisfaction, that people derive from the goods and services they consume and
the activities they pursue.
3. Labour, capital, enterprise and natural resources.
4. The human effort that can be applied to the production of goods and services.
5. People who are employed or would like to be.
6. A factor of production that has been produced for use in the production of other goods and
services.
7. Office buildings, machinery, and tools.
8. The activities of profit-seeking decision makers who determine which economic activities to
undertake and how they should be implemented.
9. The resources of nature that can be used for the production of goods and services.
10. It means all natural resources and agents, with their sites (locations and extensions in space).
11. The capacity of users to analyze, store and retrieve information.
12. Through the selection and compression of information into knowledge and wisdom.

Ex.12. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the choices concerning what goods and services to produce?
2. What does the term “utility” mean?
3. What are the factors of production in an economy?
4. What can be applied to the production of goods and services?
5. What does capital represent?
6. What are natural resources?
7. What does the factor of production land comprise?
8. What does economic land exclude?
9. Why is land supply fixed?
10. In what case will labour’s contribution to productive output increase?
11. What forms of labour are there?
12. What does demand for labour depend on?
13. What is the quantity of labour?
14. What forms of wages are there?
15. What are the salient characteristics of information?

41
Ex.13. From your local paper collect advertisements or articles for each of the factors of
production. Labour should be easy - job vacancy adverts. But the others will be slightly
more difficult.

Ex.14. Make a presentation of the topic “Factors of production”.

WRITING

Ex.15. Write a plan of your summary based on Text A.

Ex.16. Using your plan as a base, write a brief summary (25-30 sentences) of the text.

Ex.17. Write an essay (100 – 150 words) about:

- the importance of factors of production in an economy.

DISCUSSION POINTS

Ex.18. Discuss the following.

1. How many factors of production are there in an economy? Briefly define each factor of
production.
2. Why are the factors interdependent? Explain.
3. What is capital? What is wealth? Give examples.
4. Why is land considered a passive factor of production?
5. How do capital and labour differ from land?
6. How has the workforce changed in Ukraine for the last 25 years?
7. What factors have contributed to those changes?
8. How have those changes affect your life and culture?
9. Why is it important to understand how terms are used in different contexts?

Ex.19. Consider the factors of production that went into the making of one sheet of
notebook paper. Name some of them.
Example: Suppose you go to the supermarket and buy a box of corn flakes. Each of factors of
production went into the making of this cereal. For example, some of the things used in the
production and distribution of the corn flakes are: box-making machinery, fertilizer, a storage
warehouse, prairie or farmland, farm machinery, delivery truck and driver, wholesale
middleman, retail grocery store, store clerk, etc.

Ex.20. Look through product advertisements in magazines, on the internet, in newspapers,

or elsewhere. Choose any two products to investigate.
Cut out the advertisement or draw a picture of each product. Design a chart titled “Factors of
Production.” D o this for each product. List all of the resources (land, labour, capital, producer)
utilized to create the product. Then, label each resource on your list as land, labour, capital, or
business (producer / enterprise).

TEXT B: ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Ex.21. Scan the text below and give headlines to each paragraph.
Land, labour, capital, and entrepreneurship: (0) ____________ . Of course, in a literal
sense anything contributing to the productive process is a factor of production. However,
economists seek to classify all inputs into a few broad categories, so standard usage refers to the
categories themselves as factors. (1)____________ Entrepreneurship is a fairly recent addition.

42
 The factor concept is used to construct models illustrating general features of the
economic process without getting caught up in inessential details. These include models
purporting to explain growth, value, choice of production method, income distribution, and
social classes. A major conceptual application is in the theory of production functions. One
intuitive basis for the classification of the factors of production is the manner of payment for
their services: rent for land, wages for labour, interest for capital, and profit for entrepreneurship.
This category sometimes extends over all natural resources. It is intended to represent the
contribution to production of nonhuman resources as found in their original, unimproved form.
For the French physiocrats led by Francois Quesnay in the 1750s and 1760s, land was the only
factor yielding a reliable gain to its owner. In their view, labourers and artisans were powerless
and in excess supply, and hence they earned on average only a subsistence-level income; and in
the same way what they produced outside of agriculture fetched enough to cover only their
wages and input costs with no margin for profit. Only in agriculture, due to soil fertility and
other "gifts of nature," could a labourer palpably produce more than required to cover
subsistence and other costs, so only in agriculture could proprietors collect surplus.
(2)____________ . They recommended taxes on land as the only sound way to raise revenue and
land-grabbing as the best means to increase the government's revenue base.
In 1821 David Ricardo, in The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, stated what
came to be known as the classical view: that rent reflects scarcity of good land. The value of a
crop depends on the labour required to produce it on the worst land under cultivation. This worst
land yields no rent—as long as some of it remains unused—and rent collected on better land is
simply its yield in excess of that on the worst land. Ricardo saw rent as coming from differences
in land quality (including accessibility) and scarcity. The classical economists assumed only land
—understood as natural resources—could be scarce in the long term.
Marginalism, as expounded in 1899 by John Bates Clark in The Distribution of Wealth,
takes a different approach. It declares that rent reflects the marginal productivity of land—not, as
with Ricardo, the productivity of good versus marginal land. Marginal productivity is the extra
output obtained by extending a constant amount of labour and capital over an additional unit of
land of uniform quality. (3) ____________ . Their theory is based on the possibility of
substituting among factors to design alternative production methods, whereby the optimal
production method allocates all the factors to equalize their marginal productivity with their
marginal costs.
Long thought of as a self-sustaining input, land might depreciate just like produced assets
do. In 1989 Herman Daly and Jonathan Cobb, in For the Common Good, distinguished between
non-renewable resources that are consumed or depreciate irretrievably, and renewable resources
where the rate of natural renewal is important. One consequence of this work in environmental
economics is that natural resource accounting increasingly resembles capital accounting.
The classical "labour theory of value" was an innovative theory in response to the
physiocratic doctrine that only land could yield surplus. In 1776 Adam Smith, in The Wealth of
Nations, observed that with expansion of production and trade, enterprises were making profits
over long periods of time, although they either had nothing to do with agriculture or else as
agricultural enterprises. Classical economists tried to answer the question: Where does profit
come from? (4)____________ . At prevailing prices, labour can yield a surplus over subsistence
costs in many industries.
The question arises of why proprietors, but not labourers, earn profit. Ricardo arrived at
one answer: Technical innovation increases labour productivity. Owners of innovative
equipment, until its general adoption, get the premium from reduced costs. In 1867 Karl Marx in
Capital, added that wages reflect the cost of subsistence, not what labourers can produce, and
that profit is the difference between the two. Even without innovation proprietors would reap
surpluses, Marx held, since labourers lack market power and cannot afford their own equipment.
Why do wages differ for different types of labour? Marx's answer was that higher wages
cover costs, beyond personal subsistence, of training and cultivation of skills, acknowledging

43
that one kind of "equipment," now known as human capital, was available at least to some
labourers.
Marginalist economists noticed the advance of technology, which according to classical
and Marxist views made labour ever more productive, continually throws labourers out of work.
(5)____________ . Referring to equipment as capital, they developed production functions
featuring labour and capital as substitutes for each other. Choice among production techniques
involving different combinations of labour and capital became a major theme in marginalist
growth theory.
This most controversial of factors is variously defined as produced equipment; as finance
used to acquire produced equipment; as all finance used to begin and carry on production,
including the "wage fund"; and as the assessed value of the whole productive enterprise,
including intangibles such as "goodwill." In 1960 Piero Sraffa, in Production of Commodities by
Means of Commodities, showed that capital in the sense of produced equipment can fail to
behave as expected in marginalist production functions when an entire economy is modelled.
Specifically, equipment adopted to replace labour after wages rise from a low level, relative to
interest on capital, may be abandoned again in favour of labour as wages rise still higher. This
counterintuitive "reswitching" can happen because the equipment used is itself a product of
labour and equipment, and because the ratio of labour to equipment varies for different products.
Frequently capital is treated as finance, associated with the payment of interest. Yet the
connection with equipment, in spite of Sraffa's demonstration, has never been severed entirely.
One still studies capital depreciation, distinguishing wear-and-tear from obsolescence, and from
the present value of investments in capital. (6) ____________ . Furthermore, acquired skills (as
opposed to "know-how," an attribute of society rather than individuals) have come to be viewed
as analogous to physical equipment, capable of yielding their owners a return. This analogy
suggests their current designation as human capital. Thus capital is a concept still mired in
confusion, and care must be taken in its use to be sure what it means.
Until the twentieth century, this function was assigned to the capitalist and frequently
conflated with capital. In the classical view, profit rather than interest was attributed to
ownership of capital. In the marginalist view, capital earned interest, and profit was a mere
residual after all the factors of production were compensated. In his Principles of Economics,
first published in 1890, Alfred Marshall made extensive references to "organization" and
"management," referring to the coordination function of entrepreneurship but to neither risk-
assuming nor innovation. But in 1912 Joseph Schumpeter, in The Theory of Economic
Development, featured the revolutionary role of organizer and innovator and contrasted it with
that of the conservative financier, thus vividly distinguishing the entrepreneur from the capitalist.
The entrepreneur's role in this view is not merely that of manager and risk-taker, but also of
visionary - someone who seeks as much to destroy the old order as to create something new.
Since innovation usually requires destroying old ways of doing things, Schumpeter gave it the
name "creative destruction." Profit is now assigned to entrepreneurship, to innovation. With the
rise of "venture capitalists" and other financiers willing to take on more risk and do more for
innovation in the hope for supernormal returns, the distinction between capitalist and
entrepreneur has again become fuzzier. (7)____________ . Although in business usage stock
dividends are distributed profits, in economic analysis they figure as returns to capital, a kind of
interest payment, since they are a return to finance rather than to entrepreneurship. The fact that
stocks are legally equity rather than debt shares is thereby ignored. Similarly, salaries of
corporate executive officers are treated as profit, a return to entrepreneurship, rather than as
wages for labour services.

Ex.22. Read the text. Choose the best sentence A-G to fill each of the gaps 1-7. Do not use
any sentence more than once. There is an example at the beginning.
0 These are four generally recognized factors of production.

44
A Increasingly, theory has come to treat any investment as a capital investment.
B Before the twentieth century, only three factors making up the "classical triad" were
recognized: land, labour, and capital.
C Now there are entrepreneurial financiers as well as entrepreneurial producers and distributors.
D Marginalists held that any factor of production could be scarce.
E Their answer was that it came from labour.
F This led them to attribute productivity to equipment rather than only to labour.
G Thus the physiocrats explained land rent as coming from surplus produced by the land.

Ex.23. Read the text again and decide whether the following statements are true or false.
Correct the false statements.
1. Entrepreneurship is a fairly ancient addition.
2. A major conceptual application is in the theory of production functions.
3. For the Spanish physiocrats led by Francois Quesnay in the 1750s and 1760s, land was the
only factor yielding a reliable gain to its owner.
4. The classical economists assumed only land—understood as natural resources—could be
scarce in the short term.
5. Marginal productivity is the extra output obtained by extending a constant amount of labour
and capital over an additional unit of land of uniform quality.
6. Classical economists tried to answer the question: Where does profit come from?
7. Technical innovation decreases labour productivity.
8. Choice among production techniques involving different combinations of labour and capital
became a major theme in classical growth theory.
9. Frequently capital is treated as finance, associated with the payment of interest.
10. In the marginalist view, profit rather than interest was attributed to ownership of capital.

Ex.24. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the factor concept used for?
2. Where could proprietors collect surplus (for the French physiocrats)?
3. What does the value of a crop depend on?
4. What does rent reflect (in the marginalist view)?
5. What question do classical economists tried to answer?
6. What increases labour productivity?
7. What became a major theme in marginalist growth theory?
8. How is capital defined?
9. How is capital treated frequently?
10. What is the entrepreneur's role in The Theory of Economic Development?

TEXT C: FACTORS OF PRODUCTION FOR AN INNOVATION ECONOMY

Ex.25. Before reading
Can you anticipate what an innovation economy is?

Ex.26. Reading
(1) Many years ago, economists from the industrial revolution identified three variables
(productive inputs) for building industries; Land, Labour, and Capital. The rate of output was
related to how these inputs were combined. If any of these factors of production were missing,
the other two had little or no utility for production. The concept of Land, Labour, and Capital is
still the foundation of much of today’s economic thought.

45
 (2) We know that in the knowledge economy, the location of knowledge work is highly
mobile – so “Land” does not have the same significance for making things as it did 100-200
years ago. What about “Labour“? Knowledge workers analyze situations, manage many
variables, and create unique solutions. They do not really produce identical knowledge pieces
like a machine operator or a production worker –so Labour also means something different than
a century ago. The term “Capital” refers to money that would be needed now to build future
structures, buy machines and to pay wages. Today money buys access to information, education,
and knowledge workers. So we see that many old economic principles may not be as applicable
in the new economies.

(3) The factors of production for the Innovation Economy are Intellectual Capital (also
call Human Capital), Social Capital, and Creative Capital + Entrepreneurs. (Reference: Jane
Jacobs, Robert Putnam, Richard Florida)
(4) Intellectual Capital Theory suggests that concentrations of educated and motivated
people attract investors to employ them and invest in the communities where they reside. This
investment attracts other intelligent people who in turn attract more investment thereby creating
a cycle of economic growth.
(5) The Social Capital Model suggests that people acting in communities can create better
solutions, greater accountability, and more economic growth than management, governments, or
bureaucracy can induce on their own. Examples of Social Capital include Civil Rights
Movement, community watch organizations, Democratic Government, and recently, Social
Networking.
(6) The Creative Capital Model suggests that engineers and scientists think more like
artists and musicians than like production workers – their ideas come 24/7/365 – and that an
environment of tolerance, diversity, and openness promotes creative output.
(7) Many people argue that Silicon Valley, in fact, was created and sustained by a perfect
storm of Social Capital, Creative Capital, an Intellectual Capital + Entrepreneurs. Other
countries have tried to duplicate Silicone Valley but most have fallen short – if any of these
factors of production are missing, the other two have limited utility for production of innovation.

46
To demonstrate how these productive inputs might appear in an innovation economy, consider
the following example:
(8) Suppose that we take 5 mechanical engineers and lock them in a room with
instructions to build a better mouse trap, they’ll emerge with a better shingle, a better spring, a
better whacker, and a better trigger – but not necessarily a better mousetrap. Suppose that we
now put a dog catcher, an engineer, a plastics manufacturer, an artist, and the mother of 4 rowdy
children together with the same task. We can be quite certain that innovation will occur. They
may actually come up with an excellent mouse trap.
(9) Innovation Economics will bring the factors of production together in diverse
combination rather than similar combination. In an Innovation Economy, the “secret sauce” for
the production of innovation becomes far more valuable than any single innovation itself. The
secret sauce provides a monopoly on dynamic repeatability rather than a static device. As such,
technologies can be open sourced and innovation crowd sourced across a much wider domain of
possible user applications. Such conditions will change the type of innovations that are favoured
to reflect the broad and sweeping social priorities rather than innovations that are easy to patent,
protect, and monopolize.

Task 1. Discuss what Dan Roblescould mean when he said that the rate of output was
related to how the inputs (Land, Labour, and Capital) were combined. (para. 1)
Task 2. Explain how you understand Dan Robles’s ‘knowledge economy’.(para. 2)
Task 3. If something is innovative, is it
a) recently made, built, invented, written, designed etc;
b) more difficult to understand;
c) new, different, and better than those that existed before?
Task 4. How does the author describe Intellectual, Social and Creative Capital? (paras 3-
6)
Task 5. What does the author mean by “mouse trap building”? (para. 8) What place does
he focus on in the above text?
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

In the office

Ex.1. Look at the pictures below and say which of them is

a) a meeting room;
b) a director’s office;
c) a receptionist’s (secretary’s) office.

fig.1

fig.2

47
 fig.3

Ex. 2. Read the words in the box and group them into categories. You can add other
suitable words.
ans
wer
ing
ma
chi
ne,
cal
cul
ato
r,
cal
end
ar,
co
mp
ute
r,
cor
rect
ion
pen
/flu
id,
des
k
tid
y,
des
k
lam
p,
fax
(m
ach

48
ine
),
file
,
fili
ng
tra
y,
fili
ng
cab
inet
,
hol
e
pun
ch,
ind
oor
pla
nts,
key
boa
rd,
las
er
pri
nte
r,
me
mo
she
ets,
mo
use
mat
,
not
epa
d,
not
ice
boa
rd,
pap
er
clip
s,
(ph
oto
)co
pie

49
r,
pig
eon
hol
es,
pos
t-it,
pri
nto
ut,
rub
ber
(A
m.
era
ser)
,
sca
nne
r,
sha
rpe
ner
,
sta
ple
r,
sta
ple
s,
sta
ple
re
mo
ver
,
stic
k
of
glu
e,
(tel
e)p
hon
e,
tele
pho
ne
dir
ect
ory
,

50
text
ma
rke
r,
in /
out
tra
y,
wa
ste
pap
er
bas
ket
(A
m.
bin
),
wo
rkst
atio
n

office furniture office supplies office equipment others things

filing cabinet paper clips computer printout

swivel chair correction pen calculator wastepaper basket

Ex.3. It so happens that many people spend more time in their office than at home. What
things do you think can be used to decorate or personalise an office without spoiling its
professional image? Discuss it with your partner.

Ex.4. Describe a room where a secretary/a receptionist works, their workstation and office
equipment they usually use.

Ex.5. Rosa works as a chief executive secretary in a large industrial company.

a) Which of the following statements do you think are true of her in her job?
1. She works at a computer most of the time, where she writes letters and
reports.
2. She does quite a lot of general paperwork, e.g. filing reports, answering
letters and others.
3. She makes a lot of phone calls.
4. She sends faxes occasionally.
5. She often shows people around the office.
6. Every time she takes part in the negotiations as an interpreter.
7. She arranges meetings for her boss and other managers in the company.
8. She attends all the conferences or meetings in the company.
b) Describe Rosa’s job and her everyday duties.

Ex.6. Read the following two texts about office equipment.

51
  Photocopying machine or (photo) copier.
Walk into almost any business office, and you'll probably find a photocopier ("copier") with a
line of people waiting to use it. For most businesses, small or large, the copier has become
standard equipment, much like having a desk to work at and a chair to sit on. It’s pretty amazing
to think that, in mere seconds, you can produce an exact replica of what’s on a sheet of paper!

The procedure of producing a copy is very simple.

1. Make sure the photocopier is plugged into a power source.
2. Turn the photocopier on.
3. Open the copier lid.
4. Place the document to be photocopied face-down on the glass.
5. Select the options you want (number of pages, enlargements, lighter/darker).
6. Press the button “Start”.

 Fax machine or fax

Even though traditional fax machine is fast being replaced by e-
mail and Internet fax services, this workplace workhorse is still
used for transmitting information. They are easy to use and
resemble dialing a telephone. Here are some basic instructions for
sending a fax.
1. Make sure the fax machine is plugged in, powered and
connected to a working phone jack. Turn on the fax machine.
2. Fill out a piece of paper called a coversheet with
the information about the recipient’s name, his fax
number, your phone number, a short message intended for the
recipient, number of pages (including coversheet).
3. Lay the documents face-up in the fax machine feeder tray with the coversheet on top.
4. Dial the recipient’s fax number.
5. Press the ‘fax’ or ‘send’ button, depending on the particular fax machine model.
As soon as all of the pages have been scanned into the memory of the fax machine, you’ll hear a
series of signals which mean establishing a communication link. Wait for a few minutes as the
fax is sent and then see a short confirmation report.

Ex.7. Explain to your new colleague how to use

 a photocopier;
 a fax machine;
 a scanner;
 a printer.
You may need the following phrases and linking words:
First, you must …. Then, you have to … (it’s necessary).
You needn’t /You don’t have to … (it’s not necessary).
If you press this key, the computer prints out the reading.
If you press this key by mistake, you’ll lose all the data.

Work in pairs
Ex.8. Read these mini-dialogues and role-play them.
1.
O. Bruno, can you send us your pricelist by fax?
B. Sure. I’ll fax you right now. What’s your fax number?
O. 38 for Ukraine, 044 for Kyiv, then 455 77 07.

52
B. OK. I’ve got that.

2.
B. Have you got my fax, Oleg? Is everything legible?
O. You’re not going to believe this, but the paper got stuck and the machine jammed.
B. No problem. I’ll send it through again.

3.
S. Will you be using the photocopier for long, Sue?
D. No. Why?
S. OK. I’ll wait then. I need to make a copy of the report for our meeting.

4.
S. Will you be using the photocopier for long, Danielle?
D. Oh, yes. I’ve got a pile of papers to copy.
S. Sorry, could you stop for a minute and let me make one copy, please? Our boss needs it
urgently.

Ex.9. Complete the dialogues.

1.
A. __________________________________________?
B. Sure. I’ll fax you right now. What’s your fax number?
A. __________________________________________
B. OK. I’ve got that.

2.
A. Have you got my fax, Berta? Is everything legible?
B. __________________________________________
A. No problem. I’ll send it through again.

3.
A. __________________________________________?
B. No. Why?
A. __________________________________________

Ex.10. Now make dialogues of your own and role-play them with your partner.

GRAMMAR

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Ex.1. Read and translate the sentences. Write out the verbs in the Present Perfect.
1. Alex has always wanted to go to Tibet, but he has never had such a chance.
2. Put your wallet away, I’ve already paid for everything.
3. Gabi has just told me that she is getting married.
4. Where did you buy that round Persian rug you’ve got in the hall?
5. You’ve missed her – if you hurry, you’ll catch her in the street.
6. I often see this guy but I have never spoken to him.
7. I have a gut feeling that he has failed the interview.
8. Dick has been out of work for about a year, and he has been desperate all this time.
9. Calm down, Liz. John has just phoned! He has got the job!
- Has he? Oh, I’m so glad for him. It has never been easy to find a job, particularly a good one.

53
10.- You’re right. There has been an increase in unemployment in our country recently.
- Moreover, the situation is getting worse and worse these days.

Ex.2. The Present Perfect: full and short forms.

Task A: Change the full Present Perfect forms to contractions:
1. I have forgotten her address. – I’ve forgotten her address.
2. I have not noticed anything so far. – I haven’t noticed anything so far.
3. You have said that. – _____________________________________________.
4. It (The train) has already arrived. – ___________________________________.
5. It has not rained this month. – _______________________________________.
6. Dr. Adamson is not here. He has just left. – ____________________________.
7. Look! She has caught a big fish! – ___________________________________.
8. Patricia has not been at home for three years. – _________________________.
9. We have never enjoyed Christmas as much as this one. – _________________.
10. They have been here before. – _______________________________________.
Task B: Are these contractions has or is?
1. She’s arrived. → She has arrived.
2. She’s tired. → She is tired.
3. He’s worried.
4. He’s eaten.
5. She’s outgrown all her school clothes.
6. The dog’s escaped.
7. The cat’s hungry.
8. She’s ill.
9. She’s had a cold.
10. She’s never met his ex-wife.

Ex.3. Write the Past Participle of the following verbs.

1. speak - spoken 11. meet
2. book - booked 12. sell
3. carry 13. buy
4. eat 14. fax
5. drink 15. see
6. find 16. leave
7. found 17. taste
8. lie 18. prefer
9. lay 19. control
10. know 20. write

Ex.4. Read the poem. Pay attention to the way of making questions.
Have you ever seen the beaches of Mexico?
Have you ever walked the streets of San Juan?
Have you ever been to Haiti?
Have you ever been to Spain?
Have you ever walked barefoot in a heavy rain?
Have you ever been in trouble?
Have you ever been in pain?
Have you ever been in love?
Would you do it all again?
Well, I’ve never seen the beaches of Mexico.

54
 I’ve never walked the streets of San Juan.
I’ve never been to Haiti.
I’ve never been to Spain.
I’ve never walked barefoot in a heavy rain.
But I’ve sure been in trouble,
I’ve sure been in pain,
I’ve sure been in love,
I’d do it all again.

Ex.5. Ask general questions using the following word combinations.

Model:
change a wheel on a car → Have you ever changed a wheel on a car?
take money out of a cash machine → Have you taken money out of a cash machine recently?
1. waste money on something you’ve never used
2. lose a credit card or your wallet
3. lend money to someone who didn’t pay you back
4. borrow money from your friends or someone in your family
5. buy or sell something on the Internet
6. have your own account with a bank
7. win a competition
8. have your photograph in the newspaper
9. break something valuable
10. forget your front door key

Ex.6. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect to make up questions. Complete the
answers providing additional information.
1. You ever (eat) at Maxim’s restaurant? – Yes, I _______. → Have you ever eaten at Maxim’s
restaurant? – Yes, I have. They have a wonderful cook there!
2. Your sister (pass) the entrance exams? – Yes, she ________ .
3. You (hear) from Nellie lately? – No, I _________.
4. You (see) my gloves anywhere? – No, I’m afraid I ________ .
5. He (find) his watch? - Yes, he _________ .
6. You (pay) the electricity bill yet? – No, I _________.
7. How long you (know) Derek? – I ____________ him for about five years.
8. You (spend) all your money? – No, I ___________ only half of it.
9. And what about Betty? - You wouldn’t believe! She _______ (spend) everything, to a penny.
10.You _______ (see) Charles lately? – No, I ________ him since Christmas.

Ex.7. Respond to the following, using the Present Perfect.

1. Why don’t you join me and have lunch?
– I’ve already had lunch. I’m not hungry.
2. This is a very good dictionary. George, you may need it in your studies. Why don’t we buy
it? –______________.
3. Why don’t you apply for this job? You may get it. - _______________.
4. Why don’t you speak to the boss? ____________________.
5. Why don’t you phone and explain everything to him? ____________.
6. Why don’t you try on these shoes? _______________.
7. Why don’t you say ‘Happy birthday’ to Sally? She used to be your friend. ____.
8. Why don’t we invite her to our party? _____________________.
9. If you need some help, why don’t you ask me or somebody else? ___________.
10. Why don’t we go and see this film? – Oh no, _______________ (twice).

55
Ex.8. Choose the correct word (adverb of time) in italics. In some sentences both variants
are possible. Translate the sentences.
1. John Grisham is a well-known American writer. He has written about twenty novels still/so
far.
2. They have already/still employed a new supervisor.
3. Jeff is very sad. He has ever/just failed the exam.
4. We’ve just/already gone through the customs.
5. Have you never/ever tasted paella? – Yes, I have. I tasted it when I was on holiday in Spain.
6. You’re just in time. The concert hasn’t begun still/yet.
7. I have never/just seen this film before.
8. Have you seen any good films since/ lately?
9. The secretary has typed ten letters this morning yet/so far.
10. Our neighbours have moved to another town recently/so far.

Ex.9. Fill in for or since.

1. ______ 2010 – since 2010
2. ______ two hours
3. ______ I was five.
4. ______ ages
5. ______ they moved to Italy
6. ______ six months
7. ______ we were at college
8. ______ half an hour.
9. ______ last spring
10. ______ a long time

Ex.10. Complete the sentences, choosing for or since and putting the verbs into the correct
form. The first two sentences have been done for you.
1. Claudia __________ (not, learn) very much ______ the term began. She needs to study
harder. – Claudia has not learnt very much since the term began. She needs to study harder.
2. The Browns __________ (live) here ______ a long time. They __________ (live) here
______ 1990. – The Browns have lived here for a long time. They have lived here since 1990.
3. I _________ (not, see) Molly ______ she left the office.
4. He _________ (not, phone) us ______ Sunday.
5. Ann and Andy __________ (move) three times ______ they got married.
6. They ________ (be married) ______ last year.
7. We __________ (not, be) to the cinema ______ ages.
8. Jenny ________ (be ill) ______ last week.
9. I _________ (not, talk) to her ______ days.
10. It _________ (not, rain) ______ the end of July.
11. Sylvia ________ (be) with the publishing company ______ 1995.
12. You must have bought your Porsche quite recently. It looks great! – Nothing of the kind. I
__________ (have) it ______ three years.
13. How many invitations _____ you__________ (writе) ______ morning?
14. How long _____ you __________ (know) Paul? – Uh, ______ many years.
15. We __________ (be) friends ______ our schooldays.

Ex.11. Fill in the gaps with have/has gone to, have/has been to or have/has been in.
1. Alice isn’t here at the moment. She ______ just ______ the trading centre, and I don’t think
she’ll be back very soon.
2. Sheila __________ the USA twice.
3. How long ______ they ______ Stoke-on-Trent?

56
4. ______ you ever ______ London?
5. Mr. Smith __________ New Orleans for nearly four years.
6. Phil, are you alone in the house? Where is everybody? – Mum __________ the cinema with
Julia. As for Dad, he _________ the golf club.
7. Are you going to the sports centre? – No, I ______ already ______ there.
8. Hi, Jim! Have you seen Mark? – Yes. He ______ just ______ the newsagent’s to get some
envelopes.
9. I hear you are going to Bern? – That’s right. I have always wanted to go there. I ______
never ______ Switzerland.
10. My sister Amy lives in Bern with her family. They __________ Switzerland for three years.
I can ask her to show you around the city if you want.

Ex.12. Change the sentences using the construction It’s/This is the first/second/third/fourth
time I/he + the Present Perfect.
Model:
Bill is a bit nervous. He has never driven a car before. (the first time) →
Bill is a bit nervous. It’s the first time he has driven a car.

1. Don’t be so critical! Mathew has never played baseball before. (the first time)
2. I have never ridden on a camel before. It is so unusual!
3. I have never eaten Indonesian food before.
4. You say the Four Seasons? That must be very expensive. – It is expensive, but the hotel is
very comfortable and the service is impeccable. I have never stayed in such a luxury hotel
before.
5. The children are very excited. They have never been on a plane before.
6. We have never raised and seriously discussed such a question.
7. We have complained to the manager twice.
8. Ron, how’s that? You’ve lost your keys again. (the second time this month.)
9. Oh, dear! You’ve damaged your car again! (the third time)
10. Robert has phoned her three times this evening. (the fourth time)

Ex.13. Read the sentences below and express the same idea in a different way.
Model:
I have never seen such a good comedy. → It/This is the best comedy I have ever seen.
1. We have never had such a wonderful New Year party before!
2. I have never visited such an old castle before.
3. How do you like his new novel? - Honestly, I have never read such a boring book!
4. I have never eaten at such a nice restaurant. The meal is delicious here!
5. The coffee is disgusting! I have never tasted such awful coffee.
6. Cathy is so patient and tolerant of other people. – You’re right. I have never met such a
patient person.
7. Do you enjoy your new job? – Oh, yes. I have never had such a good job.
8. I’m glad Steve agreed to work with us. I have never met anyone more reliable and
responsible than he is.
9. This painting of yours is really fantastic! I have never seen anything better.
10. Your new song is brilliant! I have never heard anything better!

Ex.14. Read the sentences in the box, and then match them with their description. Explain
your choice.
Model:
 My elder brother has been in Stockholm since 2006. – (a) It started in the past
and continues up to the present. My elder brother lives and works there now.

57
 Look! They have finally painted the house! – (d) The result is visible. You can
see it now.

1. Rachel is the most intelligent person I’ve a - action which started in the past and
ever met. continues up to the present;
2. She has been the manager of your firm since
last year, hasn’t she? b - action which happened in an unfinished
3. I’ve received five faxes from them today. time period (today, this morning, and it is
4. Have you heard the news? Mark has bought still morning.)
a horse. - I know. He is crazy about horses
and horse-riding. c - action which happened at an unstated time
5. Hurray! Our football team has won! in the past (the exact time is not
6. I’ve known Paul for a few months, but I’ve mentioned, unknown or unimportant. What
met his sister only once. is important is only the action / the fact
7. This is the nicest restaurant I have ever been itself);
to!
8. Sorry, Liz, I can’t go now. I’ve just washed d - action which happened in the past and the
my hair. result can be seen now;
9. Aunt Sonia has bought a house.
10.Be careful where you walk. Samantha’s e - giving recent news or fresh information;
broken a vase, and Johnny’s already cut
himself. f - something that describes personal
11. They have developed a new brand of experience with superlatives or ordinals.
toothpaste.
12. Amazing news! Our country has won the
right to host the Games.
13. A cup of coffee, Vic? – No, thank you. I’ve
drunk two cups this morning.
14. Why aren’t you going home, Tommy? It’s
going to rain. – I can’t. I’ve lost the key.
15. Ow! I’ve burnt myself!

Ex.15. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. Let’s wait a little. He hasn’t phone yet.
2. Have you heard the news? Tom and Lucy got married.
3. Is Jill in the office? - I don’t know. I haven’t seen her all day.
4. I am at university since nine o’clock.
5. It’s the first time he have given us an interview.
6. Sorry, Colin, I haven’t still booked the flight.
7. Karen has been to the baker’s. She’ll be home very soon.
8. Have you finished the project? – Yes, we have. We’ve finished it two days ago.
9. Sharon has been on the phone for ages.
10. John hasn’t answered my letter not yet.
11. My husband doesn’t sleep very well recently.
12. He has been one of the leading fashion designers from the early 1980s.
13. I haven’t saw Martha for months. How’s she?
14. This is the third time Alan goes to Milan this year.
15. Really? He is lucky. By the way, did you ever go to Italy?

Ex. 16. Translate the dialogue into English.

- Энн, я не бачила тебе вже сто років. Де ти пропадала весь цей час?

58
- Я була в довгостроковому (тривалому) відрядженні в Торонто (to be on a business trip). Я
щойно приїхала звідти.
- Торонто? Я була там двічі. Гарне місто.
- Розповідай, де ти живеш, працюєш! Як життя?
- Працюю я в канадській фірмі у відділі маркетингу і реклами. Ось уже рік, як я там
працюю. Нещодавно я вийшла заміж.
- Дійсно? А хто він?
- Ти його не знаєш. Це Гері Кларк з нашої фірми.
- Він іноземець?
- Так, мій чоловік з Канади. Але мешкає і працює тут вже кілька років. Досить гарно
спілкується українською.
- Ви мешкаєте з батьками чи окремо (on your own)?
- У нас невелика квартира неподалік від центру міста. А як ти?

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Ex.17. Read and translate the sentences. Write out the verbs in the Present Perfect
Continuous.
1. Mr. Grace has been teaching at the University of Leeds for ten years.
2. The professor has been explaining this math problem for an hour and the students still can’t
understand it.
3. In 1956, the first fully automatic mobile phone system was developed by Ericson and was
commercially released in Sweden. Since that time people have been using mobile phones.
4. They have been developing two new software programmes since the beginning of the year.
5. What have you been doing since I last saw you?
6. We have been advertising these products for six months.
7. Sorry, I haven’t finished typing. I’ve been dealing with customers all day.
8. The streets are all wet. It has been raining all night.
9. Tom and Mary have been going out together since Christmas.
10. Andrea and Laura haven’t been working together for long.
11. What’s the matter, Hannah? Your eyes are red. You’ve been crying, haven’t you? – No, I’m
fine. I’ve just been watching a sad film, that’s all.

Ex.18. Write and read the he/she/it forms. Make other necessary changes.
1. I’ve been phoning Maggie all day, but there’s never a reply. – He __________.
2. I’ve been learning Chinese for three years, but I still can’t speak. – My friend
_______________________________________________________________.
3. You have been coming back home late every day for the last month. – Mathew
_______________________________________________________________.
4. You know that I have been working overtime lately. – You know that he
_________________.
5. Philip’s parents have been waiting all week for the news from their son. – Philip’s mother
__________________________________________________.
6. They have been building this bridge for ages. – This construction company
______________________________________.
7. I’ve been sorting out the mess on my desk all day. – Bill
______________________________________________________.
8. I’m tired. I have been ironing all day. – Natalie _________________________.
9. I have you been using this coffee machine for three years. – She ________________.
10. I’ve been packing our things all morning. – Monica______________________.

Ex.19. Complete the sentences, putting the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect
Continuous.

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1. Tracy (talk) _______________ on the phone for about twenty minutes.
2. They (interview) _______________ the candidates for over two hours.
3. George says that their company is likely to change the management structure. They (plan)
_______________ this for a long time.
4. Hi, Jack. Where have you been? We (look for) _______________ you all morning.
5. You (wear) _______________ this jacket for years. It’s old. I think we must buy a new one
for you.
6. I (live) _______________ here since last year, but my neighbour Bill (live)
_______________ in the house all his life.
7. Paul, you (smoke) _______________ too much recently. You should cut down on smoking.
8. Everything is white outside. It (snow) _______________ all night.
9. It smells delicious in here. _______________ you (bake) something?
10. Sorry, I’m a bit late. – That’s all right. I (not, wait) _______________ long.

Ex.20. Ask questions using the question words in brackets.

1. We have been working on this project for two years. (How long?)
2. Mike has been working with us since January. (Since when?)
3. He is an experienced specialist. But you know, he has been making too many
mistakes lately. (Who?)
4. I hear Sharon is looking for a new job. - Yes, she is. She has been looking
for it for about two or three months. (What?)
5. It seems strange but she has been avoiding me over the last few days. (Why?)

Ex.21. In pairs, ask and answer questions.

Model:
Valerie, run the hotel, since last year.
- Has Valerie been running the hotel since Mr. Norris retired?
- How long has Valerie been running the hotel? - She has been running it since last year.
2. People, use the telephone, 1876. – ____________________________________
3. People, watch television, the late 1930s. – ______________________________
4. People, print newspapers, the early 1600s. – ____________________________
5. People in Japan, travel by “bullet trains”, 1964. – ________________________

Ex.22. Make up sentences using the Present Perfect Continuous to indicate the recent
activities of the person or temporary effects. You can use the prompts in the list below.
To eat pasta with ketchup, to wash the car; to play in the mud; to write for three hours/all
morning; to run; to lie in the sun for too long

1. Look! Little Stella has lipstick and mascara all over her face.
- She has been playing with her mother’s cosmetics.
2. You are wet through. What have you been doing? – I ___________________ .
3. Look! Her skin is sunburned. – She ________________.
4. You have ketchup on your face. - __________________.
5. My hand is tired. - _______________.
6. The little boy is dirty from head to foot. - ____________.

Ex.23. Read these sentences and arrange them into two columns according to what they
describe or indicate:
a) the duration of an action which started in the past and continues up to the present;
b) the recent activities of the person or temporary effects.
1. Mum, you’ve been baking something. I can smell it.
2. The lift hasn’t been working since morning.

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 3. I’ve been renting this flat for two years.
4. Sharon and Kenny look angry. Maybe they’ve been arguing.
5. I’m out of breath. I’ve been running all the way here.
6. How long have you been going out together?
7. Your eyes are red. Have you been crying? – No, I’ve been cutting onions.
8. We’ve been looking for a flat for ages.
9. It’s very late. Why aren’t you in bed? – I can’t sleep. Our neighbour’s dog has been barking
for the last two hours.
10. You two look so exhausted. What have you been doing? - We’ve been sightseeing in the
town.
11. We’ve been walking all afternoon. My feet are killing me.

Ex.24. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. They are been travelling for two weeks.
2. I’ve thinking about you all week.
3. I can’t say exactly how long I have been knowing Simon.
4. She have been making phone calls all morning.
5. He has been being ill for a couple of weeks.
6. It has been raining all day. I wonder when it will stop.
7. They have been hearing to music for two hours.
8. Mr. Robinson is working in the same place for over thirty years, and he is not planning to
retire.
9. Do you have a driving license? – Yes. I have been having it for four years now.
10. I’m not surprised Katie has failed her exam. She has been not working hard recently.
11. You’re so red! How long were you sunbathing? All morning? – I haven’t been sunbathing.
I’ve been reading in the sun.

Ex.25. Translate into English.

1. Пробачте. Що запізнився. Потрапив у затор (be stuck in a traffic jam/heavy traffic). Ви
давно чекаєте? – Ні, всього хвилин десять.
2. Я увесь ранок копіюю ці папери, і ще не закінчила.
3. Марк стомився. Він увесь ранок фарбував ворота в гаражі.
4. Ти цілий ранок намагаєшся відремонтувати (fix) свій мотоцикл.
5. Уже півроку, як Том і Мері будують цей будинок.
6. Ми з Білом друзі. Ми знаємо один одного років десять.
7. Шерон, я просто з ніг валюсь (be ready to drop). Ми весь день з тобою ходимо
магазинами, але так нічого й не купили.
8. Люди літають літаками з 1803 року.
9. Джесіка, у тебе очі червоні. Ти плакала?
10. Ти наскрізь змок (be wet through). Йшов без парасольки?

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS versus THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Ex.26. Read and compare the sentences:

Laura, the baby is crying. - She has been crying for almost ten minutes. I can’t do anything.
Complete the situations in 1-4 like in the sentences above and explain the difference
between them.
1. It’s raining. – Indeed, it ___________________.
2. He is sleeping. - But he _______________.
3. Who are you waiting for? - The designer. I _________________.
4. Sorry, I can’t help you with your homework. I am revising for my exam.
________________________.

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 THE PRESENT PERFECT versus THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTNUOUS

Ex.27. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous.
Model: I’ve checked the calculations. (the focus on the completion) →
I’ve been checking the calculations since/all morning. (the focus on the activities)

1. I (play) ___________ golf four times this week.

2. Ralph (repair) ___________ the washing machine since morning.
3. I feel so exhausted and sleepy. I (work) ___________ on my assignment almost all night.
4. - Stacy says she (not finish) ___________ reading the book yet.
- But she (read) ___________ it for about a month.
5. Vitaliy and Vladimir Klitschko, the world heavyweight boxing champions, (win) -
___________ a lot of gold medals.
6. Everything is white. It (snow) ___________ all night.
7. Betsy is upset because she just (hear) ___________ some bad news.
8. It smells of paint. Dad (paint) ___________ the table.
9. Carol and her family (be) ___________ in Sweden for three years. They (live) ___________
there since 2009.
10. No wonder that Samantha hasn’t done any work. She (talk) ___________ on the phone all
morning.

PRESENT TENSES REVIEW

Ex.28. Choose the correct tense form.

1. Can I speak to Rosemary, please? – Sorry, she is out. Oh no, hold on, she ____ just ______
own the corridor.
a) comes b) is coming c) has come
2. In the past few years there ________ a marked change in our attitude towards environmental
issues.
a) is b) has been с) have been
3. Book industry _________ the same serious problems at the moment.
a) experience b) is experiencing c) has been experiencing
4. You __________ your mobile phone only for a week but it isn’t working.
a) have been having b) have had c) have
5. - How long ___________ you at university?
a) are b) have been c) have been being
- I started two years ago. I _________ in my third year now.
a) am being b) have been c) am
6. The shares __________ in value since we bought them.
a) have been doubling b) have doubled c) doubled
7. My brother __________ about how much the car costs because he is going to buy it anyway.
a) is not caring b) doesn’t care c) don’t care
8. The police __________ information that now he ________ in Sicilia.
a) have b) has c) is having
aa) lives bb ) is living cc) has lived
9. Could you please close the window? I __________ a cold draught in here.
a) feel b) am feeling c) have been feeling
10. Unfortunately, my pullover ________ in the wash, so it ________ me anymore.
a) has shrank b) has shrunk c) shrank

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 aa) is not fitting bb) doesn’t fit cc) hasn’t fit
11. The technician ___________ the photocopier so you can’t use it right now.
a) fixes c) has fixed b) is fixing
12. Gabriel says they ___________ what to do with the money yet.
a) haven’t decided b) didn’t decide c) are not deciding
13. There’s a light on in his window, so I assume he _________ to bed yet.
a) is not going b) hasn’t gone c) didn’t go
14. Pete really makes me angry. He always ___________ me. I can barely get a whole sentence
out of my mouth.
a) interrupts b) is interrupting c) has interrupted
15. I __________ about the tense forms in this exercise right now. I ___________all of my
answers are correct, but I’ll use the key answer to check them and make sure.
a) think b) am thinking c) have been thinking
aa) think bb) am thinking cc) have been thinking

Ex.29. Complete the introduction to Helen’s presentation by putting the verbs in brackets
into the correct tense. You can choose from the Present Simple, Present Continuous,
Present Perfect or Present Perfect Continuous.
Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. I am Helen Flower and I __________ (work) in the
marketing department here at MVC. I __________ (work) on this current project for two years
now.
Our project team __________ (consist) of myself and five more specialists. Antony
Bright __________ (be) with us since the start of the project and he __________ (develop) a
new model of marketing analysis which I am going to describe. At present we __________
(practise) it and we __________ (expect) to have some results at the end of this month.
Now on to the presentation itself. I __________ (divide) it into two parts. The first part
__________ (cover) the project and __________ (give) brief information about the team .

Ex.30. Are there any mistakes in the following sentences? If yes, correct them.
1. Starting a new job always is a bit of a shock.
2. How long are you working for the agency?
3. Our boss is so irritated today. Somebody have been giving away our plans to our
competitors, and we can’t do anything.
4. This is the third time Dorothy complained to the boss.
5. Has she cried? Her eyes are red.
6. Again you think about something else. You never listen to what I’m saying. I might just as
well talk to a brick wall.
7. I’m studying here since last year.
8. I see you’re a very good cook. The sauce is tasting delicious.
9. Margo wants to get married, but she doesn’t meet the right person yet.
10. He’s always trying to put me down.
11. Close your eyes and listen carefully. What are you hearing?
12. Tom hasn’t been home from the time he was a boy.
13. The exhibition opens on March 1st and closes on March 20th.
14. People are becaming less tolerant of smoking these days.
15. Let me explain what you have to do. First you are taking the letters and sorting them into
categories. Then you are registering them in this registration journal.

Ex.31. Translate into English.

1. Наш Нік такий неуважний! Завжди щось забуває або губить.
2. Що ти зробив з моїми ножицями (scissors)? Вони зовсім не ріжуть.
3. Джесіка, чим ти займалася весь цей ранок? Ти навіть не надрукувала жодного листа.

63
4. Що ти там нюхаєш? – Нові парфуми. Пахнуть доволі приємно.
5. Дивись. Знову йде дощ. – Так. Увесь тиждень ідуть дощі.
6. Лара, дитина плаче. Він плаче вже десять хвилин. Я не розумію у чому справа.
7. А чому б нам усім не поїхати туди на машині? – Ні, це довго і виснажливо.
8. Що ти тут робиш, Метью? – Чекаю, коли відчиниться магазин (wait for the shop to
open). – Але він відкривається тільки о 10-ій годині.
9. Ось уже третій раз, як я подивився цю комедію. А ти скільки раз дивився?
10. Уже півгодини, як я слухаю тебе, але на жаль, так нічого і не зрозумів.
11. О котрій приїжджають твої батьки? – Їх поїзд прибуває о 10.20.
12. Джон дуже стомився. Він усю ніч працював за комп’ютером.
13. Чому ти так дивуєшся? Біл завжди бажав жити у своєму будинку.
14. М-р Сміт поїхав до Амстердама. (Повернеться тільки у вівторок).
15. Учені вивчають цю проблему вже багато років. У наш час ставлення до
навколишнього середовища (the environment) змінюється.

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 Unit 3.TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

TEXT A: Types of economic systems

TEXT B: Command economy
TEXT C: Good (and bad) models
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Finding the way
GRAMMAR: Past Tenses. The Past Simple and the Past Continuous Tenses

Diversity in the world is a basic characteristic of human society, and also the
key condition for a lively and dynamic world as we see today.
Jina to Hu, President of the People's Republic of China

LEAD-IN
1. What is the most typical problem faced by every society?
2. Why cannot people have everything they want?
3. Who usually allocates resources in the country?
4. How can the economic system influence our life?

PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills
Ex.1. Practice reading the following words:
ch [k] mechanism, mechanic, mechanization, technique, technical (в словах,
запозичених з грецькоїмови)
ph [f] phrase, phase, photograph, telephone, phonetics (в словах, запозичених
з грецькоїмови)

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er, ir, ur [з:] refer, prefer, sir, girl, term, perfect, third, merger, university, burn,
nurse, curse
ture [ʧə] structure, picture, venture, gesture, mixture, lecture, nature
sure[ʒә] measure,pleasure, leisure

Ex.2. Read the following words. The underlined letters are silent.
Bomb, comb, lamb, debt, write, know, knife, doubt, receipt, psychology.

Ex.3. Read the words in the group below. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
several, scarcity, allocate, previously, Asia, clothing, value, major, centrally,
formulate, publicly, industries, socialism, socialist, Sweden, power, operate,
ownership, relevant, enterprise, government, centralized,social, ownership;
b) words with the stress on the second syllable:
requires, essential, dilemma,referred,efficiently, appearance, variety, societies,
command,allow, consumer, percent, consensus, municipal;
c) polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:
satisfactorily, opportunity, distribution, independently, intermingled,
intervention, environmentalism.

B. Word formation
Ex.4. Make up nouns as in the model.
Model: noun + suffix –ship →noun
e.g. owner – ownership
Citizen, dictator, friend, leader, member, proprietor, entrepreneur, master.
Model: verb +suffix –tion or –sion →noun
e.g.organize- organization
Protect, decide, define, produce, collect, reduce, consume, divide, cooperate.
Model: noun +suffix-ism →noun
e.g. material-materialism
Marx, Protestant, Buddha, commune, society, capital, consumer, perfection.

Ex.5. Make up adjectives as in the model.

Model: adjective +suffix -ance or -ence (- ancy, -ency) →noun
e.g.efficient - efficiency
Important, different, insistent, resistant, constant, efficient, intelligent.
Model: noun +suffix -ic →adjective
e.g. economy- economic
History, geography, hero, science, ballast, naturalist, metal, poet, myth.
What other noun or adjective suffixes do you know? Give examples.

TEXT A: TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

Active Vocabulary
Key terms: traditional economy, market economy, command economy, mixed
66
economy, centrally planned economy, to levy taxation, means of production,
production and distribution, shortage and surplus, free enterprise, laissez-fair.
Other words and expressions: a mechanism for survival, to resolve the problems,
to store, scarcity problem, to do for a living, to provide a sense of security and
psychological comfort, to take advantage of, essential dilemma, to exercise
economic functions, to control prices, essential features, to open and run any kind
of business, to be intended, to divide up into, in the marketplace, privately
owned, to depend on, to manage the economy, an extensive form, to detect
consumer preferences, sufficient accuracy, social welfare, decision maker, health
insurance, housing projects, free medical services, range from … to, to be owned
and operated by.
Linking words and phrases: if we look at, in fact, subsequently, to refer to,
according to, thus, strictly speaking, however, what is more, as we have
classified, to sum up.

To an economist, economic society presents itself as a mechanism for

survival — a means whereby people are able to carry out the tasks of production
and distribution. If we look at the different political and social structures which
exist in the world today, and the way in which those systems have developed
over the years, we are tempted to saythat people have made use of, and are
making use of, very great varieties of economic systems. In fact, in spite of the
appearance of great variety, it is possible to group these different economic
structures into four broad categories. These basic types of economic organization
are usually described as Traditional economies, Market economies, Command
economies and Mixed economies. There are several basic and unfinished
questions that must be answered in order to resolve the problems of economics
satisfactorily. The scarcity problem, for example, requires answers to basic
questions, such as: what to produce, how to produce it, and who gets what is
produced. An economic system is a way of answering these basic questions.
Different economic systems answer them in a different way.
Traditional Economic System
Theoldestanduntil recent times the most common way of solving
economic problems was that of tradition. In traditional societies, people use
methods of production and distribution that were devised in the distant past and
which have become an accepted way of doing things by a long process of trial
and error.
A traditional economic system is one in which people's economic roles
are the same as those of their parents and grandparents. Societies that produce
goods and services in traditional ways are found today in some parts of South
America, Asia, and Africa. There, people living in an agricultural village still
plant and harvest their own food on their own land. And the ways they produce
clothing and shelter are almost exactly the same as those used in the past.
Tradition decides what these people do for a living and how their work is
performed. Traditional economy provides a sense of security and psychological
67
comfort. Subsequently, there is a relatively low unemployment rate and low
crime rate. A traditional economy allows for a greater degree of autonomy and
little or no money is used.
A traditional economy does not allow for much economic growth and
development as changes are very slow and there is little social mobility. A
traditional economy does not take advantage of technology and there is
relatively little promotion of intellectual and scientific development. A
traditional economy provides few incentives for entrepreneurs, thus limiting
choices for consumers and lowering standards of living.
Market Economic System
A market economic system is one in which a nation's economic decisions
are the result of individual decisions by buyers and sellers in the marketplace.
The market system of economic organization is also commonly described as a free
enterprise or laissez-faire, or capitalist system. We shall use all these terms to stand
for a market economy. Strictly speaking, the pure market of laissez-faire system has
never existed. Whenever there has been some form of political organization, the
political authority has exercised some economic functions (e.g. controlling prices or
levying taxation). Efficiency is best achieved through a market economy where
individual producers each make their own production decisions based on their
own profit motive. Some critics of the free-market argue that property rights are
in conflict with "human" rights. But the critics fail to realize that in a free-market
system, every person has a property right over his own person and his own labor,
and that he can make free contracts for those services.
The framework of a market or capitalist system contains six essential features.
They are:
1. private property
2. freedom of choice and enterprise
3. self-interest as the dominating motive
4. competition
5. a reliance on the price system
6. a very limited role for government.
Command Economic System
A planned economy or directed economy is an economic system in which
the state or government manages the economy. Its most extensive form is
referred to as a command economy,centrally planned economy, or command
and control economy. In such economies, the state or government controls all
major sectors of the economy and formulates all decisions about their use and
about the distribution of income, much like a communist state. The planners
decide what should be produced and direct enterprises to produce those goods.
In a command economic system, the main decision maker is the
government. No person may independently decide to open and run any kind of
business. The government decides what goods and services are to be produced.
And the government sells these goods and services. The government also decides
how the talents and skills of its workers are to be used. Supporters of planned
economies cast them as a practical measure to ensure the production of necessary
68
goods. Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer
preferences, shortages, and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and
thereforecannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free
price system is intended to serve this purpose). Planned economies are
notoriously corrupt. Their inefficiency leads to the formation of informal social
networks.
Mixed Economic System
No country has an economic system that is 100 percent communism,
socialism, or capitalism. All countries today have mixed economic systems or
mixed economies, with some free enterprise and some government ownership.
There is not one single definition for a mixed economy, but relevant aspects
include: a degree of private economic freedom(including privately owned
industry) intermingled with centralized economic planning(which may include
intervention for environmentalism and social welfare, or state ownership of some
of the means of production).
For some states, there is no consensus on whether they are capitalist,
socialist, or mixed economies. Economies in states ranging from the United
States to Cuba have been termed mixed economies.
If the government owns and operates almost all of the nation's means of
production, then that nation's economic system is called communism. China has
a communist economic system. Almost all of the means of production are
publicly owned-that is, owned by the government. Government planners decide
the answers to the basic economic questions. Farming on private plots of land is
sometimes allowed. In recent years, the Chinese government has been allowing
more and more private businesses to operate.
If the government owns and operates many of the nation's major
industries-such as banks, airlines, railroads, and power plants-but allows
individuals to own other businesses, including stores, farms, and factories, that
nation's economic system is called socialism.
Sweden is an example of a country whose economic system is often
described as socialist. Most of its major industries, such as coal mining, electric
power, gas, telephone, and railroads, are owned by the government. Under
Sweden's national health insurance system, the people receive free medical
services all their lives.
If almost all the stores, factories, and farms in a nation are owned and
operated by private individuals or businesses, then its system is called free
enterprise, or capitalism. The U.S. has a free enterprise, or capitalist, economic
system.

Language notes:
we are tempted to say – ми схиляємось до ствердження того, що…
a long process of trial and error– довгий процес випробування та помилок
the pure market of laissez-faire system has never existed – чистий ринок
системи невтручання уряду ніколи не існував

69
how the talents and skills are to be used –як слід використовувати таланти та
навички
a degree of private economic freedom intermingled with centralized economic
planning – ступінь особистої економічної свободи змішана з
централізованим економічним плануванням

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Засіб для виживання; виконувати завданнявиробництватарозподілу; не
зважаючи на виникнення великої різноманітності; для того, щоб вирішити
економічну проблему; почуття безпеки та психологічного
комфорту;братидоуваги; обмежувативибірспоживачів;
вільнепідприємництво; досягтиефективності; критикинеможутьзрозуміти;
визначити з достатньою точністю; створення неформальної соціальної
мережі; надавати дозвіл на ведення приватного бізнесу; контролювати
основні сектори економіки; чистий ринок; характерні риси; структура
ринкової системи; незалежно вирішувати; керувати основними галузями
промисловості; отримуватибезкоштовнімедичніпослуги.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following phrases.

To present itself as; to be tempted to say; in spite of; to come into play; the
essential dilemma; production and distribution; to take advantage of; to solve
economic problems; to do for a living; a sense of security and psychological
comfort; a greater degree of autonomy; incentives for entrepreneurs; to stand for
a market economy; the dominating motive; to formulate decisions; to direct
enterprises; relevant aspects; intermingled with; to be notoriously corrupt;
consumer preferences, shortages and surpluses; to reach a consensus on;fail to
realize.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these
verbs in the text.
Deal, make, say, come, cost, choose, see, do, find, speak, be, sell.

Ex.4.Make up adjective +noun or noun +noun collocations (there may be

several variants). Give examples either from the text or of your own.
Economic, basic, scientific, profit, free, private, decision, government, scarcity.
Problem, property, system, development, enterprise, questions, motive, maker,
ownership.
Model:economic system
e.g. People have made use of a variety of economic systems.

Ex.5. Match up the words on the left with the definitions on the right.

1 aneconomicsystem a economy, with some free enterprise and

70
 some government ownership
2 a traditional economic b an economic system in which the state or
system government manages the economy
3 a market economic c also commonly described as a free
system enterprise or capitalist system
4 a planned economy or d one in which people's economic roles are
directed economy the same as those of their parents and
grandparents
5 mixed economic system e one in which a nation's economic
decisions are the result of individual
decisions made by buyers and sellers in
the marketplace
6 laissez-faire f a way of answering three basic
questions:what, how and for whom to
produce

Ex.6. Choose an appropriate word or a phrase to complete the following

sentences.
Decision maker, a mechanism, traditional, basic and unfinished, in the distant
past, a free enterprise or laissez-faire, a sense of security, owned and operated,
government, in spite of.

1. To an economist, economic society presents itself as __________ for survival.

2. In fact, __________ the appearance of great variety, it is possible to group these
different economic structures into four broad categories.
3. In traditional societies people use methods of production and distribution
devised __________.
4. A __________ economy does not allow for much economic growth and
development as changes are very slow and there is little social mobility.
5. The market system of economic organization is also commonly described as
__________, or capitalist system.
6. Traditional economy provides __________ and psychological comfort.
7. In a command economic system, the main __________ is the government.
8. All countries today have mixed economic systems or mixed economies, with
some free enterprise and some __________ ownership.
9. Government planners decide the answers to the __________ questions.
10.If almost all the stores, factories, and farms in a nation are __________ by
private individuals or businesses, then its system is called free enterprise.

Ex.7. Complete the following sentences with prepositions.

1. _____ an economist, economic society presents itself as a mechanism _____
survival.
2. If we look _____ the different political and social structures which exist in the
world today, we are tempted to say that people have made use _____ , and are
making use _____ , very great varieties _____ economic systems.
71
3. Tradition decides what these people do _____ a living and how their work is
performed.
4. A traditional economy does not allow _____ much economic growth and
development.
5. We shall use all these terms to stand _____ a market economy.
6. Every person has a property right _____ his own person and his own labor, and
that he can make free contracts _____ those services.
7. Its most extensive form is referred _____ as a command economy.
8. Each nation and society thus must make choices and decisions based _____
their own values.
9. There is not one single definition _____ a mixed economy.
10.Economies _____ states ranging _____ the United States _____ Cuba have
been termed mixed economies.

Ex.8. Combine two parts logically to make a complete sentence.

1 If we look at the different a where individual producers each

political and social structures make their own production
which exist in the world decisions based on their own profit
today, the years, motive.
2 There are several basic and b capitalist, socialist, or mixed
unfinished questions economies.
3 Efficiency is best achieved c then that nation's economic system
through a market economy is called communism.
4 Supporters of planned d we are tempted to say that people
economies cast them as have made use of, and are making
use of, very great varieties of
economic systems.
5 For some states, there is no e few incentives for entrepreneurs,
consensus on whether they thus limiting choices for
are consumers.
6 If the government owns and f that in a free-market system, every
operates almost all of the person has a property right over
nation's means of production, his own person and his own
labour.
7 A traditional economy g is 100 percent communism,
provides socialism or capitalism.
8 The critics fail to realize h have been termed mixed
economies.
9 No country has an economic i a practical measure to ensure the
system that production of necessary goods.
10 Economics in states ranging j that must be answered in order to
from the USA to Cuba resolve the problems of
economics.

72
 Ex.9. Look through the text again and replace the words /phrases in italics
with similar ones.
1. The problem of insufficiency requires answers to questions “What to produce?”
“How to produce?” and “Who gets what is produced?”
2. In a traditional economic system tradition decides how peopleearn their daily
bread.
3. A traditional economy doesn’t make good use of technology and there is
relatively little promotion of intellectual and scientific development.
4. The market system of economic organization is described as economic activity
undertaken by private individuals or organizations under private ownership.
5. The political authority has performed some economic functions.
6. The framework of a market system contains six major traits.
7. In a command economy no individual may independently set up and manage
commercial activity.
8. Critics of command economy argue that planners cannot determine consumers’
likes.
9. Planned economies have a bad reputation to act dishonestly in return for money
or personal gain.
10. In mixed economic systems intervention of government may include well-
being of people and protection of the environment.

Ex.10. Translate into English:

1. Економічнесуспільство є засобом для виживання, де люди мають змогу
виконувати завдання виробництва та розподілу.
2. Економічна система - це спосіб відповіді на основні економічні питання –
що, як та для кого виробляти.
3. Проблема дефіциту потребує відповіді на питання, такі як:що виробляти,
як виробляти, та хто отримає те, що було вироблено.
4. Традиції вирішують, як люди заробляють на життя та як виконується їх
робота.
5. У традиційній економічній системі люди виробляють товари та послуги
методами, які були винайдені в далекому минулому.
6. В ринковій економічній системі всі питання з виробництва та розподілу
вирішують покупці та продавці на ринку.
7. В адмістративно-командній економічній системі держава та уряд
контролюють основні сектори економіки.
8. Структура ринкової економіки має шість характерних рис.
9. Немає жодної країни, що має чисту економічну систему, яка на 100
відсотків є традиційною, адміністративно-командною, чи ринковою.
10.Майже всіма засобами виробництва в країні з командною економічною
системою володіє уряд.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

73
 Ex.11. Ask questions to which the following sentences may be answers.
1. As a mechanism for survival.
2. It is possible to group these different economic structures into four broad
categories.
3. The oldest and the most common way of solving economic problems was that of
tradition.
4. Strictly speaking, the pure market of laissez-faire system has never existed.
5. Supporters of planned economies cast them as a practical measure to ensure the
production of necessary goods.
6. Efficiency is best achieved through a market economy where individual
producers each make their own production decisions based on their own profit
motive.
7. All countries today have mixed economic systems or mixed economies, with
some free enterprise and some government ownership.
8. Economies in states ranging from the United States to Cuba have been termed
mixed economies.
9. If the government owns and operates almost all of the nation's means of
production, then that nation's economic system is called communism.
10. The U.S. has a free enterprise, or capitalist, economic system.

Ex.12. Answer the questions:

1. How does every economic society present itself for an economist?
2. What are the basic types of economic systems?
3. What kind of questions may help to solve economic problems satisfactorily?
4. Why does every society face the problem of resource allocation?
5. What methods of production and distribution are used in a traditional economic
system?
6. Describe advantages and disadvantages of traditional economies.
7. Who makes economic decisions in a market economic system?
8. List six essential features of a market economy.
9. Describe the role of government in a planned economy.
10.What are disadvantages of planned economies?
11.Define a mixed economic system.
12.What is the fourth basic question that should be asked by every society?
13.Who owns the means of production in the discussed economic system?

Ex.13. Make a presentation of the topic “Types of Economic systems”.

WRITING

Ex.14. Make a plan for a summary of Text A.

Ex.15. Write a brief summary of the text (25-30 sentences).

Ex.16. Write an essay (100-150 words) about:.

74
a) Pros and cons of command economies.
b) The role of government in a free-enterprise system.

DISCUSSION POINTS

Ex.17. With your partners do the following.

Explain the basis on which economists in classifying economic systems
distinguish between ‘market’ and ‘command’ economies. On what basis, if
any, is it possible to say which type of economy is superior?
 Establish criteria such as resource ownership, for comparing market and
command economies.
 Explain how welfare criteria can be used to judge the success of an individual
economic system.
 One economic system is superior to another only if it is better able to satisfy
welfare criteria. Discuss the evidence.
 Avoid making subjective, political statements of opinion.

Ex.18. Can you explain the following sayings in your own words? What
other sayings about different kinds of economic systems do you know?
1. Government's view of the economy could be summed up in a few short
phrases: If it moves, tax it. If it keeps moving, regulate it. And if it stops moving,
subsidize it.Ronald Reagan (American 40th US President (1981- 1989, 1911-
2004)
2. The first lesson of economics is scarcity: There is never enough of anything to
satisfy all those who want it. The first lesson of politics is to disregard the first
lesson of economics.Thomas Sowell (American writer and Economist) (1924 –
2006)
3. I don't know if I can live on my income or not - the government won't let me
try it. Bob Thaves, the creator of the comic strip Frank and Ernest (1924-2006)
4. We have long had death and taxes as the two standards of inevitability. But
there are those who believe that death is the preferable of the two. "At least," as
one man said, "there's one advantage about death; it doesn't get worse every time
Congress meets.Erwin N. Griswold, Solicitor General of the United States,(1904
- 1994)
5. Give a man a fish and he will eat for a day. Teach a man to fish and he will eat
for a lifetime. Teach a man to create an artificial shortage of fish and he will eat
steak. Jay Leno, an American stand-up comedian and television host, (b. 1950)

TEXT B:COMMAND ECONOMY

75
Ex.19. Scan the text bellow and give headlines to each paragraph.

A command economy is where economic decisions are planned out in

detail by a central government authority. The plan is implemented through laws,
regulations and directives. Businesses follow production and hiring targets
instead of individually and freely responding to the laws of supply and demand.
Central planners seek to replace the forces that operate in a free market
economy, and the customs that guide a traditional economy, to attain specific
societal goals.
The concept of a command economy was developed by Viennese
economist Otto Neurath as a method to control the hyperinflation after World
War I. The phrase comes from the German "Befehlswirtschaft" and was initially
used to describe the Nazi economy. However, centrally planned economies were
in existence before then, including the Incan empire in 16th century Peru, the
Mormons in 19th century Utah, and even the U.S. during World War II
mobilization.
A modern centrally planned economy can be identified by the following
five characteristics:
1. The government creates a central economic plan for all sectors and
regions of the country. It typically starts with a five-year plan to set the
overriding economic goals. This is broken down into shorter-term plans to
convert the goals into actionable objectives. The goal of the five-year plan is to
generate robust economic growth, increase production efficiency and best utilize
scarce resources. For the most part, a command economy needs a political
system that is also centrally planned.
2. The government allocates all resources according to the central plan.
The goal is to use the nation's capital, labor and natural resources in the most
effective way possible. This pretty much eliminates unemployment by promising
to use each person's skills and abilities to their highest capacity.

76
 3. The central plan sets the priorities for production of all goods and
services. The goal is to supply enough food, housing and other basics to meet the
needs of everyone in the country. In addition, it may have other priorities, such
as mobilizing for war or increasing the nation's economic growth.
4. The government owns a monopoly business in industries deemed
important to the goals of the economy. This usually includes finance, utilities,
and automotive. There is no domestic competition in these industries.
5. The government creates the laws that regulate economic activity. These
include regulations, directives and wage/price controls to implement the central
plan.
Centrally planned economies are great at mobilizing economic resources
quickly, effectively and on a large scale. They can execute massive projects,
create industrial power and attain imperative social goals. They are able to
override individual self-interest, and subjugate the welfare of the general
population, to achieve a greater agreed-upon goal for the society at large.
Command economies are also good at wholly transforming societies to
conform to the planner's vision, as in Stalinist Russia, Maoist China and Castro's
Cuba. For example, the command economy in Russia built up an effective
military might and quickly rebuilt the economy after World War II.
This rapid mobilization often means command economies mow down
other societal needs. For example, workers are often told what jobs they must
fulfill and are even discouraged from moving. However, people won't ignore
their own needs for long. They often develop a shadow economy, or black
market, to buy and sell the things the command economy isn't producing. The
efforts of leaders to control this market can ultimately weaken support for the
central planning authority.
Instead of leading to efficiency, command economies often produce too
much of one thing and not enough of another. That's because it's difficult for the
central planners to get up-to-date information about consumers' needs. In
addition, prices are set by the central plan, and so can't be used to measure or
control demand. Instead, rationing often becomes necessary.
Command economies are not good at stimulating innovation. Businesses
are focused on following directives, and are discouraged from making any
autonomous decisions.
Centrally planned economies also have trouble producing the right exports
at global market prices. It's difficult for the various planning sectors to
coordinate with each other, not to mention foreign countries' needs.
Cuba, North Korea, China, Russia and Iran are the most commonly
referenced examples of command economies. Russia's Gosplan has been the
most studied. It was also the longest running, lasting from the 1930s until the late
1980s.

Ex.20. Read the text and decide whether the statements are true or false.
Correct the false statements.

77
1. In a command economy, companies carry out the implemented plan on the basis
of the laws of supply and demand.
2. The concept of a command economy was first put into practice in the US during
the WWII mobilization.
3. In a command economy, the government allocates resources in line with the
central plan, usually for a five-year period.
4. The goal of the central plan is to provide only basic goods and does not have any
other priorities.
5. Such important industries as finance and utilities are the state monopoly.
6. Being overregulated, the command type of economic systems doesn’t have any
advantages.
7. As in a free-market economy, prices set by the central plan measure and control
demand.
8. A shadow economy can appear as a result of peoples’ inability to satisfy their
needs.
9. In a command economy, businesses are free to introduce innovations to improve
their production and selling practice.
10. Cuba, South Korea, China, Iraq and Russia are the most frequently used
examples of command economies.

Ex.21.Read the text more thoroughly and answer the questions.

1. Who makes economic decisions in a command economy?
2. When was the concept of a command economy developed?
3. What are the goal and duration of central economic plans?
4. Is unemployment characteristic of the command economic system?
5. How is economic activity regulated in a command economy?
6. Is the rapid mobilization of economic resources inherent in this type a positive
or negative factor?
7. What aspects is the command economy most strong in?
8. Why is rationing necessary in this type of economy?
9. Give examples of command economies.

TEXT C: THE GOOD (AND BAD) MODEL GUIDE

Before reading
If we classify economic models basing on
countries’ geographical location, do you think
the countries within one group - American,
Asian and European economic models – have
the same features? How can you briefly
characterize them?

Reading

78
 Read an article from The Economist and do the tasks following the text.

A SUMMARY of economic models' best and worst features:

(1) The American model. Good points: flexible labour and product
markets; low taxes; fierce competition; and shareholder capitalism, which puts
pressure on managers to maximise profits. Bad points: wide income inequalities;
low welfare benefits; poor quality of “public goods”, such as primary and
secondary education; low investment and very low savings rates.
(2) The Japanese model. Good points: lifetime employment encouraged
loyalty and high skill levels; public services, especially education, of high
quality; close relations between banks and other firms; corporate cross-
shareholdings shelter managers from impatient shareholders, allowing them to
take a long-term view of investment. This, it was once argued, gave Japan an
advantage over American capitalism, obsessed with short-term profit. Bad
points: these “virtues” are now seen as vices at the root of the country's
problems: firms sheltered from the full force of the market feel little pressure to
use capital efficiently.
(3) The East Asian model. The region has long been an intellectual
battleground for economists. Some saw East Asia's rapid growth as proof of the
virtues of market-friendly policies—low taxation, flexible labour markets and
open trade. Others argued that South Korea's industrial policy was evidence of
the possible gains from selective government intervention. The truth is that there
is no single “East Asian model”: economic policies vary hugely from relatively
liberal Hong Kong to heavy-handed South Korea; from widespread government
corruption in Indonesia to squeaky-clean Singapore. What the East Asian
countries shared was an openness to trade and higher savings than in other
emerging economies.
(4) The German social-market model. Good points: excellent education
and training; a generous welfare state and narrow wage dispersion breed social
harmony; close relations between firms and banks assist high investment. Bad
points: overly powerful trade unions, high taxes, overgenerous jobless benefits
and widespread labour and product market restrictions have led to persistently
high unemployment.
(5) The Swedish model. Once advertised as a “third way” between
capitalism and socialism. Good points: relatively open markets combined with a
comprehensive welfare state, narrow wage dispersion and employment schemes
that pushed the jobless back into work. Bad points: rising inflation and recession
increased the budget deficit, and as unemployment rose, costly job schemes were
no longer affordable; high personal taxes blunted incentives to work.
(6) The New Zealand model. Radical reforms in the 1980s transformed
the rich world's most regulated and closed economy into one of the most free-
market, with the lowest tax rates, lowest trade barriers and widespread
privatisation. Bad point: a big increase in inequality.
(7) The Dutch model: Once an extreme example of Eurosclerosis, some
now see the Netherlands as a model for the rest of Europe. Workers have
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 accepted smaller pay rises in return for more jobs; rules on part-time and
temporary jobs have been relaxed; and social-security taxes have been trimmed.
The result has been a dramatic fall in unemployment—to 3.6%, compared with
an average in the euro-11 area of 10.6%. The Dutch model appears to offer a
way to cut unemployment without big cuts in the welfare state or wide pay
differentials. However, the headline jobless rate paints too rosy a picture: one-
third of workers are part-time, the highest proportion in the rich world, and an
unusually large number of people receive disability or sickness benefits and so
are excluded from the jobless count.

Task 1.Compare European models − German, Swedish and Dutch: what they
have in common and in what they are different.
Task 2.Compare European economic models with American, Asian (Japanese
and East Asian) and New Zealand. Say which of the models you consider the
most effective.
Task 3.If somebody is obsessed with an idea (para.2), is he
a) disagreeing strongly with it;
b) refusing to support it;
c) having the mind excessively preoccupied with this idea.
Task 4.How do you understand the term “emerging economies” (para.3)? Give
other examples of emerging economies.
Task 5.Choose the best synonym for the verb “to trim (taxes)” (para.7):
a) to enlarge;
b) to reduce;
c) to keep stable.

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

FINDING THE WAY. GIVING DIRECTIONS

A Describing location

Ex.1. Answer the questions.

1. How do you get to the university? (by bus, car, train,
bike, on foot)
2. How far is the university from your home?
3. How long does it take you to get to the university?
4. Can you describe where your university is situated and how to get there?

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Ex.2. Look at the plan. Is the information true or false?

* you are here

1. The jewelry store is behind the Italian restaurant.
2. The bar is on Second Avenue.
3. The police station is on the left of the fire department.
4. The toy store is across from the Chinese restaurant.
5. The movie theater is opposite the book store.
6. The sporting goods store is behind the furniture store.

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7. The bar is next to the Chinese restaurant.
8. The women’s wear store is between the Italian restaurant and the sporting goods
store.
9. The men’s wear store is on/at the corner of Pine Street.

Ex.2. Fill in the missing preposition.

1. The women’s wear store is _____ the jewelry store.
2. The movie theatre is _____ the book store.
3. The women’s wear store is _____ the jewelry store and the bar.
4. The toy store is _____ of Main Street and Forest Street.
5. The jewelry store is _____ the Italian restaurant.

Ex.3. Study the language of describing position below and use the information
to answer these questions.
Where is the office? Is it in building A, B, or C? Describe the position of the
other two.

- The office is near the station. (It’s only two minutes on foot.)
- It's in / on Liberty Avenue, on/at the corner, on the left.
- It's next to the post office. (They are side by side.)
- And it's opposite / across from the bank. (On the other side of the road.)

Ex.4. Look at the picture below. If someone gives you the following
instructions, where will you arrive?
1. Go straight on, take the second turning on your left. Pass the pub. It’s opposite
the stadium.
2. Go straight on, turn right on Cliff Street. Go up Oxford Street. Turn left. It is
between the station and the pub.
3. Go ahead. Turn the second turning on your right. Pass the bank and the chemist.
It’s at the corner of Oak Street and Oxford Street.
4. Go ahead. Turn right. Go along Cliff Street. Turn right again. It is on your right
next to the baker.

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5. Go along Pine Street. Cross Cliff Street. It is between the hospital and the bank.

B. Giving directions.

Memorise the language of giving directions:

- come out of the General Post Office on Eighth

Avenue;
- turn left into / onto Eighth Avenue;
- go along /up / down Eighth Avenue;
- take the first right onto West 33rd Street;
- walk past Madison Square Garden and Penn Station;
- go across Seventh Avenue, Avenue of the Americas, and Broadway;
- go into the last building on the left;
- take the lift (AmE elevator) to the 102nd floor.

Ex.5. Read the following conversations with visitors to the town.

Conversation 1
A: Excuse me, how do I get to the shopping centre?
B: Go along Princes Street, turn first left at the crossroads, then turn second right. The
shopping centre is about 50 metres along that road, in the pedestrian area.
A: So, down Princes Street, left at the crossroads and then second right?
B: Yes, that's right.
A: Thanks a lot.
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Conversation 2
A: Excuse me, how do I get to the museum?
B: Let me see ... yes. Go along this road. At the traffic lights turn left into Green Street
and go straight on to Abbey Square. The museum is in the Square, on the right.
A: Sorry, could you say that again?
B: Yes. Go along this road. At the traffic lights turn left into Green Street. Then go
straight on to Abbey Square. The museum is in the Square, on the right.
A: Thank you very much.

Conversation 3
A: Excuse me, is this the way to the sports centre?
B: No, the sports centre is in the opposite direction. Go along this road. There's a
bridge on the left. Go over the bridge, then turn first right, then first left. The
sports centre is at the end of the road, on the left, past the cinema.
A: Many thanks.

Conversation 4
A: Excuse me, can you give me directions to the convention center?
B: Yes, sir. It’s really close to here. Actually it’s within walking distance.
A: That’s what I heard. It’s a nice morning so I wanted to walk there.
B: Ok. Well, when you leave the hotel, cross the street and go right. When you see
the library, turn left. That should be one Forty Second Street West (142nd W.)
Head straight for a block and the convention center will be there on your right.
A: Thank you so much
B: You’re welcome.

Ex. 6. Using the map below, explain to a person new to your town how to get
the desired thing. Choose from among:
get some hiking boots, get some cat food, buy some milk, work out, buy some pants,
grab a hamburger, get some aspirin, see a movie, buy a book, mail a letter, buy
some CDs, get a bite to eat.
The first dialogue is an example.

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1. A: Do you know where I can get a cup of coffee?
B: Sure. You could try the Starry Café.
A: Where’s that?
B: It’s on 2nd Avenue across from the pharmacy.
A: Thanks.
B: No problem.
2. A: Do you know where I can __________?
B: Sure. You could try the ___________.
A: Where’s that?
B: It’s on 2nd Avenue above the Grocery.
A: Thanks.
B: You are welcome.
3. A: Do you know where I can __________?
B: Sure. You could try the ___________.
A: Where’s that?
B: It’s at the end of Elm Street below the Town Pub.
A: Thanks a lot.
B: That's OK.
4. A: Do you know where I can __________?
B: Sure. You could try the ___________.
A: Where’s that?
B: It’s right on the corner of 2nd Avenue and Elm Street.
A: Thanks.
B: No problem.
5. A: Do you know where I can __________?
B: Sure. You could try the ___________.
A: Where’s that?
B: It’s just at the corner of 2nd Avenue and Elm Street above the Chemist's.
A: Thank you.
B: Not at all.
6. A: Do you know where I can __________?

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B: Sure. You could try the ___________.
A: Where’s that?
B: It’s on 2nd Avenue just opposite Max Records on the second floor.
A: Thanks.
B: You're welcome.

Ex.7. Work in pairs. Use the words below to complete the dialogues. You
don’t need to use them all.
start get on come finish stop change get off go take go to

1. A: Excuse me.
B: Yes?
A: I want to ______ New Road.
B: Go to the right platform. ______ the first train. ______ at Yellow Circle to
the train for Youth’s Gardens. ______ at Jankie’s which is on the New Road.
A: Thank you. How many stations from Yellow Circle?
B: It’s the second station.
A: Thank you very much.
B: You’re welcome.

2. A: Excuse me.
B: Can I help you?
A: How do I get to Crossroads?
B: ______ any train from platform 1. ______ at King’s Yard. ______ the local
train - it’s yellow. ______ at the next station. That’s it.
A: Thank you.
B: That’s quite all right.

Ex.8. Fill in the blanks for each extract. Use the following words.
across your corner down exit far front how right looking lost miss
moment off on take to transfer way

Directions by Street Name and Nearby Landmarks:

A: You look ____________ . Can I help you?
B: Yeah. I’m ____________ for the Opera Theater. Do you know where it is?
A: It’s on the ____________ of Vladimirskaya Street and Bogdan Khmelnytsky
Street. It’s not far from the Golden Gates Metro station. You can’t __________ it.

Directions by Underground or Bus:

A: Excuse me. Can I trouble you for a ____________ ?
B: Sure. What’s wrong?
A: I’m lost. Do you know ____________ to get ____________ the Olympic
Stadium?

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B: The easiest ____________ to get there is probably by underground. Just
____________ the Central Line to Khreschatyk Station, ____________ to Maidan
Nezalezhnosti on Blue Line and get ____________ at Olympiyska Station. When
you go out any ____________ , it should be right in ____________ of you.

Directions by Foot or Car:

A: Can I get to the Premier Palace Hotel from here ____________ foot?
B: Sure. It’s not that ____________ . Just go ____________ Bogdan Khmelnytsky
Street, then turn ____________ to Pushkinskaya Street and then left to Taras
Shevchenko Street. The hotel should be on ____________ right. It’s
____________ from Bessarabska Square.

Using the above dialogues as a model, explain how to get to your university or
home by underground or bus, on foot, by street name or nearby landmarks.

Ex.9. Look at the office plan. Can you match the questions and answers?

1 Excuse me. Where's the lift?

2 Excuse me. Where are the stairs?
3 Where's the computer room?
AWhere's the drinks machine?
5 Where are the toilets, please?

a On the right, just after the lift,

b It's over there. The first door on the right,
c It's just past the stairs. The third door on the right.
d Go through the doors at the end, and they're on the right,
e Go to the end of the corridor, through the doors, and turn left.
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Ex.10. John Smith has come to Glick and Warburg on a business trip, but he
can’t find where the company’s office is. He calls Laura Sands, the company’s
manager, on his mobile. Read the dialogue from the Business Basics course
and answer these questions.
1 Where is John exactly? 2 Which floor is Glick and Warburg on? 3 Mark the
position of Glick and Warburg on this floor plan.

L.: Laura Sands. How can I help you?

V: Hi, Laura. This is John.
L: John! Where are you?
V: I'm in your building but I can't find your offices.
L: Are you on the fourteenth floor?
V: No. I'm on the fourth. At reception they told me to go the fourth.
L: No, we're on the fourteenth, John. Are you near an elevator?
V: Yes, there's one just next to me. It's Elevator D.
L: Elevator D. OK. So take the elevator to the fourteenth floor. When you come
out of the elevator, turn left. You'll see the Conference Center in front of you.
Then take the first right.
V: One second. So that's left at the elevator, then first right.
L: Yeah. Go along the corridor, past the Conference Center. At the end of the
corridor you come to a small escalator. Go up the escalator, and Glick and
Warburg is immediately on the right, just opposite the Business Center.
V: So that's along the corridor, up the escalator, and you're on the right.
L: Yeah - just opposite the Business Center. It's easy to find. There are signs
everywhere.
V: OK, thanks, Laura. I'll be with you in a moment. Bye.
L: Good luck, John!

Ex.11. You work in an office on the fourteenth floor. Decide where it is on the
floor plan above, but don't tell your partner. Give your partner directions
from one of the four lifts / elevators. Your partner must say which office it is.

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 GRAMMAR EXERCISES

PAST TENSES

Ex.1. Define the tense forms in the sentences and translate them into
Ukrainian.
Model:
He solved (Past Simple) the cross-word yesterday. He was solving (Past
Continuous) the cross-word puzzle when he heard (Past Simple) the telephone
ringing. He had solved(Past Perfect) the cross-word puzzle by the time the film
started (Past Simple). He had been solving (Past Perfect Continuous) the cross-
word puzzle for half an hour.
1. Yesterday I was ringing up to my secretary but nobody answered. I was ringing
her from 3 till 5 o’clock. At last she answered at eight o’clock in the evening.
She told me that she had been working on her report all that time.
2. The weather was terrible. It was raining heavily. She had been standing at the
bus stop for half an hour but there was no sign of any transport.
3. When I arrived, he was staying in the same hotel where we first had met.
4. One day I was sitting in my office in a small town on the west coast of England.
It was five o’clock in the afternoon. I had already finished my work for the day
and was resting quietly in my favourite armchair. I was thinking of the days that
had gone by, especially of those days that I had spent on the Coral Islands in the
Pacific.

Ex.2. Define what tense forms should be used in the following micro-
situations. You don’t need to translate the sentences.
1. Ми погодились, коли вона запропонувала нам поїхати у відрядження.
Вона запевняла, що організація була чудовою.
2. Мені дзвонив хто-небудь 20 хвилин тому? – Так, твій партнер з бізнесу. –
Що він сказав? – Він сказав, що замовив тенісний корт на сьому годину.
3. Де ти був учора ? Я приходив до тебе. Я подзвонив кілька разів, але ніхто
не відповів. – Я був на виставці наших товарів. Я працював там кілька годин,
коли ти прийшов до мене.
4. Жінка сиділа біля вікна і думала. Вона думала про те, що її колега не
повідомив її перед тим, як поїхав до Києва.
5. Коли я зустрів її пів години тому, її очі були червоні. Я зрозумів, що вона
плакала.
6. Сара прийшла додому о шостій. Вона повечеряла і почала читати книжку,
коли раптом згадала, що вона забула подзвонити босу.
7. Вони йшли по вулиці і розмовляли, коли вона раптом забула, що хотіла
сказати.

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8. Вони прийшли додому опівночі, тому що збори закінчились пізно. Коли
вони зайшли до квартири, то побачили, що всі вже сплять.

THE PAST SIMPLE TENSE

Ex.3. Write the Past Simple of the following verbs Refer to the Table of Past
Tenses – Spelling.
Smile, argue, cancel, reply, plan, file, point, die, ship, wave, map, carry, lie, stop,
use, relax, stay, study, tie, cram, try, open, drop, hurry, step, borrow, drag, permit,
refer, differ, control, hope, hop, annoy.

Ex.4. Write the Past Simple of the verbs in the list below. Systematize them
into three groups according to the reading rules. Then, read the verbs out.
/d/ - після голосних та дзвінких приголосних – play-played
/t/ - після дієслів, які закінчуються на /k/, /s/, /ts/,/f/,/p/ – watch-watched
/id/ - після дієслів, які закінчуються на /t/ або /d/ – add- added

Wait, start, tape, explain, charm, smash, remind, hope, shout, rain, aim, happen,
listen, tame, laugh, help, wish, wave, visit, kiss, look, miss, enjoy, dive, crash,
clean, jump, arrange.

Ex.5. Write the past forms of these irregular verbs.

Be, broadcast, burn, catch, choose, cost, cut, drive, eat, find, fly, get, have, meet,
see, send, stand, take, teach, think, wake, and write.

Ex.6. Fill in the blanks with a suitable verb in the correct form.
find, meet, burn, hit, choose, ride, begin, buy, lend, teach, fly, break, catch, cut

1. My friend lent me the sum of money I asked him for.

2. Larson _________a horse when he lived in the village.
3. The boys ________ the ball and ________ the windowyesterday.
4. My group mate ________ the topic for the course paper last week.
5. The Browns ________ to Paris on holiday last year.
6. She ________ her school mate at the theatre last night.
7. The wooden hut ________ fire and ________ last summer.
8. George ________ the latest model of Nissan last month.
9. She ________ the ring she had lost at the wedding ceremony.
10.Father ________ his son to drive last summer.

Ex.7. The main forms of the following verbs are often misused.
beat — beat — beaten lay — laid — laid
bite — bit — bitten lie — lay — lain
feel — felt — felt lie — lied — lied
fall — fell — fallen rise — rose — risen
find — found — found raise — raised — raised
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found — founded — founded saw — sawed — sawed
hang — hung — hung sew — sewed — sewn
hang — hanged — hanged sink- sank-sunk
draw — drew — drawn stick — stuck — stuck
withdraw — withdrew — withdrawn strike — struck — struck

Answer the questions using the above mentioned verbs.

“When did they sink the submarine?” –“They sank it a month ago.”
1. When did they lay the table? 2. Where did they hang the picture? 3. When
did they withdraw the troops from the country? 4. When did they raise the
workers’ wages? 5. Where did they find the manuscript? 6. When did they
found the museum? 7. When did they draw up the contract? 8. When did they
lay off the workers? 9. When did they ring the bell? 10. When did the clock
strike? 11. When did they find the new workers? 12. When did they feel bad?
13. Why did they lie to us? 14. When did the dog bite you? 15. When did they
saw the branches? 16. When did you sew the dress?

Ex.8.Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms of the Past Simple.
John had a bad day. It happened to him exactly as one humorous rhyme says:
He (oversleep) and (miss) his train,
(Slip) on the sidewalk in the pouring rain.
(Sprain) his ankle, (skin) his knees,
(Break) his glasses, and (lose) his keys.
So, when he (get) home, he (look) angry.

Ex.9. Choose suitable time expressions and put them in the correct position.

yesterday, a week ago, last month/ week/ year, two years ago, an hour ago, on
Tuesday/ Friday/ Sunday, in 2012

1. I went to the office by taxi.

2. They signed the contract.
3. They cut their living expenses by half.
4. Mr. Mckinley founded this hotel.
5. The prices fell down sharply.
6. This purchase cost us a fortune.
7. Our company sold this building to our partners.
8. The BBC broadcast the match live from Paris.
9. Jimmy flew to Amsterdam on business.
10. Luckily, my friend lent me some money.
11. The students of my group flew to California.
12. His assistant came at 12 o’clock.
13. They started this company.
14. Mary and Jane bought absolutely similar cars.
15. His HR manager taught him how to behave at the interview.
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Ex.10. Rewrite the sentences in the negative. Look at the example provided.
1. My brother found his watch. – My brotherdidn’t find his watch.
2. You jumped high. – ______________________.
3. Albert played squash. – ______________________.
4. The teacher tested our English. – ______________________.
5. Fiona visited her grandma. – ______________________.
6. He washed the car. – ______________________.
7. You were thirsty. – ________________________.
8. She forgave her husband. - __________________.
9. He had a computer. – ______________________.
10.I bought bread. – __________________________.
11.You saw the house. – ______________________.

Ex.11. Write questions in the Past Simple.

Model:
you / walk / the dog –Did you walk the dog?
1. she / home / get – ____________________________?
2. Anna / the window / open
3. you / in the garden / work – ______________________?
4. you / a song / sing – ____________________________?
5. she / on a chair / sit – ___________________________?
6. you / the castle / visit – __________________________?
7. Jenny / the door / lock – _________________________?
8. she / happy / be – _______________________________?
9. Greg / the ball / kick – ___________________________?
10.the car / at the corner / stop – ______________________?

Ex.12. Put the verbs in brackets into the most suitable form (affirmative,
negative or interrogative). Make other necessary changes.
1. The construction of the business centre ________ (start) a month ago.
2. It ________ (be) bitterly cold yesterday. I ________ (not put) on my warm coat
and I ________ (catch) a cold.
3. The postman ________ (bring) the morning mail only at 12 o’clock.
4. I ______(see) you the other day coming out of the library with a stack of books.
5. We ________ (have) a picnic yesterday, but the rain ________ (spoil) the
whole pleasure.
6. You ________ (go) to the Crimea when you ________ (be) a child?
7. As soon as I came up, they _______ (get) into the taxi and _______ (go) away.
8. What places of interest you ________ (see) when you ________ (be) in Italy?
9. Every winter Nick ________ (go) to the Swiss Alps to ski.
10.He ________ (come) in, ________ (take) off his hat, ________ (move) a chair
to the table and ________ (join) the conversation.

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11.When he ________ (arrive)? The plane was delayed and he ________ (come)
two hours later.
12.How much your bag ________ (cost)? – I ________ (pay) $200 for it.
13. When Valerie worked late, Carl always _________ (walk) her home.

Ex.13. These statements may have inaccurate information. If you don’t agree
with them, respond in the negative and give accurate information.
Model:
Agatha Christie was a very popular Australian writer.
– No, she wasn’t. She was a very popular English writer.
1. You started learning English last year.
2. Michelangelo painted the Mona Lisa.
3. You worked part-time in a bank last year.
4. Shakespeare wrote detective stories.
5. Abraham Lincoln was the first president of the USA.
6. Michael Jackson died at the age of 60.
7. Merriam and you studied at the library together yesterday.
8. You went on holiday to the Canary Islands last summer.
9. You saw “The Titanic” at the weekend.
10.Uma Thurman starred in the film “Pretty Woman”.

Ex.14. Make up questions to the phrases below, using most suitable time
references from the box. Give short and full answers. Your sentences must be
in the Past Simple.
two hours ago, a few years ago, yesterday, last afternoon, last night, last
Saturday, in your/my childhood, after breakfast/dinner, for her birthday

Model:
Meet a friend at the theatre.
- Did you meet your friend at the theatre yesterday?
- No, I didn’t. I met him in the café.
1. Hear it on the news.
2. Live in the house around the corner.
3. Go to London on business.
4. Take a long walk after lectures.
5. Negotiate the contract with your partners.
6. Borrow some money from your friend.
7. Find a new friend at University.
8. Have a cup of coffee before work.
9. Take the book back to the store.
10. Get a very tempting offer.
11. See a person who is very generous.
12. Send your Mother a dozen roses.

Ex.15. Make up 10 tag questions, using phrases in Ex. 12. Give short answers.
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Model:
You lived in the house around the corner.
- A few years ago you lived in the house around the corner, didn’t you?
- Yes, I did. /No, I didn’t.

Ex.16. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with proper auxiliary verbs to complete
the questions following the text.
People used to get water mostly from streams, lakes and rivers. Then cities
started growing. This brought many people to one place. They needed more water
for their homes and factories.
Sometimes it didn’t rain for a long time. Then the rivers had very little water
left. People learned to save water for these dry times. They built places in which
they stored water. They called these places reservoirs.
Reservoirs hold water until people in cities need it. Large pipes carry water
from reservoirs to the city. People also get water from wells.
Years ago, people lifted water out of wells in buckets. This was hard work and
took a long time. Now they pump the water up. The pump makes it easier for
people to get water where they want it.
1. Where _______ people use to get water from?
2. What _______ started growing?
3. Why _______ the rivers have very little water left?
4. What _______ people learn to do for the dry times?
5. What _______ people build to store water?
6. How long _______ reservoirs hold water?
7. How ______ people lift water out of wells years ago?
8. How long ______ it take them to lift water out of wells?
9. What ______ the way to get water now?
10. _______ the pump make it easier to get water they want?

used to / would + infinitive

Ex.17. Stella has found a new job and her life has changed. Look at the chart
below and write what she used to or didn’t use to / never used to do in the past.
Some time ago Now
She worked as a school teacher. She works at the university.
She lived in a small town. She lives in the capital.
She lived in a small house. She lives in a big flat.
She didn’t get up early. She gets up very early.
She didn’t earn much money. She earns a lot of money.
She walked to get to work. She drives her car to work.
She had a dog. She has a dog and two cats.
She didn’t have good neighbours. She has very nice neighbours.
She didn’t have a family. She has a husband and two daughters.
She never travelled. She travels with her family a lot.

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Ex.18. Think of suitable verbs to complete the sentences. Look at the example
provided.
1. There used to be a very good public library here. Now there isn’t any. We
have to go either to the University library or to the National Library in the city
centre.
2. Customers didn’t use to ______ shopping from home.
3. I used to ______ in that house over there.
4. The Moody Blues used to ______ very popular when I was young.
5. We used to _______ a piano, but we sold it.
6. I used to _______ to the cinema a lot, but I never get the time now.
7. I used to ______ that he was really intelligent but I've changed my mind.
8. He used to ______ a lot of money but he lost it all investing in Web sites.
9. In the 1950's English people used to ______ to the radio much more than
they do now.
10. My sister didn’t use to ______ out much, but now she’s never at home!
11.Did she use to _______ in Australia when she was a child?
12.What time did you use to ______ to bed when you were a student?
13. Did you use to _______ long hair?
14.Did you use to _______ much money on clothes, when you were young?

Ex.19.Say what you used to do but now you don’t. Use but now…, but not any
more, but not any longer to make a contrast between the past and the
present.Two sentences are given to you as an example.
Model:
I used to like eating hamburgers, but I can’t stand them now.
I used to dislike Colin but I often see him now, and we are good friends.
You may use the following prompts: watch the BBC news, be very punctual,
study at school, go skating every winter, have a dog, play the piano, drink coffee,
spend a lot of money on clothes.

Ex.20. Complete these sentences with used to or would.

Notice that would is not used with state verbs (be, have, dislike, etc.)
I ______ live in a small house in the country when I was a little girl. I ______ get
up every day at 7.30 because I lived not far from school. My grandmother ______
get our breakfast ready because my parents ______ start their work very early.
Then my father ______ drive me to school. The lessons ______ start at 9.00. We
stayed at school till 4 p.m. because I ______ participate in a lot of after-school
activities. In the afternoon I ______ walk home alone because father didn’t pick
me up. He ______ work late in the office. My parents ______ work a lot but now
they are pensioners and spend a lot of time with their grandchildren.

Ex.21. Translate into English using used to or would to express repeated

actions or states in the past.
1. Я раніше користувалась комп’ютерним центром. Зараз я маю свій
ноутбук.
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2. Ви поїдете на роботу на машині? – Навіть не знаю. Раніше я їздила на
машині, а зараз вона часто ламається.
3. Раніше ми були добрими друзями, але зараз ми бачимось дуже рідко.
4. Вона раніше дуже рідко носила окуляри, бо вважала, що вони їй не
пасують.
5. Мої сусіди раніше жили в маленькому містечку.
6. Ми , бувало, зустрічали свято з нашою великою сім’єю. Зараз багато з нас
живуть в різних містах.
7. Коли мені було 14 років, ми жили у Львові. Зараз ми живемо в Полтаві.
8. Я прибирав свою квартиру сам, коли жив один. Зараз це робить моя
дружина.

Ex.22. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. I lay the papers on your table.
2. In 1994, Christian Rucker aged 24, got out of magazines and started her own
business – she found The White Company.
3. Ron worryed that he might lose his job.
4. How much they paid you last month?
5. He used to lay awake worrying about work.
6. For some reason, they canceled their tour to New Zealand.
7. Did you used to eat a lot of sweets when you were a child?
8. She hanged a picture on the wall.
9. Do you feel that he chose the wrong career?
10. She lied on the sofa because of a severe migraine headache.
11. As the summer was very dry, the apples felt down from the trees.
12. There was a party on Friday at your house, wasn’t it?

Ex.23. Translate into English.

1. Мій брат вивчав менеджмент в університеті.
2. Я раніше часто грав у теніс, а тепер я не маю часу.
3. Коли ти переїхав до Києва? – Близько п’яти років тому.
4. Прибутки компанії різко впали в 2012 році.
5. Директор провів нараду з керівниками відділів, а потім поїхав у
відрядження до Вени.
6. Нам не сподобалась п’єса, тому ми пішли раніше.
7. Ми часто, бувало, писали листи один одному, зараз же, в основному,
надсилаємо текстові та електронні повідомлення.
8. Секретарка поклала листа на стіл та вийшла з кабінету.
9. Де ти був учораввечері? Я дзвонив тобі десять разів.
10.Я не працював у четвер, у мене був вихідний.
11.Рік тому назад ціни на цю продукцію виросли вдвічі.
12. Ви добре провели вихідний у Львові? – Так, ми оглянули майже всі
визначні місця цього чудового міста.
13.Самий старий ресторан в світі відкрився в Китаї в 1153 році.

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14.Вчора по телебаченню була дуже цікава передача про економічну
ситуацію в світі. Ти дивився її?
15.Уряд підвищив податки минулого року.

THE PAST CONTINUOUS

Ex 24. Match the beginning of each sentence in column A(1-11) with its ending
in column B (a-k) and add when (suddenly) to complete the phrase. Look at
the example provided (11-k).
I was going to bed when suddenly I heard a strange noise.
A B
1. Jane was walking home a. he fell off the ladder.
2. John was painting a picture b. she cut her finger.
3. Mr Drill was driving to the c. their ball broke a window.
airport
4. She was chopping potatoes d. the teacher entered the room.
5. Dan was climbing the tree e. a branch broke.
6. We were having a picnic f. he spilled the paint.
7. Jill was sleeping g. the wind blew her hat off.
8. The children were playing h. his car broke down.
football
9. He was painting the bedroom i. the telephone woke her up.
10. The students were talking j. it started raining.
11. I was going to bed k. I heard a strange noise.

Ex.25. Put the verbs in brackets into the Past Continuous.

1. Yesterday at six, John _______ (drive) to the airport.
2. While Clara _______ (have) lunch in the canteen, Jane and Vicky
_______(talk) to a customer.
3. I _______ (prepare) the invoice, when my computer crashed.
4. When we _______ (sit) in the meeting, Joseph suddenly got an idea.
5. The secretary _______ (correct) the document, they _______ (discuss) the
solution to the problem.
6. Tracy and her colleague _______(walk) to the office, when it suddenly started
to rain.
7. During the week of the conference I _______ (stay) at a nice B&B.
8. Where you _______(stay) at during your business trip in London?
9. Who _______ (do) my job while I was in hospital?
10. I ________ (just leave) the office when they arrived.

Ex.26. Ask questions to the words in bold, as in the example below. The first
one is given to you as an example.
1. At half past seven, we were signinga contract. – What were you doing at half
past seven?
2. When Charlie was driving home he saw a motorcycle accident.
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3. Robert looked out of the window. Ricky was still waiting for Holly.
4. Everything happened so unexpectedly. Mrs. Rich was speaking on the phone, I
was sortingout the papers, and he was standing over there by the window.
5. I saw Grace in the garden. She was watering flowers singing softly to herself.
6. He turned on the TV; the match hadn’t started yet. Players from both teams
were signing autographs.
7. They resigned when we were launching a new product.
8. Yesterday afternoon while I was shopping, I lost my wallet.
9. While she was cooking you were all watching television. (tag question)

Ex.27. Ask questions of all possible types (general, who/what/why-questions,

tag questions, etc.) to the following sentence:
We were developing a new market campaign, when we heard news of a takeover
bid.

THE PAST SIMPLE versus THE PAST CONTINUOUS

Ex.28.Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense form: the Past Simple or
the Past Continuous. Compare and analyse the sentences, and elicit the
difference.
1. She __________ (to cook) dinner yesterday.
2. She __________ (to cook) at three o'clock yesterday.
3. She __________ (to cook) from two till four yesterday.
4. I __________ (to read) a very good book last month.
5. I __________ (not to read) at five o'clock.
6. I __________ (not to read) when you came in.
7. Susan __________ (to pass) her exam two days ago.
8. Susan __________ (to pass) her exam at this time yesterday.
10.Pete __________ (to work) in the garden yesterday.
11.Pete __________ (to work) in the garden at five o'clock yesterday.
12.Where Pete __________ (to work) when I came to see him?
13.My sister __________ (to wash) the dishes after dinner yesterday.
15.My sister __________ (to wash) the dishes at eight o’clock yesterday.

Ex.29. Choose the correct tense form to complete the sentences.

1. I saw a light in your window as I passed/was passing by.
2. Yesterday as I was walking down Cherry Lane, I met/ was meeting Frank, an
old friend of mine.
3. Lucy’s elder sister said that she went/was going to enter Leeds University.
4. While my daughter waited/was waiting for my call, somebody knocked at the
door.
5. We just talked/were talking about her when she suddenly came in/was coming
in.
6. Yesterday while Dad shaved/was shaving, he cut/ was cutting himself slightly.
7. They quarreled/were quarrelling while they washed /were washing the car.
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 8. I sat/was sitting by the window when I heard/was hearing astrange noise from
the street.
9. At six o’clock I waited/was waiting for Jenifer at the station.
10. It rained/was raining heavily as I walked/was walking towards their house.

Ex.30. Complete the following sentences by putting the verbs in brackets into
the correct tense, either the Past Simple or the Past Continuous. Look at the
example provided.
1. When I arrived the lecture had already started and the professor was writing
(write) on the blackboard.
2. Helen ________ (live) in Athens when she ______ (meet) the man who was
to become her husband.
3. We suddenly ________ (realize) that we ______ (walk) the wrong direction.
4. While you _______ (lie) on the beach, we ________ (work) in the office.
5. The phone _______ (ring) again and again. Mary nervously _______ (pick) it
up and ______ (put) it down again.
6. The BBC_______ (broadcast) the talk of our President last night.
7. He ________ (sell) his shares last week because their value _______ (fall
down) very quickly.
8. Arnold ______ (look) out of the window. It ______ (be) another dreary day.
The wind ______ (blow) hard and big black clouds ________ (gather) on the
horizon.
9. The burglar _______ (open) the safe when he ______ (hear) footsteps.
10. I ______ (not listen), so I missed what you said.
11. When I _______ (see) him he ______ (paint) the roof of his house.
12. Tracy _______ (eat) dinner when someone _______ (knock) on the door.
13. Yesterday, Steve ________ (work) on his report all day long.

Ex.31. Choose an appropriate phrase from the box below and complete each
sentence (1-6).
I was just leaving the office, he was thinking about resigning, she was just
discussing something with her friend, he was visiting his business partners, the
company’s funds were running out, the deadline was coming soon.
1. We decided to bring the project to a close because ______________________ .
2. Our financial manager cut down on bonuses because ____________________ .
3. My partner sold his shares in business because ______________________ ___.
4. He didn’t come to the office all week because __________________________ .
5. I didn’t see when the president of the company arrived because ____________ .
6. She didn’t answer the telephone because ______________________________ .

Ex.32. Read the sentences (1-12) and identify the tenses. Then match them to
the correct descriptions (a – f).
a. an action which happened at a definite time in the past
b. past habits
c. actions which happened immediately one after another
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d. two or more simultaneous actions
e. an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it
f. to describe the atmosphere in the introduction to the story before we describe the
main events

1. We were walking in silence when suddenly she asked me to help her.

2. They used to wake up at 6 a.m. when they lived in a suburb.
3. The day was marvelous. The sun was shining, the birds were singing. So we
decided to go for a walk.
4. We visited Paris last year.
5. Miss Brown’s telephone was ringing while she was typing the report.
6. I lit the candle, opened a window and nodded to him.
7. Mary dropped two cups when she was washing up last night, but neither of the
cups broke.
8. She got on the train, entered the compartment and showed her ticket to the
guard.
9. I was walking along the street watching what was going around me. Fast cars
were going in both directions and it was impossible to cross the road.
10.I bought this dress at our nearest shopping mall two weeks ago.
11.When I was at school, I used to wear a uniform.
12.Why weren’t you listening to me when I was speaking?

Ex.33. Choose the best option.

1. While I ________ for him to call up, he ________ a good time at the party.
a. waited b. was waiting c. have waited
a. have b. had c. was having
2. She ________ this exercise yesterday at 5 o’clock.
a. has written b. wrote c. was writing
3. He ________ me to the party yesterday.
a. has invited b. was inviting c. invited
4. I ________ my exam on economics an hour ago.
a. passed b. have passed c. was passing
5. He ________ a book two days ago.
a. read b. has read c. was reading
6. They ________ this film on Sunday.
a. have seen b. saw c. were seeing
7. She ________ the picture when I came.
a. painted b. has painted c. was painting
8. I ________ my report when the General Manager entered the meeting room.
a. made b. have made c. was making
9. They ________ the new words yesterday from three till seven.
a. learnt b. were learning c. have learnt
10. It ________ this week.
a. rained b. has rained c. was raining

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Ex.34. After three months of looking for work, Cathy was at last called for an
interview. Complete the following extract from her interview by putting the
verbs in brackets into the correct past tense form.
Interviewer: So how long ______ you _______ (work) for that company?
Cathy: About two years.
Interviewer: And what ______ you _______(do) while you ______ (work)
there?
Cathy: First, I _______ (take part) in the project of investigating their
motivation problems.
Interviewer: It sounds interesting. And what _______ the results _______
show?
Cathy: I can’t really say anything definite. While we ________
(process) the results, the company ______ (decide) to postpone
the project for some time later.
Interviewer: I see. _____ you ______ (move) on to another project?
Cathy: Yes. But again, as soon as our team ______(start) the project,
serious problems ______(arise). While we _______(develop) a
new working model, the funds for the programme ______
(stop). So, I ________ (decide) to leave them and make a fresh
start. That is why I’m here.

Ex.35. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. The sun raised at 6.30.
2. When Tom came home, his wife cooking dinner.
3. Tim hurted his foot when he was playing football.
4. I couldn’t answer your call. I worked in the garden then.
5. I was going to phone you later, but it sliped my mind.
6. Ali has bought a very expensive car a month ago.
7. Alice was cleaning the house all morning.
8. Do you remember the things we used to do when we were kids?
9. Hilary chosed to ignore the doctor’s warning.
10.While Richard drove to Yellowstone National Park he met a deer on the road.
11.How he damaged his car so badly? – I don’t know exactly, but I’m sure he was
driving too fast.
12.In1888, George Eastman has introduced the first Kodak camera.
13.At midnight, I still worked at a computer though I was feeling ill.

Ex.36. Translate into English.

1. Вчора я отримала по факсу дуже цінне/важливе повідомлення про злиття
(themerger) наших компанії.
2. Коли я увійшов до аудиторії, студенти все ще обговорювали доповідь.
3. Я раніше плавала кожен день. Зараз плаваю лише тричі на тиждень.
4. Одрі Хепберн знялася (tostar) не в багатьох фільмах, але залишила
незабутній слід в історії кіно.
5. Фільм, який я вчора бачила дуже вразив мене.
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6. Поїзд наближався до станції. Пасажири стояли біля вікон та махали
(towave) капелюхами.
7. Аманда закінчила університет, отримала гарну пропозицію та стала
менеджером великої міжнародної компанії.
8. Секретарка друкувала доповідь, коли увійшов директор та поклав папери
на стіл.
9. Минулого року ми з сім’єю відвідали Історичний музей.
10.Джесіка готувалась до іспиту, в той час, як Яків дивився аналітичну
програму по телевізору.
11.Колись мама пекла великий торт мені на день народження. Зараз ми
купуємо торти в супермаркеті.
12.Коли ми купались в озері, Мері готувала нам обід.
13.Це був ясний літній ранок. Вона сиділа в кафе в центрі Парижу і пила
свою ранкову каву.
14. Вони саме будували цей міст, коли я був тут минулого року.
15.Всі спокійно читали, коли раптово двері відчинились і увійшов
незнайомець.

THE PAST SIMPLE versus THE PRESENT PERFECT

Ex.37. Choose the correct tense, either the Past Simple or the Present Perfect.
1. Dan Brown, an American author of thriller fiction, best known for the 2003
bestselling novel ‘The Da Vinci Code’has so far written/wrote so far seven
books, with two being adapted to cinema.
2. Agatha Christie has written /wrote a lot of brilliant detective novels.
3. TheKrugerslived/have livedinGermanyforfiveyears,
andthentheymoved/havemovedtoAustria. Theylived/have livedin Vienna
forthreeyearsnow.
4. My uncle has worked/worked as a banker for 25 years. Then he retired.
5. I wrote/have written a letter but I cannot send it. My computer is disconnected.
6. Did you have/have you had your breakfast? – Yes, I have had/had it at 7.30.
7. Jane went/has gone to Canada a year ago. She has worked/worked in Toronto
for a while and then went/has gone to the United States.
8. Hedidn’t smoke /hasn’t smoked for three months. He wants to give it up.
9. Help yourself to a piece of cheese cake! I just baked /have baked it.
10.I was in/have been to London several times.

Ex.38.In the following sentences put the verbs in brackets in either the Past
Simple or the Present Perfect. Look at the example provided.
1. Last night I saw (see) “This Means War” at the cinema. –
Oh, I have already seen(see) it twice.
1. I see you’ve got a new car. When _________ (buy) it?
2. _______ (read) any books by Wilbur Smith? – No, I don’t even know this
author.
3. She ________ (work) for a big law firm for 30 years. Then she retired.
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4. You ____ (be) here before? –Yes, I ____ (spend ) my holidays here last year.
5. You ________ (find) the money which you ________ (lose) yesterday ? – Yes,
I have. I ______ (find) it in the pocket of my coat when I ______ (come) home.
6. How long you ________ (know) him? – We ________ (meet) in 1996, but we
________ (not see) each other since last summer.
7. Who________ (invent) the television?
8. They say scientists ______ (discover) a new planet.
9. I ________(leave) working for Hendersons four years ago. Then I _____(work)
for Jacobs for a while, and then I ______ (join) this company. I _______(work)
here for three years.
10. Isabel ________ (move) into her new house a month ago, but I _____ (not,
visit) her yet.

Ex.39.Complete the sentences with the appropriate option.

1. When ________________ the company?
a) have you joined
b) did you joined
c) did you join
d) have you ever joined
2. ___________________ in Pakistan?
a) Did you ever worked
b) Have you ever worked
c) Worked you
d) Didn't you have worked
3. That's the best presentation ______________________ .
a) I never heard
b) I didn't hear
c) I used to hear
d) I've ever heard
4. He's the most difficult customer _____________________.
a) I never dealt with.
b) I never had to deal with.
c) I've ever had to deal with.
d) I've never had to deal with.
5. ___________________ to him last week.
a) I spoke
b) I've already spoken
c)I didn't spoke
d) I speaked
6. ______________ a binding contract last year and it is still valid.
a) We have signed
b) We signed
c) We haven't signed
d) We have sign

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 7. The reason I look so brown is that _______________ from a business trip to
Barbados.
a) I come back
b) I came back
c) I never came back
d) I've just come back
8. Sales ________ in 1995 but then _____ in 1996.
a) risedfalled
b) rose fell
c) have risen have fallen
d) rose have fallen
9. You ____________ to a word ____________ .
a) listened I haven't said
b) didn't listen I say
c) listened saying
d) haven't listened I've said
10. It's obvious that ________________ this report.
a) you haven't read
b) you didn't read
c)you don't read
d)you read not

Ex.40. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. John is so happy. He graduated from University!
2. When have you graduated from University?
3. One of the worldwide best-selling novelists, Wilbur Smith wrote more than
thirty successful novels. Now, he is working on a new book.
4. Sir Isaac Newton invented calculus.
5. Don’t worry about the letter. I have posted it the day before yesterday.
6. It seems to me that I lost my glasses! I can’t find them anywhere.
7. You’re so absent-minded. By the way, have you finded the gloves that you lost
last week? – No, I bought a new pair the other day.
8. Have you got any money? –Yes, I borrowed it from my brother.
9. Are you tired? –Yes, a little. I painted the ceiling today.
We haven’t seen Peter this week, but we have seen him a couple of weeks ago.

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 Unit 4. DEMAND AND SUPPLY

TEXT A: Demand and supply

TEXT B: The role of price
TEXT C: Two factors that affect labor supply and demand
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Making an appointment
GRAMMAR: The Past Prefect Tense. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense. Past
Tenses Review.

A system is in equilibrium when the forces constituting it are

arranged in such a way as to compensate each other, like
the two weights pulling at the arms of a pair of scales.
Rudolf Arnheim (1904 – 2007),
German-born author, psychologist.

LEAD-IN
1. How different are expectations of sellers and buyers in the market? What are
these expectations reflected in?
2. How does the market take into account sellers’ and buyers’ needs?
3. How do consumers and producers react to changes in the market?
4. What balances the amount of a product buyers want to buy with the amount
sellers want to sell?
5. What do you think is the function of prices? What could happen if there were
only fixed prices?
6. What other factors, apart from prices, affect the behavior of suppliers and
demanders?

PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills

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Ex.1. Practice reading the following words.
aw [ɔ:] law, draw, saw, strawberries, raw, paw, pawl, bawl
ow [au] how, power, down, town,now, plow, mow, howl, scowl
ow[əu] low, show, slow,own,know, nowt
ou[ʌ] enough, country,double,touch, young, tough, rough
ea [i:] increase, cheaply, reach, peach, please, decrease, mean, each
ea [e] heavily, health, measure, pleasure, bread, breakfast, head
er [з:] refer, prefer, term,perfect, verb,service,certain
ur[з:] purchase, turn, hurt, burn,Thursday, nurse, curtain
c [s] society, choice, price, nice, produce, decision, force, once
c [k] consumer, cost, comprise, calm, conference, cooperative

Ex. 2. Read the words in the groups below. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
influence, merely, therefore, equal, basically, willingness, preference, weigh,
heavily, household, income, maximize, possible, budget, impact, effort, concept,
specify, quantity, purchase, demonstrate, upward, revenue, temporary,
permanent, obviously, compromise, variable, calculus, relative, offset, volume,
vertical, curve, substitute;
b) words with the stress on the second syllable:
society, allow, consume, conventional, determine, afford, demand, behavior,
desire, ability, condition, affect, decision, utility, consider, significant,
analogous, depending, amount, available, effective, relationship, efficient, forgo,
consumption, increase, equipment, facilities, responding, impose, necessity,
incentive;
c)polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:
economic, competition, microeconomics, combination, independently,
represent, fundamental, correlation, allocation, opportunity, unexpected,
equilibrium, individual, fluctuation, inelastic.

B. Word formation
Ex. 3. Make up adjectives as in the model.
Model: noun+suffix –(c)ialor –(t)ial→ adjective
e.g. society – social
Adverb, commerce, essence, face, race, finance, potency, credence, prudence,
president, torrent.

Ex.4. Make up nouns as in the model.

Model: adjective+suffix–ness→noun
e.g.ready – readiness
Ill, fit, dark, awkward, lazy, hard, soft, ready, calm, dark, kind, abrupt, absurd,
awful, bitter.
Model: verb+suffix –ance or -ence →noun
e.g. appear- appearance, insure- insurance

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Depend, ignore, maintain, prefer, resist, insist, interfere, assure, accept, absorb,
deliver, clear.
What other adjective and noun suffixes do you know?
Find in the text other adjectives and nouns and translate them.

TEXT A: DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Key terms: supply, demand, buying behaviour, microeconomics, decision-

making unit, effectivedemand, consumer preferences, purchasing choice, utility,
buying decision, demand relationship, supply relationship, opportunitycost, the
Law of Supply, the Law of Demand, market equilibrium, elasticity, quantity
demanded, quantity supplied.
Other words and expressions: to make economic choices, to consume goods
and services, under condition of competition, by way of operation, to determine
the price of, to be equal to, to refer to, the ability and the willingness to pay, to
be affected by, a significant impact, to be available for, the backbone of a
market economy, the correlation between, to underlie the forces, allocation of
resources, to forgo the consumption of something, to increase revenue, the long-
term levels of demand, equipment and production facilities, to shape the market,
to reach compromise.
Linking words and phrases: let’s have a close look at; to sum up; in other
words; as a result; unlike; however; so far; obviously; in most cases; thus; so;
conversely; on the other hand; we would say.

All societies necessarily make economic choices. Society needs to make

choices about what should be produced, how those goods and services should be
produced, and who is allowed to consume those goods and services. For
conventional economics, the market answers these questions by way of the
operation of supply and demand. Under conditions of competition, where no one
has the power to influence or set price, the market (everyone, producers and
consumers together) determines the price of a product, and the price determines
what is produced, and who can afford to consume it.
The terms supply and demand do not mean the amount of goods and
services actually sold and bought; in any sale the amount sold is equal to the
amount bought, and such supply and demand, therefore, are always equal.
Let’s have a closer look at both of them.
In microeconomics, demand refers to the buying behaviour of a
household. What does this mean? Basically, micro economists want to try to
explain three things:
1. Why do people buy what they buy?
2. How much are they willing to pay?
3. How much do they want to buy?
Demand is comprised of three things.
 Desire
 Ability to pay

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  Willingness to pay
It is not enough to merely want or desire an item. One must show the
ability to pay and then the willingness to pay. If all three conditions are not met
then the demand is not real.
Each household, or small-scale decision-making unit, is affected by
different factors when making choices about what to buy and how much to buy.
Consumer preferences weigh heavily in a household's buying decisions. Another
factor that affects such decisions is income: a millionaire and an average citizen
will have very different purchasing choices, since they have different budgets to
work on. All buyers will try to maximize their utility, that is, make themselves
as happy as possible, by spending what money they have in the best way
possible. By considering both their preferences and their budget, they ensure that
they end up with the best combination of goods possible. Because the household
is such a small unit, no household has a significant impact on the market, and so
the actions of any single household is its best effort to react to the market price
and the goods available.
At the other side of every transaction is a seller. Economists refer to the
behaviour of sellers as the market force of supply. It is the combined forces of
supply and demand that make up a market economy. Firms operate
independently of each other, making decisions about what to sell, and how much
to sell, depending on the price. How do firms make their selling decisions? Once
they have decided what to sell, (a decision they make is based on what they
believe buyers will want to buy), their decision is then influenced by the market
price of the goods.
Supply and demand is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts of
economics and it is the backbone of a market economy. Demand refers to how
much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity
demanded is the amount of a product people are willing to buy at a certain price.
The relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand
relationship. Supply represents how much the market can offer. The quantity
supplied refers to the amount of a certain good producers are willing to supply
when receiving a certain price. The correlation between price and how much of a
good or service is supplied to the market is known as the supply relationship.
Price, therefore, is a reflection of supply and demand.
The relationship between demand and supply underlie the forces behind
the allocation of resources. In market economy theories, demand and supply
theory will allocate resources in the most efficient way possible. How? Let us
take a closer look at the Law of Demand and the Law of Supply.

A. The Law of Demand

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 The Law of Demand states that, if all other factors remain equal, the
higher the price of a good, the less people will demand that good. In other words,
the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded. The amount of a good
that buyers purchase at a higher price is less because as the price of a good goes
up, so does the opportunity cost of buying that good. As a result, people will
naturally avoid buying a product that will force them to forgo the consumption of
something else they value more.

B. The Law of Supply

Like the Law of Demand, the Law of Supply demonstrates the quantities
that will be sold at a certain price. But unlike the Law of demand, the supply
relationship shows an upward slope. This means that the higher the price, the
higher the quantity supplied. Producers supply more at a higher price because
selling a higher quantity at a higher price increases revenue.

C. Equilibrium

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 So far, we've looked at supply, we've looked at demand, and the main
question that now arises is: "How do these two opposing forces of supply and
demand shape the market?" Buyers want to buy as many goods as possible, as
cheaply as possible. Sellers want to sell as many goods as possible, at the highest
price possible. Obviously, they can't both have their way. How can we figure out
what the price will be, and how many goods will be sold? In most cases, supply
and demand reach some sort of compromise on the price and quantity of goods
sold: the market price is the price at which buyers are willing to buy the same
number of goods that sellers are willing to sell. This point is called market
equilibrium. Because supply and demand can shift and change, equilibrium in a
standard market is also fluid, responding to changes in either market force.
When supply and demand are equal (i.e. when the supply function and
demand function intersect) the economy is said to be at equilibrium. At this
point, the allocation of goods is at its most efficient because the amount of goods
being supplied is exactly the same as the amount of goods being demanded.
Thus, everyone (individuals, firms, or countries) is satisfied with the current
economic condition. At the given price, suppliers are selling all the goods that
they have produced and consumers are getting all the goods that they are
demanding.
In the real market place equilibrium can only ever be reached in theory, so the
prices of goods and services are constantly changing in relation to fluctuations in
demand and supply.
D. Elasticity of demand and supply

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 A very important concept in understanding supply and demand theory is
elasticity. Robert Pindyck and Daniel Rubinfeld observed in their book
“Microeconomics” that "the demand for a good depends on its price, as well as
on consumer income and on the prices of other goods. Similarly, supply depends
on price, as well as on variables that affect production cost…. Often, however,
we want to know howmuch supply or demand will rise or fall." This
measurement of a product or service's responsiveness to market changes is
known as elasticity.Todd G. Buchholz, writing in his book “From Here to
Economy”: “A Shortcut to Economic Literacy, used an example from the world
of sports business to provide an example of economic elasticity: "Will football
fans buy the same number of tickets if the team jacks up the prices? If they do,
then demand is inelastic. If higher prices lead the fans to cut back their
attendance, then demand is elastic, or sensitive to change."
There are three main factors that influence elasticity of supply and
demand .
1.The availability of substitutes. This is probably the most important
factor influencing the elasticity of a good or service. In general, the more
substitutes, the more elastic the demand will be. For example, if the price of a
cup of coffee went up by $0.25, consumers could replace their morning caffeine
with a cup of tea. This means that coffee is an elastic good because a rise in price
will cause a large decrease in demand as consumers start buying more tea instead
of coffee.
However, if the price of caffeine were to go up as a whole, we would
probably see little change in the consumption of coffee or tea because there are
few substitutes for caffeine. Most people are not willing to give up their morning
cup of caffeine no matter what the price. We would say, therefore, that caffeine
is an inelastic product because of its lack of substitutes. Thus, while a product
within an industry is elastic due to the availability of substitutes, the industry
itself tends to be inelastic. Usually, unique goods such as diamonds are inelastic
because they have few if any substitutes.
2.Amount of income available to spend on the good. This factor
affecting demand elasticity refers to the total a person can spend on a particular
good or service. Thus, if the price of a can of Coke goes up from $0.50 to $1 and
income stays the same, the income that is available to spend on coke, which is
$2, is now enough for only two rather than four cans of Coke. In other words, the
consumer is forced to reduce his or her demand of Coke. Thus if there is an
increase in price and no change in the amount of income available to spend on
the good, there will be an elastic reaction in demand; demand will be sensitive to
a change in price if there is no change in income.
3.Time. The third influential factor is time. If the price of cigarettes goes
up $2 per pack, a smoker with very few available substitutes will most likely
continue buying his or her daily cigarettes. This means that tobacco is inelastic
because the change in price will not have a significant influence on the quantity
demanded. However, if that smoker finds that he or she cannot afford to spend

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the extra $2 per day and begins to kick the habit over a period of time, the price
elasticity of cigarettes for that consumer becomes elastic in the long run.
To determine the elasticity of the supply or demand curves, we can use
this simple equation: Elasticity = (% change in quantity / % change in price).
It is a measure of relative changes. If elasticity is greater than or equal to
one, the curve is considered to be elastic. If it is less than one, the curve is said to
be inelastic.
Elasticity varies among products because some products may be more
essential to the consumer. Products that are necessities are more insensitive to
price changes because consumers would continue buying these products despite
price increases. Conversely, a price increase of a good or service that is
considered less of a necessity will deter more consumers because the opportunity
cost of buying the product will become too high.
A good or service is considered to be highly elastic if a slight change in
price leads to a sharp change in the quantity demanded or supplied. Usually these
kinds of products are readily available in the market and a person may not
necessarily need them in his or her daily life. On the other hand, an inelastic
good or service is one in which changes in price witness only modest changes in
the quantity demanded or supplied, if any at all. These goods tend to be things
that are more of a necessity to the consumer in his or her daily life.

Language notes:
* The phrase "supply and demand" was first used by James Denham-Steuart in
his Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, published in 1767. Adam
Smith used the phrase in his 1776 book “The Wealth of Nations”, and David
Ricardo titled one chapter of his 1817 work “Principles of Political Economy
and Taxation” as "On the Influence of Demand and Supply on Price";

Weigh heavily – мати велике значення;

the best combination of goods possible – найкращий вибір товарів;
the higher …, the lower …– чим вищий,… тим нижчий;
an upward slope – крива, спрямована вгору.

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Споживати товари та послуги; традиційна економіка; за умови конкуренції;
ринок визначає ціну продукту; насправді куплений чи проданий; не
досить лише просто хотіти чи бажати предмет; домашнє господарство;
преференції споживача; пересічний громадянин; мати значний вплив на
ринок; суть ринкової економіки; справжній попит; відображення попиту
та пропозиції; розподіл ресурсів; альтернативнівитрати; бути проданим за
певною ціною;ринкова рівновага; наявність замінників; предмет
необхідності для споживачів.

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 Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following phrases.
To have the power to influence or set price; the operation of supply and demand;
the amount of goods and services; to show the ability to pay; consumer
preferences; to weigh heavily; to maximize utility; to end up with the best
combination; at the other side of; the smallest unit of supply; to make selling
decisions; the amount available for sale; the amount purchasers are willing to
buy; one of the most fundamental concepts; to be a reflection of; in the most
efficient way possible; to show an upward slope; two opposing forces shape the
market; fluid equilibrium in a standard market; to be at equilibrium; the
percentage change; to vary among products; to be elastic due to availability of
substitutes.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these
verbs in the text.
Have, let, mean, buy, pay, show, sell, know, underlie, go, forgo, meet, give, get,
understand, become.

Ex.4. Make up noun+noun or adjective+noun collocations (there may be

several variants).You can add other word collocations. Give examples either
from the text or of your own.
Economic, conventional, decision-making, consumer, demand, market, supply,
opportunity, upward, percentage, quantity
Choices, preference, economics, unit, economy, cost, slope, change, relationship,
units, demanded.
Model: economic choices
e.g. All societies necessarily make economic choices.

Ex.5. Match up the terms on the left with the definitions on the right.
1. demand a is the relationship between price and quantity
demanded
2. supply b states that the higher the price, the higher the
quantity supplied
3. demand relationship c is the amount available for sale or the amount
that sellers are willing to sell at a specified
price
4. supply relationship d is the correlation between price and how much
of a good or service is supplied to the market
5. utility e is response of supply and demand to various
factors
6. the Law of Demand f is one in which changes in price witness only
modest changes in the quantity demanded or
supplied
7. the Law of Supply g is some sort of compromise on the price and
quantity of goods sold: the market price is the
price at which buyers are willing to buy the
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 same number of goods that sellers are willing
to sell
8. elasticity h is when all buyers will try to make themselves
as happy as possible, by spending what money
they have in the best way possible
9. inelastic good or i refers to the buying behaviour of a household
service
10. market equilibrium j states that, if all other factors remain equal, the
higher the price of a good, the less people will
demand that good

Ex.6. Choose an appropriate phrase to complete the following sentences.

The buying behaviour, by way of, which is analogous, the price of a product,
would continue buying, weigh heavily, the opportunity cost, to maximize their
utility, the amount of a product, in a standard market.

1. For conventional economics, the market answers these questions

_____________ the operation of supply and demand.
2. The market determines _____________ , and the price determines what is
produced, and who can afford to consume it.
3. In microeconomics,demand refers to _____________ of a household.
4. Consumer preferences _____________ in a household's buying decisions.
5. All buyers will try _____________ , that is, make themselves as happy as
possible, by spending what money they have in the best way possible.
6. The quantity demanded is ________ people are willing to buy at a certain price.
7. In microeconomics, the smallest unit of supply is the firm, _____________ to
the demand unit of the household.
8. Because supply and demand can shift and change, equilibrium _____________
is also fluid, responding to changes in either market force.
9. Products that are necessities are more insensitive to price changes because
consumers _____________ these products despite price increases.
10.A price increase of a good or service that is considered less of a necessity will
deter more consumers because _____________ of buying the product will
become too high.

Ex.7. Complete the following sentences with prepositions or adverbs.

1. ___ conditions ___ competition, the market determines the price ___ a product.
2. ___ microeconomics,demand refers ___ the buying behavior ___ a household.
3. Each household, or small-scale decision-making unit, is affected ____ different
factors when making choices ____ what to buy and how much to buy.
4. ____ the other side ____ every transaction is a seller.
5. ____ considering both their preferences and their budget, the buyers ensure that
they end up ____ the best combination ____ goods possible.

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6. Because the household is such a small unit, no household has a significant
impact ____ the market, and so the actions ____ any single household is its
best effort to react ____ the market price and the goods available.
7. The correlation ____ price and how much ____ a good or service is
supplied ____ the market is known as the supply relationship.
8. ____ other words, the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded.
9. Buyers want to buy ____ many goods ____ possible, ___ cheaply ___ possible.
10. When supply and demand are equal, the economy is said to be ___ equilibrium.

Ex.8. Choose and combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.
1. Under conditions of a is known as the supply
competition, where no one has relationship.
the power to influence or set
price,
2. If all three conditions are not b no household has a significant
met impact on the market.
3. Because the household is such c some products may be more
a small unit essential to the consumer.
4. Economists refer to the d then the demand is not real.
behavior of sellers
5. The correlation between price e if a slight change in price
and how much of a good or leads to a sharp change in the
service is supplied to the quantity demanded or
market supplied.
6. Producerssupplymoreat a f because they have few if any
higherprice substitutes.
7. A good or service is considered g in which changes in price
to be highly elastic witness only modest changes
in the quantity demanded or
supplied.
8. Elasticity varies among h as the market force of supply.
products because
9. An inelastic good or service is i the market (everyone,
one producers and consumers
together) determines the price
of a product.
10 Unique goods such as j because selling a higher
. diamonds are inelastic quantity at a higher price
increases revenue.

Ex.9. Read the text and choose the best option.

The supply/demand theory (1) ________ the paradox of inessential-but-
expensive diamonds and cheap-but-essential water. The supply-and-demand
theory tells us that diamonds are highly priced because they are (2) ________.

115
 There are objectively (3) ________of them relative to demand. If diamonds were
as (4) _______ as gravel we would use them to pave our garden walks. More
precisely, the (5) ________ point in the market for diamonds is reached at a high
price per ounce. Recall that at the equilibrium point the supply and demand
curves the paradox the quantity demanded (6) ________ the quantity supplied.
Diamonds become more (7) ________ to produce as more are produced.
Consequently, the supply curve slopes up: producers want a higher price (to
cover their (8) ________ cost) if they have to produce more. The price is in
equilibrium determined at the (9) ________ of supply and demand. Given the
unique supply/demand circumstances in this market (people badly want
diamonds and diamonds are costly to produce) the intersection (10) ________ at
a high price. If the demand curve were to fall back towards the origin, the price
would fall.

1. a) solves b) decides c) manages d) proves

2. a) deficit b) scarce c) rare d) seldom
3. a) little b) few c) many d) much
4. a) common b) typical c) useful d) particular
5. a) equality b) proper c) equilibrium d) necessary
6. a) equals b) is c) will be d) becomes
7. a) expensive b) precious c) valuable d) costly
8. a) raising b) increasing c) rising d) improving
9. a) intersection b) point c) place d) interaction
10. a) happens b) becomes c) is d) occurs

Ex.10. Look through the text again and replace the words /phrases in italics
with similar ones.
1. Society needs to make choice what should be produced, how it will be produced,
and who is allowed to buythose products.
2. The market answers these questions by means of supply and demand.
3. In microeconomics, demand refers to the way in which groups of people living
together buy goods.
4. Each household or asmall organization is influenced by different factors.
5. Consumer preferences influence a household’s buying decision to a greatextent.
6. All buyers want to make the best use of the usefulness of a product.
7. Supply and demand is the chief support of the system of market economy.
8. The relationship between demand and supply is the basis of the forces behind
the allocation of resources.
9. People naturally avoid buying a product that will refrain them from buying
something else they value more.
10.Two opposing forces of demand and supply form the market.

Ex.11. Translate into English:

1. Суспільствуслідробитивибірщодо того, щовиробляти, як слід виробляти
товари та послуги, та хто може споживати ці товари та послуги.
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2. Преференції споживача дуже впливають на купівельне рішення сім’ї.
3. Попит та пропозиція завжди рівносильні, оскільки кількість куплених
товарів дорівнює кількості проданих товарів.
4. Фірми працюють незалежно одна від одної, вирішуючи, що продавати та
скільки продавати, залежно від ціни.
5. Саме сукупні сили попиту та пропозиції створюють ринкову економіку.
6. Попит та пропозиція є, можливо, однією з найголовніших концепцій
економіки та основою ринкової економіки.
7. Ціна є відображенням попиту та пропозиції.
8. Кажуть,що ринкова рівновага настає, коли попит та пропозиція є рівними.
9. Продукти першої необхідності менш вразливі до ціни, тому що споживачі
будуть продовжувати купувати їх незважаючи на зростання ціни.
10.Еластичність відрізняється серед різних продуктів, оскільки деякі
продукти можуть бути більш важливими для споживача.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Ex.12. Ask questions to which the following statements may be answers.

1. The market (everyone, producers and consumers together) determines the price
of a product.
2. Demand is comprised of three things: desire, ability to pay and willingness to
pay.
3. Another factor that affects such decisions is income.
4. Economists refer to the behaviour of sellers as the market force of supply.
5. Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by
buyers.
6. In market economy theories, demand and supply theory will allocate resources
in the most efficient way possible.
7. Because supply and demand can shift and change, equilibrium in a standard
market is also fluid.
8. Producers supply more at a higher price because selling a higher quantity at a
higher price increases revenue.
9. When supply and demand are equal, the economy is said to be at equilibrium.
10. A good or service is considered to be highly elastic if a slight change in price
leads to a sharp change in the quantity demanded or supplied.

Ex.13. Answer the questions:

1. What kind of choices does every society need to make?
2. What defines the price of a product under condition of competition?
3. Prove that the terms demand and supply not always mean the amount of goods
actually sold or bought.
4. What do micro economists usually try to explain?
5. What is demand comprised of?
6. When is demand real?
7. Explain the termutility.
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8. What is demand?
9. What is supply?
10.What does the Law of Demand state?
11.What does the Law of Supply state ?
12.How do supply and demand shape the market?
13.When is the economy said to be at equilibrium?
14.Does equilibrium exist in the real market place?
15.What concept helps to understand supply and demand theory?

Ex.14. Make a presentation of the topic.

WRITING

Ex.15. Make up a plan for a summary of text A.

Ex.16. Using your plan as a base write a brief summary (25-30 sentences) of
the text.

Ex.17. Using the information from the text, write an essay on one of the
following topics:
a) An increase in demand raises the price of a particular good. An increase in price
cuts demand for that good.
b) How does a rational consumer allocate a fixed income between the purchase of
two commodities? Would the consumer always use an increase in income to buy
more of both goods?

DISCUSSION POINTS

Ex.18. With your group mates do the following.

1. Analyze the effect, in the short run only, on the price of coffee of (i) a severe
frost; (ii) a fall in the rate of VAT; (iii) the introduction of rationing.
 You are not expected to have a detailed knowledge of the coffee industry.
 Apply your understanding of general supply and demand analysis.
 Make assumptions about the price elasticity of supply and demand for coffee
and then draw flat or steep curves to match.
2. Explain why the prices of some commodities fluctuate more than those of
others.
 Explain why unstable conditions of supply and demand result in price
changes.
 Explain why price inelasticity amplifies the effect on price of changes in
supply and demand.
 Make use of graphs and relevant examples.

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Ex.19. Explain the following sayings in your own words. What other sayings
on the topic do you know?
1. Supply always comes on the heels of demand. Robert Collier, American
motivational author, (1885-1950)
2. As scarce as truth is, the supply has always been in excess of the demand.Josh
Billings, American humorist (Henry Wheeler Shaw) (1818 – 1885).
3. As the economy grows, so will the demand for energy.Cliff Stearns, the U.S.
Representative for Florida's 6th congressional district, (1941)
4. A variety of factors contribute to the price of gasoline in the United States.
These factors include worldwide supply, demand and competition for crude oil,
taxes, regional differences in access to gasoline supplies and environmental
regulations.Gary Miller, the U.S. Representative for California's 42nd
congressional district, (1948)
5. It's the law of supply and demand. Demand is down, supply is up, so the price
is down. Andrew Harrington, Economist,Australia&New Zealand Banking
Group Ltd

TEXT B. THE ROLE OF PRICES

Ex.20. Scan the text below. What main factors does it mention to support
the keynote, i.e. the role of prices?

Prices are key ingredients in our economy because they make things
happen. If buyers want to own some items badly enough, they will pay more for
them. (0) ________ Prices play such an important role in economic life that the
United States is often described as a price-directed market economy. Let us see
why.
1. Act as Signals to Buyers and Sellers. One of the things that prices do is
carry information to buyers and sellers. (1) ________When prices are high
enough, they send a "sell" signal to sellers (retailers), who can now earn a profit
at the new price.
2. Encourage Efficient Production. Prices encourage business people to
produce their goods at the lowest possible cost. (2) ________
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 Firms that are efficient will produce more goods with fewer raw materials
than firms that are inefficient. (3) ________ While these efforts are in the best
interests of the sellers, all of us may benefit because we are provided with the
things we want at lower costs.
3. Determine Who Will Receive the Things Produced. Finally, prices help
to determine who will receive the economy's output of goods and services. The
price that a worker receives for doing a job is called a wage. (4) ________What
the worker can buy with those wages will depend, in turn, upon the prices of the
goods and services the worker would like to own.
Let’s look at some examples. The most obvious cost a person bears in
buying a product is the price of the product. Price reflects cost because people
have a limited amount of funds that they can spend, and if they spend their
money on one thing, they cannot spend it on another. (5) ________As a result,
we expect people to buy more hamburger if the price is $1.00 per pound than if it
is $2.00 per pound.
The amount of income a person receives affects the cost of buying an item
because it determines which options a person must give up when buying a
product. If a person with a low income spends $5000 for a trip around the world,
he will have to cut back on food, clothing, or shelter. (6) ________
Increases in people's incomes raise consumption of most products. These
products are called normal goods. There are some products, however, that
people use less of as their income increases; these products are called inferior
goods. Public transportation is an example - as people's incomes rise, they stop
riding the bus and drive their own cars. (7) ________ It was because they were a
symbol of "working-class" clothes that they were adopted by the radical left in
the 1960s, and from there they moved into high fashion.
Prices of related goods also influence how much of a product people buy.
Goods that are substitutes satisfy the same set of goals or preferences. An
example of a substitute for hamburger is pork. (8) ________ The opposite of a
substitute is a complement, a good that helps complete another in some way.
Catsup and hamburger buns are complements to hamburger, and if they are
priced low enough, consumption of hamburger may rise. Sometimes goods are
such good complements that they are sold together and we think of them as a
single item. (9) ________
There are other factors that influence the amount of a particular product
that people are willing to buy, such as the number of consumers in the market
and their expectations about future prices, incomes, and quality changes. To get a
complete list for any product might be time consuming and difficult, but it is not
necessary because we want to focus on the relationship between price and the
quantity of a product that people are willing to buy during some interval of time.
(10) ________

Ex.21. Read the text. Choose the best sentence A-J to fill each of the gaps 1-
10. Do not use any letter more than once. There is an example at the
beginning.
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 0.When sellers want to sell some items badly enough, they will lower their
prices.

A When prices are low enough, they send a "buy" signal to buyers (consumers),
who can now afford the things they want.
B If pork prices are high, people are tempted to shift away from pork to
hamburger, and if pork prices are low, people are tempted to shift from
hamburger to pork.
C Producers strive for efficiency as a way of increasing their profits.
D The same trip will cause a person with a high income to cut back on a very
different set of options.
E Left shoes and right shoes are an example.
F Blue jeans were once another example-people with higher incomes bought
them less frequently than people with lower incomes.
G To do this, we will assume that all other factors are held constant.
H The amount of this wage determines how much the worker has to spend.
I The lessit costs to produce an item, the more likely it is that its producers will
earn a profit.
J When the price of a product goes up, the amount of other things that a person
must give up in order to buy the product rises.

Ex.22. Read the text and decide whether the following statements are true
(T) or false (F). Correct the false statements.
1. Prices are not very important in our economy.
2. Sellers always lower prices for the goods they sell.
3. Prices carry information to buyers and sellers.
4. When prices are low, buyers will buy less.
5. Sellers can earn profit when prices are high enough.
6. Prices encourage business people to produce less if the prices are low.
7. Efficient firms will produce less with fewer raw materials.
8. All of us will benefit if producers increase their profits through efficiency.
9. Prices tell who receives the economy’s output.
10.What the worker can buy will depend upon the economic situation in the
country.
11.The amount of income a person receives doesn’t affect the cost of buying.
12.Increases in people's incomes raise consumption of most products.
13.Prices of related goods also influence how much of a product people buy.
14. Jeans were a symbol of "upper-class" clothes.
15. The number of consumers in the market and their expectations about future
prices, incomes, and quality changes are other factors that influence the amount
of a particular product that people are willing to buy.

Ex.23. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. Why is the US described as a price-directed economy?
2. What happens when prices go up?
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3. How can people get benefit from efficient work of some firms?
4. How can the prices determine who will receive the things produced?
5. What is the most obvious cost a person bears ?
6. Why does price reflect cost? Give an example.
7. In what way does the amount of income a person receives affect the cost of
buying an item?
8. What are the normal goods and inferior goods? Give examples.
9. What is the difference between substitutes and complements?
10. What are some other factors that influence the amount of a particular product
that people are willing to buy?

TEXT C: TWO FACTORS THAT AFFECT LABOUR SUPPLY AND

DEMAND

Before reading
If the price/cost factor is the main to
affect supply and demand of
commodity goods, how does it refer to
the labour market? Can you think of
any other factor?

Reading
Read an article from the website ehow.com and do the tasks following the text.

Know the factors that affect your labour supply and demand so your
business can remain competitive.
(1) In every business that deals with a collection of employees, labour
supply and demand must be a consideration by management or ownership. No
business that requires additional employees can reach their potential without
them; striking a balance between the labour available and the labour needed is
always a concern that relates to productivity and to profits. Understanding the
main factors that can sway labour supply and demand can help you to run a
successful business.
(2) Before learning the factors that affect labour demand, you must first
know exactly what is meant by the term. Simply put, labour demand is the
amount of workers needed to get the job done. Labour demand is a decision by
management or ownership concerning how many employees or labour hours to
use to complete a necessary task. Usually, the decision is heavily influenced by
money. It is in the company's best interests to use as little labour as necessary to
save money while still accomplishing the workload that is required.
(3) On the opposite side of this carefully balanced scale is labour supply.
Labour supply is simply the amount of workers available to a business at a given
time. During times when labour supply is low, it can be tougher to retain
employees because of other opportunities and fewer out-of-work people.

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 (4) The wage factor is the most significant issue affecting labour supply
and demand. People do not typically work for fun. They work for money and the
amount they get paid is a central factor in deciding whether they will take a job
or stay at a job when something else is available. Higher wages increase the
labour supply for a company because it makes the job more attractive to more
people. Lower wages, however, may increase the labour demand because
companies can afford to hire more people at a lower rate than at a higher rate.
This results in a constant tug of war in the delicate balance between supply and
demand.
(5) Barriers to entry are a second factor that affects labour supply and
demand. Demand from hiring companies may go up because the employees they
seek are specialized in some particular skill or have many requirements of new
hires. Meanwhile, the labour supply decreases significantly because of these
barriers. If a company only considers master's degree holders for a position, the
supply of candidates for the job drops significantly compared to a company
seeking candidates with a bachelor's degree. In addition, companies that require
complicated testing or that require new hires to "jump through hoops" to
getthrough the interview process usually find that their labour supply drops off
significantly because of other options in the market that are easier to nail down.

Task 1. Explain in your own words what labour demand and labour supply
mean.
Task 2. Paraphrase the following sentence: Striking a balance between the
labour available and the labour needed is always a concern that relates to
productivity and to profits. (para.1)
Task 3. Why is it more difficult to retain employees when labour supply is low?
(para.3)
Task 4. Explain what consequences changes in wages have. (para.4)
Task 5. Expression “jump through hoops” means
a) to do smth too soon, before the right time;
b) to do smth difficult in order to achieve smth;
c) to enthusiastically accept an opportunity or offer. (para.5)

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

MAKING AN APPOINTMENT

1. Are you busy this week?

2. What are you doing tonight?

3. Where are you having lunch tomorrow?

4. What plans do you have for the next seven days?

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5. What is your next appointment?

Ex.1. Read the definitions from Longman Dictionary of Contemporary

English.
ap‧point‧ment
1 [countable] an arrangement for a meeting at an agreed time and place, for a
particular purpose
You can say: have an appointment, make an appointment, an appointment to
do something, book an appointment (BrE), schedule an appointment (AmE),
cancel an appointment, miss an appointment, doctor’s/dentist’s/dental
appointment.
She has an appointment with a client at 10.30.
You should phone his secretary if you want to make an appointment.
I have an appointment to see the doctor.
Please give us two days’ notice if you have to cancel an appointment.
I was already forty-five minutes late for mydental appointment.
keep an appointment (go to an appointment you have arranged): For the third
time in a row, she had failed to keep her appointment .
by appointment only (only if you make an appointment in advance): All
consultations are by appointment only.

Ex.2. Replace the underlined expressions with appropriate forms of the verbs
from Ex.1 above.
1. An appointment with John Smith was organized for 1 February.
2. But not everyone could go to it.
3. Even John Smith could not attend it.
4. So it was decided not to have the appointment at all.
5. It was arranged for 1 March.
6. She arranged an appointment for her son to see the doctor.
7. I've got a dental appointment at 3 o'clock.
8. He failed to go to the appointment he had arranged.
9. Visiting the castle is only at the time that has been arranged in advance.
10. You should phone his secretary if you want toput an appointment in your diary.

Ex.3. Questions for discussion.

1. What are typical problems of business appointments?

2. How can you explain the aim of business appointments?

3. Have you ever forgotten an appointment?

4. How do you remember your appointments?

5. Making an appointment can be complicated if two people are very busy. How
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 do you find time that is convenient for both of you?

6. Imagine you are making a telephone call. This time you are arranging an
appointment to see someone. What phrases might you use or hear?

Ex.4. Read a sample telephone conversation.

Michelle: Mr Hibberd’s office.

Peter: Hello, can I speak to Brian Hibberd, please?
Michelle: I’m afraid he’s in a meeting until lunchtime. Can I take a message?
Peter: Well, I’d like toarrange an appointment to see him, please. It’s Peter
Jefferson here.
Michelle: Could you hold on for a minute, Mr Jefferson. I’ll just look in the diary.
So when’s it convenient for you?
Peter: Some time next week if possible. I know he’s away the following week.
Michelle: Yes, that’s right, he’s on holiday for a fortnight.
Peter: Well, I need to see him before he goes away. So would next Wednesday
be okay?
Michelle: Wednesday. Let me see. He's out of the office all morning. But he's free
in the afternoon, after about three.
Peter: Three o'clock is going to be a little difficult. But I could make it after
four.
Michelle: So shall we say 4.15 next Wednesday, in Mr Hibberd's office?
Peter: Yes, that sounds fine. Thanks very much.
Michelle: Okay, then. Bye.

Ex.5. Read and study useful phrases.

- I’d like to make an appointment with you.

- Could we meet to discuss...
- What day will be convenient for you?
- What time would be convenient?

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 - How about...?
- I’ll look forward to seeing you.

Asking to meet

- Are you available on the 17th?

- Can we meet on the 16th?
- How does the 3rd sound to you?
- Are you free next week?
- Would Friday suit you?
- Is next Tuesday convenient for you?
- What about some time next week?

Responding to an appointment:

Agreeing on a date

- Yes, Thursday is fine.

- Thursday suits me.
- Thursday would be perfect.
- Yes, Monday would be fine.
Suggesting a different date

- I'm afraid I can't on the 3rd. What about the 6th?

- I'm sorry, I won't be able to make it on Monday. Could we meet on Tuesday
instead?
- Ah, Wednesday is going to be a little difficult. I'd much prefer Friday, if
that's all right with you.
- I really don't think I can make it on the 17th. Can we meet up on the 19th?
Setting a time

- Is 3pm a good time for you?

- If possible, I'd like to meet in the morning.
- How does 2 pm sound to you?
Changing the arrangement

- We were going to meet next Friday but something urgent has come up. I'm
very sorry.
- I'm afraid that I'm not going to be able to meet you after all. Can we fix
another time?
- Something has just come up and I won't be able to meet you this afternoon.
Can we make another time?
- Unfortunately, due to some unforeseen business, I will be unable to keep our
appointment for tomorrow afternoon. Would it be possible to arrange
another time later in the week?
- I’m afraid that I have to cancel our meeting on Wednesday, as something
126
 unexpected has come up.
- I'm afraid that I'm not going to be able to meet you after all. Can we fix
another time?

Ex.6. Read and translate the dialogue.

Ann: Hello.
Serge: Hi, Ann. It’s Serge. I’m calling to make an appointment for LeeAnn. She
wants to meet Miles next week sometime.
Ann: Let me take a look at his appointment schedule. Let’s see, can LeeAnn be
here on Tuesday at 2 pm?
Serge: No, she’s tied up all Tuesday afternoon, but I could shuffle around some
of her commitments to free her up on Tuesday morning, if that helps.
Ann: Unfortunately, Tuesday morning is out. I could bump someone on
Wednesday afternoon at 3 pm. Can LeeAnn be here at that time?
Serge: She has an appointment at 2:30 in this office, but it shouldn’t last more than
a half hour. She should be able to make it by 3 o’clock if she’s not running
late. Better yet, I may be able tochange something, maybe push back that
appointment until she gets back to the office. Why don’t you pencil her in
for now?
Ann: Okay, I’ll do that, but can you confirm with me by Monday?
Serge: Sure, I’ll give you a heads up no later than noon on Monday if I can’t push
back her other appointment.
Ann: Okay, sounds good. Tell me, do you ever feel like we’re spinning our
wheels, spending our days making, changing, and canceling appointments?
Serge: Yeah, every single day!

Ex. 7. Role-play the dialogue.

Rachel: Hello, my name is Rachel Jones and I'd like to make an appointment to
speak to Mr. Smith.
Secretary: Can I ask you what is the purpose of the appointment?
Rachel: Of course. I met him at a luncheon last week and he asked me to call him
to make an appointment to talk about a job.
Secretary: Okay. Mr. Smith has an appointment available on Monday June 10th at
4 pm or Thursday June 13th at 2 pm. Which one would be better for
you?
Rachel: Monday at 4pm would be perfect.
Secretary: Excellent. I've got you down for that day and time. Can I have your
phone number just in case something comes up and he needs to
reschedule?
Rachel: Yes, certainly. It is 085-897-9393.
Secretary: (repeats the phone number to make sure it's correct) 085-897-9393.
Rachel: That's it. Thank you so much. I'll see you on Monday June 10th at 4 pm.
Secretary: Have a nice day!

Ex.8. Complete the dialogue with the words and word combinations from the
127
box.
A)
are you free, fine, I'll see you, I'm calling about, speaking, visiting

Pam: Hello. Pam Robertson __________ .

Bob: Oh hello, Pam. It's Bob here.
Pam: Hello Bob. How can I help you?
Bob: _______ the new advertising budget meeting. ______ on Tuesday afternoon?
Pam: Let me see. Sorry I'm __________ the new factory all day on Tuesday. How
about Wednesday at two p.m.?
Bob: I'm meeting a customer in the morning, but the afternoon is __________ .
Pam: Good. So __________ on Wednesday then. Good bye.
Bob: Good bye.

B)
call me, can I help you, cannot leave, could you come, how about a little later,
I’d like to make an appointment, is that OK with you, may not be able to
arrive,
will be seen, work

A: Good morning. Dr. Brown's office. __________?

A: Good morning. I __________with Dr. Brown.
B: Ok. Just a minute. __________on Monday at 1:00 pm?
A: No. Monday is a busy day for me. I __________until 9:00 pm. I
__________the office early.
B: What about Wednesday at 6:00 pm? __________?
A: __________? You know how heavy the traffic is at 6. I __________on time.
B: OK. You __________by Dr. Brown on Wednesday at 7. OK? If you can't come
for any reason, please __________and I will try to set another time.
B: OK. Thanks.

Ex.9. Work with a partner.

Your partner wants to arrange a meeting next week. However, you're very busy!
Think of three reasons why you are busy.
1)
2)
3)
Role-play the conversations with your partner:
1. Your partner will suggest a time. Say you are busy, and use one of the above
reasons.

2. Your partner will then suggest a different time. Accept the second time.

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Ex.10. Work in pairs. Practice making and changing an appointment.You are
going to role-play five situations. Refer to Ex. 5 for useful phrases.
1. A. You're a chemical engineer who works in the company's R&D labs.
You're attending a conference on a new chemical processing technology. A friend
from college (who is now a professor doing research in the same area) will be
attending the conference. You want to schedule some time to talk to him and get
his perspective on recent developments in the field. But he is hard to reach.
B.An old friend from college (who is doing research work in the same
field as you in the R&D labs of a large corporation) wants to get together and talk.
You try to find some time for him in your busy schedule.
2. A. You sell expensive medical equipment. You have to make an
appointment to talk with a doctor who is very influential at a hospital where you're
trying to close a sale. You want to get him in the right mood so you invite him to
play a round of golf at an expensive country club.
B. You're a doctor at an important university hospital. A salesman selling
cancer treatment equipment has been hounding you trying to get some time to talk
with you. Now he wants to meet over golf which doesn't seem too bad to you. You
try to find some time for him in your busy schedule.
3. A. You own 20% of a company and feel that your ideas about where the
company should be heading aren't being taken into account by the company's
management. You schedule a meeting with the CEO to talk about this.
B. You are the CEO of a company. A major stockholder in the company
has called you up repeatedly trying to get some time to talk to you about his vision
of the future for the company. His ideas aren't really compatible with yours but you
think it judicious to hear him out. You schedule some time for him over lunch.
4. A. Your friend has a job providing tech support to sales reps at a
promising software startup. You've heard that there's an opening and you want to
talk to your friend about the possibility of you landing the job. You suggest lunch
or beer after work.
B. One of your best friends has just arrived back from his adventures in
Asia. He's trying to find a job again and thinks you can help him to talk to your
boss into giving him a job in customer support. You both decide to meet over
lunch.
5. A. You're an investment banker visiting Jakarta to set up some merger and
acquisition deals. A reporter wants to interview you.
B. You're a reporter who wants to write an insider story on the corporate
reorganizations that are taking place in the wake of the Asian financial crisis. You
make an appointment to talk with an investment banker (a friend of a friend) to talk
about what's going on.

Ex.11. Imagine and name a company you’d like to work for.

Design your own “business card”.
Fill theblank weekly planner with as many appointments as possible.
Play a role of a business person arranging meetings during work hours.
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Agree on when to meet, where to meet, and what to discuss.
You cannot meet the same person twice.
Possible reasons why two people might have a business meeting: buying or selling,
cooperating, asking advice, discussing a legal issue, etc.
9am 2pm 6pm
M
T
W
T
F
S
S

Ex.12. Arrange personal meetings with your friends, outside work hours.
You might meet, for example to eat a meal, climb a hill, watch TV, go dancing, go
shopping, play sport, etc.
You cannot meet the same person twice.
Sentences appropriate to use with friends:
Do you want to meet some time?
When are you free?
OK, see you then!

GRAMMAR

PAST PERFECT

Ex.1. Read the sentences and define the tense forms. Translate the sentences
into Ukrainian.
1. They had completed all the preparations for the fancy-dress ball by 5
o’clock.
2. The man thanked the doctor who had cured him of his disease.
3. Hardly had he touched the pillow when he fell asleep.
4. He made great progress last year and could read the texts without a
dictionary. He had worked at his language very hard.
5. In the morning, the passengers felt good after the night they had spent on
the train.
6. Last night he completed the experiment he had begun some months before.
7. No sooner had she opened the drawer than she found the copy of the
document.
8. They had been partners for some 10 years before I met them.

Ex.2. Complete the sentences in the Past Perfect.

1.Without any reason, the customer returned the goods that we ________(deliver) .
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2.Before Ellen could say anything, Cindy _______(hang up) the phone.
3.When William was employed, I ______(work / already) here for three years.
4.I______ (start / just) to type the letter, when the phone rang.
5.When I sent the mail, I realised that I ______(forget) to attach the file.
6.Sue and Tom are best friends, though before the meeting last month they
_______(know / not even) each other.
7.Catherine _______(meet / not) Phil Brown before the trade fair in May.
8.We spoke about the conference that _______(take place) the week before.
9.After the meeting I thanked Misses Last, who _______ (manage) everything.
10._______(you / gain) experience in that field before you started to work for us?

Ex. 3. Write the verbs in the Past Perfect. Use the negative form.
1. In the shopping centre, I met a friend who I (see / not) for ages.
2. The burglar could walk right into the house because you (lock / not) the door.
3. We lost the match because we (practise / not) the days before.
4. The secretary quickly copied the papers that she (read / not) .
5. We ate at a restaurant last night because I (buy / not) anything for dinner.
6. When we came back, it was cold in the house because Alice (close / not) the
windows.
7. Margaret was angry with me all day long just because I (greet / not) him first.
8. When I met Jane at eleven o’clock, she (have / not) breakfast yet.
9. I couldn’t go to the cinema with my friends last night because I (finish / not) my
homework yet.
10. Fred answered my question although I (ask / not) him.

Ex. 4. In pairs ask and answer questions in the Past Perfect.

1.(what / Bob / do) that he was kept in after his lectures? - What had Bob done
that he was kept in after his lectures?- He had missed more than 10 seminars.
2.(you / eat) anythingbefore you went to the theatre? - Had you eaten before you
went to the theatre?- Yes, I had. No, I hadn’t.
3.(he / live) in London before he moved to Glasgow?
4.(she / find) a new job by that time?
5.(they / book) a room before they went to Dublin?
6.(how often / you / ring) the bell before he answered the door?
7.(why / they / have) dinner before they came to the party?
8.(Carly / wash) the dishes when her Mum came home?
9.(you / read) the contract before you signed it?
10.(who / live) in the house before we moved in?

Ex.5. Work in pairs. Make up short dialogues. Present one event as prior to
another event, moment or situation.
Example: - Fred had cooked dinner by the time his family gathered at home.
- And Fiona?(to polish the floor)
- Fiona had polished the floor by the time her family gathered at home.
- And you?(to bake an onion pie)
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 - I had baked an onion pie by the time my family gathered at home.
- What had all you done by the time your family gatherd at home?
- We had cooked dinner, baked an onion pie and polished the floor by the time
our family gathered at home.
1. The girl had made a new dress for her birthday party. (to buy flowers, to lay the
table)
2. She had accompanied the injured girl home before the doctor arrived. (to wash
the wound, to bandage the wound)
3. Patricia had watered the flowers before I went into the yard. (to sweep the yard,
to trim the bushes)
4. He had changed the wheel on a car before the trip. (pack the suitcase, book the
hotel room)

Ex.6. Match two parts of the sentences in the box using the Past Perfect.
Remember what was first and what was next. Use time expressions when,
by the time, after. There may be several variants.
Model:I had finished my work on the report (first) by the time he returned
(next).
FIRST NEXT
1. I/read 10 books a) I /write the course paper
2. He/return b) I/finish my work
3. I/get there c) the concert /begin
4. He/clean the garage d) he/wash the car
5.She/leave for London e) they/think about it
6.The partners/call e) the manager/leave the office
7.The guests/arrive f) we/go to the restaurant
8.The secretary /type the letter g) the mail/arrive
9.The boss/gather the meeting h) we/prepare our report
10.The chairman/open the meeting i) everybody/discuss the matter

Ex.7. Read an extract about Richard Branson’s career and complete the
sentences. Use the Past Perfect.
Sir Richard Branson (born 18 July 1950) is an English business magnate, best
known for his Virgin Group of more than 400 companies.
His first business venture was a magazine called Student at the age of 16. In
1970, he set up an audio-record mail-order business. In 1972, he opened a chain
of record stores, Virgin Records, later known as Virgin Megastores. Branson’s
Virgin brand grew rapidly during the 1980s, as he set up Virgin Atlantic Airways
and expanded the Virgin Records music label.
Branson is the 4th richest citizen of the United Kingdom, according to the Forbes
2011 list of billionaires, with an estimated net worth of US $4.2 billion.
1. Before he set up an audio-record mail-order company, he ________ .
2. Before he opened a chain of record stores, he _______.
3. Before his brand Virgin grew up rapidly, _______.
4. Before he set up Virgin Atlantic Airways, _______.
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 Ex.8. Open the brackets. Pay attention to the use of the Past Simple and the
Past Perfect.
1. He already _______(go) by the time I _______(come) to the party.
2. Mother _______(cook) dinner by the time he______ (come).
3. When I _______(arrive) home, I realized that I _______(lose) the key.
4. The shop _______(close) by the time I _______(get ) there.
5. The scientists _______(carry) out many experiments before they ________
(achieve) satisfactory results.
6. When I _______(arrive), he was staying in the same hotel where we first
_______(meet).
7. By the end of the last year he _______ (finish) research.
8. He told me that he _______(not see) much of her since she ______(move ) to
another town.
9. When I _______(enter), he already _______(come) and was sitting near the
fireplace looking through a newspaper.
10. She said that they _______(meet) in 1996 for the first time.

Ex.9. Make up sentences according to the pattern.

Hardly had he come when it started raining hard.=He had hardly come when it
started raining hard.
No sooner they had received the task than the meeting was over. = They had no
sooner received the task than the meeting was over.
1. She (to open) the drawer, she (to find) the photo which she thought she had lost
long ago.
2. He (to touch) the pillow, he (to fall asleep).
3. They (to meet) each other, they (to make) good friends.
4. We (to arrive) at the station, the train (to leave).
5. Sara (to hear) his voice, she (to understand) what had happened.
6. Gemma (to slip) the letter into her pocket, Martini (to enter) the room.
7. Gemma (to read) the letter, she (to understand) she (to lose) Arthur forever.
8. The passenger (to find) the compartment, he (to unpack) his suitcase.
9. The plane (to take off), the steward (to start) safety training.
10.The thief (to steal) the picture, the police (to catch) him.

Ex.10. Using the words in brackets, complete the text below with the
appropriate tenses.
I can't believe I _______ (get) that apartment. I _______ (submit) my
application last week, but I didn't think I had a chance of actually getting it.
When I _______ (show) up to take a look around, there were at least twenty
other people who _______ (arrive) before me. Most of them _______ (fill,
already) out their applications and were already leaving. The landlord said I
could still apply, so I did.
I _______ (try) to fill out the form, but I couldn't answer half of the questions.
They _______ (want) me to include references, but I didn't want to list my
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 previous landlord because I _______ (have) some problems with him in the past
and I knew he wouldn't recommend me. I _______ (end) up listing my father as
a reference.
It was total luck that he _______ (decide) to give me the apartment. It turns out
that the landlord and my father _______ (go) to high school together. He
decided that I could have the apartment before he _______ (look) at my credit
report. I really lucked out!

Ex. 11. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. He had hardly come when the lecture had begun.
2. Mummy cooked an exclusive cake before the wedding.
3.Marion had booked a hotel room, bought the tickets and started packing her
suitcase.
4. They had make a phone call by the time the manager came.
5. Mr. Johnson retired and went to live in a village.
6. I was very happy as I passed my driving test rather successfully.
7. The Dean finished speaking and had made a few practical suggestions.
8. My group mates have finished the report on the subject when the bell rang.
9. When the director had entered the office, the secretary just finished typing the
contract.
10. I asked her twice before she had told me her name.

Ex. 12. Translate into English.

1. Не встиг я вийти з офісу, як пішов дощ.
2. Мері увійшла в кабінет, як раптом згадала, що забула ключі від сейфу
вдома.
3. Він хвалився, що зустрічався з цією кінозіркою під час фестивалю.
4. Тед почувався втомленим. Вчора вночі він закінчив писати реферат.
5. До того, як Тео переїхав в будинок в передмісті, він жив в маленькій
квартирі в центрі міста.
6. Як тільки ми закінчили переговори, як делегація поїхала в аеропорт.
7. Я знала його. Ми жили в дитинстві на одній вулиці.
8. Гаррі запізнився. Лекція вже почалась.
9. Ми отримали листа від батьків про те, що вони вже переїхали.
10. На жаль, коли ми прибули на станцію, було вже пізно.Потяг вже пішов.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Ex.13. Read the sentences and define the tense forms. Translate them into
Ukrainian.
1. We had been sleeping for 12 hours when he woke us up.
2. They had been waiting at the station for 90 minutes when the train finally
arrived.
3. We had been looking for her ring for two hours and then we found it in the
bathroom.
4. I had not been walking for a long time, when it suddenly began to rain.
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5. How long had she been learning English before she went to London?
6. Frank Sinatra caught the flu because he had been singing in the rain too long.
7. He had been driving less than an hour when he ran out of petrol.
8. They were very tired in the evening because they had been helping on the farm
all day.
9. I had not been working all day; so I wasn't tired and went to the disco at night.
10.They had been cycling all day so their legs were sore in the evening.

Ex. 14. Complete the sentences, putting the verbs in brackets into the Past
Perfect Continuous.
1. The room was empty, but the television was still on. Someone_____(watch)
it.
2. They _______(wait) long before the taxi arrived.
3. We_______ (try) to open the door for five minutes when Jane found her key.
4. It ________(rain) hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.
5. Her friends had been _____(think) of calling the police when she walked in.
6. They_____ (wait) at the station for 90 minutes when the train finally
arrived.
7. Не looked very tired when I came to his place for he______(prepare) for his
exams for several days.
8. They ______________ (shout) for a few hours before their parents arrived.
9. John was in a detention because he_______(misbehave).
10. I had to go on a diet because I ________(eat) too much sugar.
11. Jessica got sunburnt because she had been _____(lie) in the sun too long.
12.The boys ________(quarrel) for half an hour when we arrived home.
13. I ______(date) Angelina for 3 years before we got married.

Ex.15. Ask questions using the questioning words in brackets.

1. They had been working on this project for 5 years before they finished it. (How
long?)
2. My Mum had been working for this company for 15 years before she retired.
(Who?)
3. I had been thinking of moving since September and then I got a promotion.
(Since when?)
4. My friend had been trying hard to improve the situation but eventually she
failed. (What?)
5. By seven o'clock last night she had already been typing for ten hours, so I told
her to rest for a while. (By what time?)

Ex.16.In pairs, ask and answer questions.

1. They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived. – Had they been
writing the report before Tony arrived? –No, they hadn’t. They had been talking.
How long had they been talking? – They had been talking for over an hour.
1. She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of
business.
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2. You had been waiting to get on the bus for 40 minutes.
3. Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.
4. James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he leftfor
Asia.
5. Jason was tired because he had been writing the course paper.
6. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
7. Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending classes.
8. He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.

Ex.17. Complete the sentences with the verbs in the box using the Past
Perfect Continuous Tense.
consider, drive, quarrel, practice, work, burn, hope, rain, write, try
1.He _______the car for many hours before he came to the crossroads.
2. The pianist _______ the passage hour after hour till he mastered it.
3. When I met her, her eyes were red. She and Mike _______ .
4. When I came, they ______ this question for more than an hour.
5. It was evening and he was tired because he _______ since dawn.
6. He ______ to get her on the phone for 15 minutes before he heard her voice.
7. By 12 o’clock they _______ a composition for hours.
8. The fire _______ for some time before a fire brigade came.
9. I ______ to meet her for ages when I bumped into her by chance.
10. When I left home, it was raining, and as it _______ since morning, the streets
were muddy.

Ex.18. Complete the sentences with the Past Perfect Continuous to explain
the reason.
Example: Mary got burnt. (Lie in the sun)- Mary got burnt because she had
been lying in the sun.
1. Mum looked upset. (Read and cry over a sad story.)
2. Tom ran out of fuel. (Drive for 8 hours.)
3. Bob’s trainers were dirty. (Play football all afternoon.)
4. They looked angry. (Discuss the problem with the board of directors.)
5. Fiona was exhausted. (Pack her suitcase.)
6. Melanie’s eyes were red. (Work at the computer all day long.)
7. She looked stunning. (Go shopping at the weekend.)
8. They were sad to move the house. ( Live at the same place for 20 years.)
9. At last they put up the tent. (Walk in the forest for 3 hours.)
10. Tom and Anna got married. ( Date for three years.)
11. He was happy. He got a position at TNT. (Look for a job as an IT manager.)

Ex.19.Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. I was tired. I have been writing the composition the whole evening.
2.They were been travelling for a week when they reached the point of destination.
3.We were exhausted. We had been sightseeing in the town all day long.
4. He passed his English exam easily. He had been studying very hard before.
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5. Katherine and Josh looked very angry. They had argued since morning..
6. Tracy had been preparing for the presentation until she met a deadline.
7. The kitchen smelled of vanilla. Mum was preparing for the big event for 5
hours.
8. They trained hard for the whole year. It was their big success.
9. Dave was happy. He and Maria had been doing their best until they won the
contest.
10.I wasn’t surprised Pete had failed his exam. He wasn’t working hard during the
semester.

Ex.20. TranslateintoEnglish.
1. Вона жила в Києві вже два роки , але так і не знала свій район.
2. Вона сказала, що вона вчила англійську з дитинства.
3. Коли я приїхала у відпустку на море, мої друзі були там уже два тижні.
4. У Люсі очі були червоні. Вона плакала весь ранок.
5. Джесіка та Джері будували будинок вже рік, коли розпочалась економічна
криза.
6. Майкл був надто втомлений. Збори тривали з ранку.
7. Наша секретарка друкувала папери вже пів години, коли прийшов шеф і
сказав, що вже не потрібно.
8. Сніг йшов всю ніч. Вранці всі будинки були вкриті снігом.
9. Вона промокла наскрізь. Всю дорогу до станції вона йшла без парасольки.
10.Анастасія була найкраща репортерка. Вона працювала в нашій газеті з
самого початку.

Past Continuous or Past Perfect Continuous?

Ex.21. Complete the situations as in the example. Present events as prior to
other events or situations. Use them in a broader context to justify your
choice of the verb forms.
Example: Dexter was studying economics when I met him. (for 4 years) – Dexter
had been studying economics for 4 years when I met him. He was glad to work
as an accountant.
1. Sophie was working as a lecturer when I joined the staff. (for 10 years)
2. Margaret was wandering from room to room when I returned. (for a long
time)
3. He was working in a fast food restaurant when he found another job. (for half
a year)
4. The artist was sitting in the gallery when Maria found him at last. (for 5 hours)
5. George was working as a reporter when I first met him. (since 2002)

Past Simple, Past Perfect or Past Perfect Continuous?

Ex.22. Replace the infinitives by the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect
Continuous or the Past Simple as required.

137
 1. He told me he _______ (not to see) much of her since he _______ (to move)
to another place.
2. When I _______ (to arrive) he _______ (to stay) at the same hotel where we
first _______ (to meet). He _______ (to tell) me he _______ (to wait) for me for
some time already.
3. He _______ (to consult) his watch nervously several times before he _______
(to see) her at the end of the platform.
4. He _______ (to write) and _______ (to tear) up more than one letter when at
last he _______ (to find) the necessary form of address.
5. At the end of the week the fishermen _______ (to think) they _______ (to
sail) long enough to reach the shore, and as there _______ (to be) no land in
sight, they _______ (to understand) that they _______ (to lose) their course and
_______ (to follow) the wrong route.
6. It _______ (not to rain) for more than two months, and the fruits _______ (to
fall) before they _______ (to become) ripe, when one August night the people
_______ (to be roused) by the sound of heavy drops beating against the roofs
and window-panes. With the rain there _______ (to come) hope.

Ex.23. Choose the verb in the box and complete the sentence with the
correct form of the verb. (Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous or Past
Simple)
understand, call, have, receive, slip, refuse, miss, finish, lose, enter, be ready

1. I ______ to give a definite answer before I ______ a letter from him.

2. We ______ to stay at the station for the night because we _____ the last train.
3. When Emma _____ reading the letter she _____ that she _____Arthur forever.
4. She hardly _____ the letter into her pocket when Martini _______ the room.
5. Their friends ______ them before they ______ .

carry, drop, bring, drive, achieve, keep, come, practice, expect, master

6. They _______ the car for many hours before they _______ to the crossroad.
7. The scientists ______ out a dozen experiments before they _____satisfactory
results.
8. The pianist ______ the passage hour after hour until he ______ it.
9. My watch ______ good time before I _______ it.
10.At last the postman ______ a letter which I _______ several weeks.

Ex.24. Open the brackets and use the proper tense (Past Simple, Past
Continuous, Past Perfect or Past Perfect Continuous).
1. When he ______ (arrive), I ______ (live) in London for a week.
2. We ______ (read) while he ______ (eat).
3. When Jack ______ (phone) me, I ______ (write) a letter.
4. When my friend ______ (come), I ______ (do) an exercise for an hour.

138
5. The library ______ (close) by the time I ______ (get) there .
6. I ______ (drive) home when I ______ (hear) the news on the radio.
7. They always ______ (have) loud parties which ______ (go on ) till the early
hours.
8. We ______ (walk) for some hours before we ______ (realize) that we ______
(lose) our way.
9. No sooner I ______ (complain) that I ______ (not hear) from them for a long
time than the letter ______ (come).
10.The concert was a great success. When the pianist ______ (finish) his part, the
audience ______ (applaud) the orchestra for some minutes.
11. It was the poorest room he ever ______ (see).
12. No sooner she ______ (come) to the station than a fast train from
Glasgow______ (arrive).
13. I ______ (drive) home when I ______ (hear) the news on the radio.
14. I ______ (finish) my work by afternoon and ______ (sit) quietly in my study
thinking of the days that ______ (pass) by.
15. The storm already ______ (die) away , but very far off the thunder still ______
(mutter).

Ex.25. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. I already had gone to bed and had fallen asleep when my brother knocked at
the door and asked me to get up.
2. By the time the guests were coming, she was not ready.
3. I had not been listening, so I missed what she had said.
4. By 9 o’clock he finished work. He went outside. The rain had stopped but it
was rather cool.
5. They had been studying all morning, so they were tired.
6. She broke the glass when she washed it.
7. They were looking for the money since morning but they couldn’t find it
anywhere.
8. The shop has closed by the time I got there.
9. At last I bought a piece of furniture which I expected for a month.
10. All the staff were working very long hours all week long.

Ex.26. TranslateintoEnglish.
1.Студенти закінчили підготовку до конференції до 30 жовтня.
2. Вони були друзями вже 10 років, перш ніж я познайомився з ними.
3. Секретарка віддала листа лише після того, як я сповістив своє ім’я.
4. Вона прийшла на роботу і згадала, що забув вдома гаманця.
5. Мої сусіди сказали, що провели відпустку в Альпах.
6. Ми думаємо, що він прийняв правильне рішення.
7. Вони вирішили залишитись вдома, тому що були втомлені.
8. Ми подивились фільм перш ніж обговорили його.
9. Я була в Лондоні минулого року. Раніше я там ніколи не була.
10. Я прочекала на зупинці 20 хвилин перш ніж прийшов трамвай.
139
 PAST TENSES REVIEW
Ex.27. Identify the tenses, then match the sentences on the left with their
functions on the right.

1. The young people were dancing a - an action which happened at a

to a loud music when I entered the
room.
2. She finished writing the course
paper yesterday.
3. Mike had made a report before
his boss asked him about it.
4. When they were playing in the
attic, they found a rare book.
5. They redecorated the house when
they moved to New York.
6. They had been redecorating the
house for a year before they moved
in.
7. The office workers had already
locked the door when the alarm went
off.
8. In the middle of the party, when
they were having fun, the storm hit.
9. They started the company in
1999.
10. The students were cheating
while they were writing the test.
11. They locked the door, gave the
keys to the guard and went home.
12.The company’s funds had run
out by the end of the year.
specific time in the past;
b-actions which took place
immediately one after another in the
past;
c -an action which was in progress
before another action interrupted it;
d -an action which was completed
before another action in the past;
e -two or more actions were in
progress simultaneously;
f -an action which was completed
before some specific time in the
past.
g-an action which lasted for some
time in the past before another
action or a stated time in the past

Ex.28. Final test. Simple Past, Past Continuous, Past Perfect, or Past Perfect
Continuous? Choose the right answer.
1. He _______ a new car last year.
a. bought b. was buying c. had bought d. had been buying
2. He _______ London two years ago.
a. visited b. was visiting c. had visited d. had been visiting
3. I _______ yesterday because I was sick.
a. didn't work b. wasn't working c. hadn't worked d. hadn't been working
4. She fell asleep while she _________ TV.
a. watched b. was watching c. had watched d. had been watching
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 5. She probably lost her keys while she ________ in the park.
a. walked b. was walking c. had walked d. had been walking
6. He _________ at four o'clock yesterday.
a. slept b. was sleeping c. had slept d. had been sleeping
7. First he ________ as a salesman, then as a night clerk, and after that he quit
his job and became a writer.
a. worked b. was working c. had worked d. had been working
8. Christopher Columbus ________ America in 1492.
a. discovered b. was discovering c. had discovered d. had been discovering
9. By the time I came back, Mike and Jane______, so I couldn't tell them about it.
a. already left b. were already leaving c. had already left d. had already been
leaving
10. It ________ me two hours to get to the airport.
a. took b. was taking c. had taken d. had been taking
11. Their car was stolen while they________ lunch at a cafe.
a. ate b. were eating c. had eaten d. had been eating
12. When he lived in Mexico, he ________ in a bank.
a. worked b. was working c. had worked d. had been working
13. He ________ for his bus at the bus stop when the robbers attacked him.
a. waited b. was waiting c. had waited d. had been waiting
14. She _______ all the letters by the time her boss asked her to type them again.
a. sent b. was sending c. had sent d. had been sending
15. Until last night, she _______ him about it.
a. never asked b. was never asking c. had never asked d. had never been
asking
16. By the time we arrived, she _______ for us at the train station for three hours.
a. waited b. was waiting c. had waited d. had been waiting

Ex.29. Complete the story by putting the verbs in brackets into the correct
tense. You can choose from the Present Perfect, Past Simple, Past
Continuous, Past Perfect or Past Perfect Continuous.
My English is really getting better. I ______ (try) to learn the language
since 2005, but only recently have I been able to make some real progress. By
the time I started high school in 2008, I ______ (study) the language for almost
three years; however, I was only able to introduce myself and utter a few
memorized sentences. For a couple more years, I ______ (struggle) through
grammar and vocabulary lessons, which made absolutely no difference. Nothing
worked, so I decided to study abroad.
I ______ (find) an exchange program in England that ______ (sound) like
the perfect answer. I ______ (stay) with a host family for one month. It was a
huge disappointment! I ______ (sit) there the whole time staring at the host
mother and father hoping that there would be some breakthrough. Nothing.
When I returned, I mentioned to a friend that I ______ (have) problems
with the language for years. He recommended that I spend a year in an English
speaking country. I decided to go abroad again. I ______ (research) exchange
141
 programs for a couple of weeks and finally (decide) on a school in the United
States.
Well, it ______ (work). I ______ (live) and ______ (study) in the U.S.
for more than two years. I ______ (stay) here for at least another year before I
return home. By then, I should be completely fluent.

Ex.30. Choose the correct form of the verb.

1.They are happy their child _______ the University.
a) entered b) has entered c) had entered
2. They were happy their child_______ the University.
a) entered b) has entered c) had entered
3. At this time two weeks ago we _______ on the beach.
a) lay b) were lying c) lied
4. I was glad he _______ from this business trip.
a) returned b) has returned c) had returned
5. I _______ impressed with his car when I saw it yesterday.
a) hasn’t been b) wasn’t c) hadn’t been.
6. My parents were angry because I ________ my last exam.
a) hasn’t passed b) didn’t pass c) hadn’t passed
7. When she came home, her son _______ .
a) had dinner b) have dinner c) is having dinner
8. Our manager signed the documents and _______ upstairs.
a) has gone b) went c) had gone
9. How many times _______ him since he went to London?
a) did you see b) have you seen c) saw
10. Mary (1) _______ the room while John (2) ________ the dinner.
(1) a) cleans b) was cleaning c) has cleaned
(2) a) makes b) has made c) was making

Ex.31. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. The man was standing at the bus stop for the last half an hour.
2. I remembered I haven’t paid the bill last month.
3. I called the station for an hour yesterday but no one answered.
4. She was standing near the shelf and trying to find the book on economic
theory.
5. Richard tried to come in quietly but his mother didn’t sleep and was hearing
him.
6. I hadn’t seen Michael for some time. I missed him greatly.
7. He used to playing the violin when he lived with his grandparents.
8. I had been played chess for 3 years before I participated in a lightning
tournament five years ago.
9. I went to England to improve my English but it hadn’t helped.
10. There were a very good program on TV last night.

Ex.32.TranslateintoEnglish.
142
1. Я слухала подругу вже пів години, але так і не зрозуміла про що йшлося.
2. Минулого тижня я зустрівся з менеджерами, провів перемовини,
відправив десятки листів і нарешті поїхав у відпустку.
3. Коли він прийшов, вона вже повернулась та сиділа біля каміну.
4. Не встигла я приїхати до готелю, як задзвонив телефон і ми пішли на
зустріч в конференц зал.
5. Професор все ще екзаменував студентів, коли прийшов декан.
6. Ми бувало грали у футбол всім офісом у суботу.
7. Стажери тренувались вже три години, коли тренер сказав зробити
перерву.
8. Коли ви закінчили проект? - Ми ще не закінчили. Ми пропрацювали три
місяці над ним, але ще не дійшли згоди щодо рекламної кампанії.
9. Йшов сильний сніг. Я не змогла прочитати номер тролейбуса. Я проїхала
вже три зупинки, коли зрозуміла, що їхала не в тому напрямку.
10. Я дзвонила вам дві години, але телефон був зайнятий.
11. Ми ще не встигли вийти на вулицю, як прибуло таксі.
12. Студенти писали тест вже пів години, коли увійшов декан і попросив їх
заповнити анкети.
13. Ми працювали над проектом пів року коли наш товар з’явився на ринку.
14. Вони прибули о третій вночі і все ще відпочивають.
Скільки часу тривала дискусія, перш ніж вони прийшли до компромісу?

Unit 5. FREE-ENTERPRISE SYSTEM

TEXT A: What is free enterprise?

TEXT B: Role of government in a free-enterprise economy
TEXT C: Invisible hand
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: At the airport
GRAMMAR: Future Tenses. The Imperative Mood

Everything that is really great and inspiring is created by the

individual who can labor in freedom.
Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955),

143
 a German theoretical physicist

LEAD-IN
1. Do you feel free? What freedoms do you enjoy? What freedoms are guaranteed
in a democratic society? How do you understand economic freedom?
2. If you are free, it means that it is no one but you who makes decisions. What
motivates you in decision-making? What motivates people in making economic
decisions?
3. While the pure market economy does not imply government’s interference at all,
the free enterprise economy does. In what spheres do you think government can
perform better than private companies?

PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills
Ex.1. Read the words with the following letter combinations.
ou [au] output, account, household
[ʌ] country, double, nourish

ea [i:] each, deal, feature, increase, mean, means

[e] health, wealth, measure, instead
[ei] great, break

144
ow [au] how, now, power
[ou] low, own, slow
au [ɔ:] because, automatic, automobile

ch [t∫] search, purchase, choose, exchange, channel

[k] mechanism, chemical, character
[∫] machine, chef, brochure

Ex.2. Read the following words with the letter c in different positions.
[k] economy, Cuba, occur, considerable, sector, country, occupation
[s] produce, service, difference, resource, society, decide, incentive, necessary,
receive
[k]-[s] scarce, consequence, success, coercive
[∫] socialist, efficiency, beneficial, financial, artificial
[t∫] which, China, purchase, choose, exchange, channel
[k] mechanism, school, chemistry, chronicle

Ex.3. Read the words in the groups bellow. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
mechanism, utilize, private, enterprise, difference, social, value, motivate,
consequence, innovator, satisfy, borrow, voluntary, contract, surplus, shortage,
rationing, indicate;
b) words with the stress on the second syllable:
identical, produce (v), unique, involve, considerable, occur, component, economy,
resource, society, objective, creative, productive, pursue, decision, determine,
incentive, consumer, possess, potential, competitive, maintain, abundant;
c) polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:
economic, manufacturing, beneficial, occupation, inability, artificial, interference.

Ex.4. Practice reading the following words.

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Identical, mechanism, utilize, occur, private, creative, highly, efficiency, pursue,
beneficial, artificial, determine, extremely, reward, consequence, scarce, purchase,
sovereignty, entrepreneur, necessarily, interference, coercive, guide.

B. Word formation
Ex.5. Study the following typical endings of nouns. Using one of them, change
each of the following words into a noun.
Membership; socialism; sadness; information; government; beauty; marriage;
excellence.

Kind, real, move, human, elect, intelligent, permanent, confuse, leader, improve,
equal.

Ex.6. Make up adjectives from the following verbs as in the model.

Model: verb + - ive → adjective
e.g. to invent → inventive; to produce → productive
Create, decide (d→s), innovate, protect, impress, attract.

Ex.7. Form adjectives adding prefix in- (im- before p, il- before l, ir- before r)
as in the model. Explain what new meaning the prefix adds to adjectives.
Model: possible → impossible

Complete, capable, correct, definite, sensitive, patient, perfect, legal, logical,

liberal, regular, rational, relevant.

TEXT A: WHAT IS FREE ENTERPRISE?

Active Vocabulary

Key terms: private enterprise, private and public sectors, free enterprise economy,
efficiency, cost(s), economic resources, decision making, economic incentives,
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profit, employee, employer, unemployment, household, value, resource market,
product market, financial market, intermediary, price system, rationing, surplus,
shortage.

Other words and expressions: identical, to deal (with), unique, to utilize, to

involve, considerable, trait, to turn into, to occur, to reflect, to force, to pursue, to
result (in/from), compatible, to mean, (a) means, to own, to possess, to motivate, to
determine, to seek, to search (for), to benefit (from), consequence, to fail, to
indicate, to provide, properly, to purchase, to influence, to bring together, to
borrow, to save, cornerstone, interference, to enforce, to maintain, to perform,
vital, abundant, artificial, to channel.
Linking words and phrases: even though, both…and, although, to a large (small,
certain, limited) extent, therefore, instead, in addition to, however, in essence, on
the one hand, on the other hand.

Just as people are different, so are economic systems. The world has scores
of economic systems, no two of which are identical. All have different blends of
traditions, commands and markets, that is why they are called mixed economies.
Even though they deal with the same economic problems – What to produce? How
to produce? For whom to produce? - each system does so in a unique way. For
example, market mechanisms have been utilized in a handful of socialist states,
such as Cuba, to a very limited extent. The People's Republic of China is run by
the Communist Party, but its economy involves considerable private enterprise and
market forces in both private and public sectors. In the United States there are
more market economy traits than in Western European countries. These differences
occur because economic systems are more than simply means of turning resources
into goods and services. They are ways of life, and they reflect the differences in
the social values and objectives of each nation.
Many states which are said to have a market economy have a high level of
market freedom, therefore they are often called free market or free enterprise

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economic systems. In this system no one forces people to be creative and
productive. Instead, people themselves pursue what they believe to be best for
them. By producing the goods and services that society values most highly, a free
enterprise system results in the greatest efficiency, or lowest costs, of any
economic system. This system is most compatible with individual freedom and
political democracy.
What Is Free Enterprise? Free enterprise means that men and women have
the opportunity to own economic resources, such as land, minerals, manufacturing
plants and computers, and to use these resources to create goods and services for
sale. If nobody but a person himself decides what is best to create, what motivates
him in this decision-making? In the free enterprise system economic incentives
help people determine which course of action will be the most beneficial for them.
Businessmen seek high profits. Property owners want the highest price possible for
their resources. Workers seek the highest salary possible for a given occupation.
Consumers search for the lowest price for a given product. The system of
incentives is an extremely important feature of free enterprise. The promise of
rewards stimulates employees to produce more and employers to use resources
efficiently. People are willing to do this because they, personally, benefit from it.
Economic incentives also serve to direct scarce resources to the production of the
goods and services people value the most.
The system of incentives also includes punishments. People may face
unpleasant consequences when they fail to do something. In the free enterprise
system, punishments usually take the form of losses (or failure) for businesses and
low salaries (or perhaps unemployment) for individuals. They indicate that the
"what to produce" and/or the "how to produce" questions are not being answered
properly, for example, the business or individual is using scarce resources to
provide too much of a product or a product not wanted at all.

Four components of most free enterprise systems are households, businesses,

markets and governments.

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 Households — the Owners. In a free enterprise system, households own
most of the country’s economic resources and decide how to use them. One of the
resources that households possess is their labour. They can sell it to existing firms
or use to form new businesses. In addition to selling their resources where they can
get the highest price or largest profit, households also act as consumers. The wages
and salaries of households purchase about two-thirds of all the production in a
typical free enterprise economy. Choosing how to spend their money, consumers
influence production directing it toward the goods and services they want to get.
This is called consumer sovereignty.
Businesses — the Organizers. Businesses organize economic resources to
produce a good or service. Entrepreneurs — people who start businesses — are the
organizers and innovators, constantly discovering new and better ways to bring
resources together in the hope of making a profit. Like some fuel, profit makes the
engine of business work. Entrepreneurs, guided by the potential for profits, create
new businesses to satisfy consumers’ needs and desires. The inability to make
profits signals businesses to close or to reorganize their resources more efficiently.
Efficiency means that resources are being used to produce the goods and services that
society most desires at the lowest economic cost. In a competitive industry, the
presence or absence of profits sends an important signal about the industry’s
economic efficiency.
Markets — the Agents. Buying and selling activities take place in markets.
Although markets are not necessarily people, they act as agents to bring buyers and
sellers together. Over time, markets have become increasingly complex. Now,
buying and selling can occur 24 hours a day from anywhere in the world via the
Internet. A market is any place or any way that buyers and sellers can use to
exchange goods, services, resources or money. There are three categories of
markets in a free enterprise society: resource markets, product markets and
financial markets. Households go through resource markets to sell their labour to
businesses. Businesses go through product markets to sell goods and services to
households. And both households and businesses use financial markets to borrow

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and save money. Typically, businesses borrow money that households save, using
financial institutions as the intermediary.
Governments — the Protectors. The cornerstone of a truly free enterprise
economy is the absence of government interference in economic matters. However,
the government still plays an important role in any free enterprise system. This is
because unlimited freedom is impossible: one person’s freedom may sometimes
conflict with another’s. So, the main role of the government in a free society is to
define and enforce the rules of society. The government has the power to maintain
law and order and protect people’s right to own property. In essence, government
provides the umbrella under which the free enterprise system operates.
Governments also provide goods, such as national defence, that the private market
alone would have a hard time producing.
What connects consumers, producers and markets? This linking function is
performed by the price system. Prices tell people about the demand for a good, and
they also tell them how scarce or abundant the good is. Prices provide information
that is vital to making economic decisions. Without market prices, it would be very
difficult for people to measure the value of each good and the scarcity or
abundance of our resources. If a system tries to make decisions without prices, as
the command system does, then it probably produces too many of some goods and
too few of others. In the first case surplus occurs, when there are more goods than
demanded in the market. The opposite of surplus is shortage, that is the situation
when there are not enough goods and services that are needed. In the free
enterprise system, the market itself regulates the situation with the help of price
change. In the case of government intervention in the market, shortages may result
in so-called black markets, artificial controls on demand, such as rationing, and
price discrimination.
But if we say that all people seek their own benefit, how does free enterprise
result in such beneficial outcomes for society? That’s where competition plays its
great role. It helps to channel scarce resources into the production of goods and
services that consumers value highly and away from those of low value. For

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example, when a business makes a large profit, there is an incentive for other
individuals to enter that business. On the other hand, if a business is losing money
or members of an occupation receive a low wage, there is an incentive to enter a
different line of business or a different occupation. In this way, resources are
guided toward the production of goods and services receiving economic rewards
and away from those receiving economic punishments.

Language notes:
scores of... – безліч;
a handful of ... – невелика кількість ч-н;
consumer sovereignty – суверенітет споживача (право вибору благ);
the coercive power – примусова сила;
without market prices, it would be very difficult… - без системи ринкових цін
було б важко…;
price discrimination – цінова дискримінація (продаж одного і того ж товару
або послуг різним покупцям за неоднаковими цінами).

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Однакові типи економічних систем; розглядати одні і ті ж проблеми; у дуже
обмеженому масштабі; як у приватному, так і в громадських секторах;
перетворювати ресурси на товари та послуги; переслідувати (мету);
приводити до якогось результату; економічні стимули; спонукати кого-
небудь до дії; зіткнутися з неприємними наслідками; зазнати невдачі;
правильно/належним чином; одержати найбільший прибуток; придбати дві
третини продукції; самостійність споживача; відкривати/починати свою
справу; задовольняти потреби та бажання споживачів; з найбільш низькими
економічними витратами; посилати важливий сигнал; звести разом покупців і
продавців; обмінюватися товарами, послугами, ресурсами або грошовими

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коштами; позичати та нагромаджувати кошти; посередник; втручання уряду
в економічні питання; визначати і запроваджувати громадські правила;
додержуватися закону і порядку; брак (дефіцит) або надлишок ресурсів;
«ручне» (штучне) управління попитом; цінова дискримінація;
нормування.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and phrases.

Different blends of traditions; commands and markets; to do smth in a unique way;
to utilize market mechanisms; a handful of countries; to involve market forces;
market economy traits; these differences occur; a high level of market freedom; to
force people to be creative; to value smth most highly; the most beneficial course
of action; to seek high profits; to search for the lowest price; to indicate smth; to
provide too much of a product; in addition to selling resources; in the hope of
making a profit; an inability to do smth; to act as agents; to become increasingly
complex; to use a financial institution as an intermediary; to be the cornerstone of
smth; to have the coercive power to do smth; to have a hard time doing smth; vital
information for making decisions; to channel scarce resources; to receive economic
rewards or economic punishments.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these
verbs in the text.
Deal, occur, say, result, mean, seek, search, get, purchase, start, make, send, bring,
become, go, tell, try, do, lose.

Ex.4. Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
11. private enterprise aa. a structure which helps buyers and sellers get
together to exchange goods or services
22. public sector bb. a situation when there is not enough of something
that is needed

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 33. rationing cc. the ability to do something well without wasting
time or money
44. economic dd. the policy of limiting the amount of food, fuel, etc.
resources that people are allowed to have when there is not
enough for everyone to have as much as they want
5 incentives ee. an amount that is extra or more than you need
6 profit ff. a business that is owned by individuals or other
companies, not by the government
7 benefit g something that encourages people to do something,
especially to work harder, spend more money, etc.
8 household hg. a supply of something such as money, labour, etc.
that an organization or a person has and can use
9 market ih. a person or an organization that helps other people
or organizations to reach an agreement
10 sovereignty ji. the part of the economy of a country that is owned
or controlled by the government
11 efficiency kj. complete independence
12 intermediary lk. getting involved in and trying to influence the
situation
13 interference ml. a helpful and useful effect that something has
14 surplus nm. all the people living together in a single house or
flat/apartment, considered as a unit
15 shortage on. the money that you make in business or by selling
things, especially after paying the costs involved

Ex.5. Make up verb+noun collocations (there may be several variants).

to make an important signal
to satisfy vital information
to start resources
to send an economic decision
to exchange law and order
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to borrow and save a high profit
to play consumer’s needs and wants
to maintain money
to provide a great role
to make a new business

Ex.6. Fill in the gaps in the following verb collocations with appropriate
prepositions or adverbs.
To deal ____ the same economic problems; to do something ____ a unique way; to
utilize market mechanisms ____ a very limited extent; to turn resources ____
goods and services; to result ____ the greatest efficiency; to be compatible ____
individual freedom; to produce goods and services ____ sale; to search ____ the
lowest price ____ a given product; to benefit ____ the efficient use of resources; to
direct production ____ goods and services people want to get; to produce goods
and services ____ the lowest economic cost; to bring buyers and sellers ____ ; to
conflict ____ individual freedom.

Ex.7. Choose the appropriate word or phrase to complete the following

sentences.
Households, most compatible, labour, surplus, borrow and save, purchase, bring
together, in a unique way, economic incentives, shortage, competition, to a very
limited extent, define and enforce, businesses

1. Each economic system deals with What? How? and For whom? problems ____.

2. In some countries, market mechanisms are utilized ________ .

3. Free enterprise systems are ________ with individual freedom and political
democracy.

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4. In the free enterprise system ________ help people answer What? How? and For
whom? questions in the most beneficial way, e.g. low prices for goods or services
for consumers and high profit for producers.

5. ________ , one of the components of the free enterprise system, own most of the
country’s economic resources and with their wages and salaries ________ two-
thirds of all the country’s production.

6. One of the resources that households have is their ________ , which they can
sell to businesses.

7. Another component of the free enterprise system, ________ , performs the role
of organizers.

8. Markets act as agents which ________ buyers and sellers ________ .

9. Financial markets are used by both households and businesses that want to
________ money.

10. The main role of government in the free enterprise system is to ________ the
rules of society.

11. The situation when there are more goods than demanded is called ________ .
When the opposite occurs, it is called ________ .

12. Another economic incentive in the free enterprise system is ________ , which
stimulates businesses to make the most efficient decisions.

Ex.8. Combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.

1 All economic systems have a in each nation’s social values and

objectives.

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2 Free market or free enterprise b consumers’ needs and wants.
economic systems

3 Economic systems reflect the c unpleasant consequences or so-called

differences economic punishments.

4 Free enterprise means that d different blends of traditions,

people commands, and markets.

5 Entrepreneurs, who are guided e employees to produce more and

by the economic incentive of producers to use resources more
profit, create businesses which efficiently.
satisfy

6 The promise of profit stimulates f is provided by the price system and

competition.

7 When people fail to make good g have a high level of economic

economic decisions, they may freedom.
face

8 In the free market system, h losses for businesses and low salaries
economic “punishment” may or unemployment for workers.
take the form of

9 Entrepreneurs constantly i have the opportunity to own and use

discover new and better ways economic resources.

10 A market is any place or any j that buyers and sellers can exchange
way goods, services, resources, or money.

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11 In the free enterprise system, the k in the hope of making a profit.
vital information for decision-
making

Ex.9. Look through the text again and replace the words in bold with the
linking words and phrases given below.
Even though/although, to a limited extent, therefore, instead, in addition to,
however, in essence, on the other hand

1. In a free-enterprise economy, nobody forces entrepreneurs to be creative and

productive. Rather, business people themselves choose what is best for their
business.
2. Most countries in the world have a high level of market freedom. That is why,
their economic systems are frequently called free market or free enterprise
systems.
3. All economies deal with the same economic problems – What? How? and For
whom? But they do it in their own unique way.
4. In some economies, such as Cuba, the market mechanisms are realized only in
certain limits.
5. Despite the fact that markets are not necessarily people, they act as agents to
bring buyers and sellers together.
6. Besides selling their resources to get profit, households also act as consumers.
7. Even if the market system is characterized by the absence of government
interference, the government still plays an important role.
8. If a business is profitable, there is an incentive for other people to join it.
Alternatively, if it suffers losses or pays low wages, there is an incentive to
change it for another one.
9. The role of government in some aspects is so important that, in fact, it acts as
an umbrella under which the free enterprise system operates.

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Ex.10. Translate into English.
1. У світі існує безліч типів економічних систем, які відповідають на головні
питання економіки - Що виробляти? Як виробляти? Для кого виробляти? -
своїм особливим чином.
2. Економічні системи відображають відмінності в соціальних цінностях і
цілях суспільства.
3. Високий ступінь ринкової свободи називають економічною системою
вільного підприємництва.
4. Виробляючи товари і послуги, необхідні для суспільства, система вільного
підприємництва призводить до найвищої ефективності або найменших
витрат економіки.
5. Економічні стимули допомагають людям вибрати найбільш вигідний
спосіб дій.
6. Якщо люди приймають неправильні рішення, вони можуть зіткнутися з
неприємними наслідками, такими як втрати бізнесу або низька зарплата
або навіть звільнення працівників.
7. Учасниками економічної діяльності в більшості систем вільного
підприємництва є домашні господарства, компанії, ринки і уряд.
8. Домашні господарства володіють більшою частиною економічних
ресурсів країни і на свою зарплату купують дві третини всієї продукції
країни.
10.Нездатність заробити прибуток є сигналом для компаній про необхідність
використовувати свої ресурси більш ефективно.
11.Ринок - це будь-яке місце або спосіб, які допомагають покупцям і
продавцям обмінюватися товарами, послугами, ресурсами або фінансами.
12.Як домашні господарства так і компанії використовують фінансові ринки
для позик або накопичення грошей.
13.Наріжним каменем системи вільного підприємництва є відсутність
втручання уряду в економічні питання.

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14.Уряд забезпечує дотримання закону і порядку і охороняє право людини на
приватну власність.
15.Система цін є важливою інформацією про попит на будь-який товар і про
його нестачу або надлишок на ринку.
16.Конкуренція також допомагає направити ресурси на виробництво товарів і
послуг, які споживачі цінують більше за все.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Ex.11. Ask questions to which the following statements may be answers.

1. Yes, they have to deal with the same What? How? For whom? problems.
2. No, they have different combinations of traditions, commands and markets.
3. Because they reflect differences in their social values and objectives.
4. They are often called free market or free enterprise economic systems.
5. Because people are free to decide what is best for them to produce and to buy.
6. They are profit for businessmen, high prices for property owners, low prices for
consumers, and high salaries for workers.
7. They are households, businesses, markets and governments.
8. They can sell their resources and act as consumers.
9. It is the ability of consumers to influence production, directing it toward the
goods and services they want to get.
10.These are people who start and run businesses and are organizers and
innovators.
11.They act as agents to bring buyers and sellers together.
12.There are three categories of markets − resource, product, and financial ones.
13.Yes, it still plays an important role in a free system.
14.Its main role is to define and enforce the rules of society.

Ex.12. Answer the following questions.

159
1. Why do societies answer the same economic questions – What to produce?
How to produce and For whom to produce? – in a different way?
2. Why most modern economic systems are called free market economies?
3. What does free enterprise mean?
4. What motivates people in their free decision-making?
5. Why are economic incentives important?
6. What forms can economic “punishments” take?
7. What components does a free enterprise system consist of?
8. Why are households referred to as Owners?
9. What is consumer sovereignty?
10.In which way do businesses act as Organizers?
11.What does efficiency in business mean?
12.How and where do buying and selling activities take place?
13.What is a market?
14.In which way are resource, product and financial markets interconnected?
15.Are free enterprise systems absolutely free from government interference?
16.Why can government be called “an umbrella” under which the free enterprise
system operates?
17.What is the linking function of the price system?
18.What are surplus and shortage?
19.In addition to the price system, what other incentives help the free enterprise
economy function successfully?

Ex.13. Make a presentation of the topic “Free-enterprise system”.

WRITING

Ex.14. Write a plan for a summary of Text A. Start with

1. Uniqueness of economic systems
2. ___________________________

160
3. ___________________________

Ex.15. Write a brief summary (25-30 sentences) of Text A.

Ex.16. Write an essay about advantages and disadvantages of the free

enterprise economic system (100-150 words).

DISCUSSION POINTS

Ex.17. Discuss the following questions.

1. Why are social arrangements such as markets and property rights necessary?
2. “The economic system of tomorrow is mostly likely to be quite different from
the economic system of today.” Do you agree?
3. According to polls, most US economists who classify themselves as liberal
favour less government involvement in the economy than the general public does.
Can you explain these different approaches?
4. A market system is based on consumer sovereignty – the consumer determines
what is to be produced. Yet business decides what is to be produced. Can these
two views be reconciled? How? If no, why?

TEXT B: ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN A FREE-ENTERPRISE

ECONOMY

Ex.18. Scan the text bellow and give headlines to each paragraph.

If markets and market systems are so efficient, why let the government
tamper with their actions at all? Why not adopt a strict policy of what is called
laissez-fair and allow private markets to operate without any government
interference? (0)___________

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 National defense is one example where the role of government is
indispensable because the defense of a nation is a type of good that is completely
different from oranges, computers, or housing. People do not pay for each unit they
use, but purchase it collectively for the entire nation. Providing defense services to
one individual doesn’t mean that there is less defense for others because all people,
in effect, consume those defense services together. In fact, these services are even
provided to people in a country who don’t want them because there really isn’t an
effective way not to. Nations can afford to build jet fighters; neighbourhoods or
individuals cannot. (1) ___________ That is why national defense must be
administered by the government and paid for through taxes.
Harmful by-products of manufacturing operations, such as the pollution of
air, water and soil, are called externalities and often occur where the ownership of
a resource, for example air, seas, rivers, public lands, etc., is not held by
individuals or private organizations. Most pollution is, in fact, released into the air,
oceans, and rivers precisely because there are no individual owners of those
resources who have strong personal incentives to hold polluters liable for the
damage they do. (2) ___________ Once the government has established an
acceptable, or at least, tolerable level of pollution, it can use laws, regulations,
fines, special taxes, even jail sentences to reduce the pollution. This is a classic
example of a so-called external cost that is not reflected in the price through
normal workings of the marketplace. It is called external because – as in the case
of a river polluted by a paper-producing company − neither the company nor its
customers are bearing the actual cost of paper production. Instead, a portion of the
cost − the pollution factor − has been shifted to the people who live or work along
the river and those taxpayers who eventually are stuck with the cleanup bill.
(3)___________ Education is often claimed to offer external benefits in a nation
because educated workers are more flexible and productive and less likely to
become unemployed. That means government’s spending more for public
education today may ultimately lead to savings in public and private spending to

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fight crime, poverty, and other social problems, as well as increasing the skill
level, flexibility, and productivity of the workforce.
Governments in market economies must establish and protect the right to
private property and to the economic gains derived from the use of that property.
(4) ___________ The government's protection of private property obviously
extends to land, factories, stores, and other tangible goods, but it also extends to
so-called intellectual property: the products of people's minds as expressed in
books and other writings, the visual arts, films, scientific inventions, engineering
designs, pharmaceuticals, and computer software programmes.
Some people do not have the skills or other resources to earn a living in a
market economy. Others benefit greatly from inherited wealth and talents, or from
the business, social, and political connections of their families and friends.
Governments in market economies inevitably engage in programmes that
redistribute income, and they often do so with the explicit intention of making tax
policies and the after-tax distribution of income fairer. Governments in virtually all
market economies provide support for the unemployed, medical care for the poor,
and pension benefits for retired persons. Taken together, these programmes
provide what is sometimes called a "social safety net." (5) ___________
Governments in market economies play critical roles in providing the
economic conditions in which the marketplace of private enterprise can function
most effectively. (6) ___________ Besides, governments have developed a
standard set of stabilization policies − known as fiscal and monetary policies − that
they can use to try to moderate (or ideally to eliminate) periods of economic
recession and slump. Fiscal policies employ government spending and tax
programmes to stimulate the national economy in times of high unemployment and
low inflation, or to slow it down in times of high inflation and low unemployment.
To stimulate the overall level of spending, production, and employment, the
government itself will spend more and tax less, even if it incurs a deficit. Monetary
policy involves changes in a nation's supply of money and the availability of credit.
To increase spending in times of high unemployment and low inflation,

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policymakers increase the supply of money, which lowers interest rates (that is,
reduces the price of money), thereby making it easier for banks to make more
loans. This encourages more spending on consumption by putting additional
money in people's hands. Lower interest rates also stimulate investment spending
by businesses seeking to expand and hire more workers. In a period of high
inflation and low unemployment, by contrast, policymakers can cool down the
economy by raising interest rates; thereby reducing the supply of money and the
availability of credit. (7) ___________

Ex.19. Read the text. Choose the best sentence A-G to fill in each of the gaps
1-7. Do not use any letter more than once. There is an example at the
beginning.
0 There are several reasons that economists have identified.

A Another example of externalities but in the form of external benefits is public

education.
B Then, with less money in the economy to spend and higher interest rates, both
spending and prices will tend to fall, or at least increase less quickly.
C This kind of good is called a public good because no private business could sell
such goods and services to citizens of a nation and stay in business.
D Over the last 40 years these social programs have been rapidly growing parts of
government spending and taxation programs in most industrialized economies.
E By intervening, government can force the producers and consumers of the
product to pay the cleanup costs. In essence, this economic role of government
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 is simply to make those who enjoy the benefits of selling and consuming a
product pay all of the costs of producing and consuming it.
F Without such assurances, few people are going to risk their time and money in
enterprises whose rewards may possibly go to the state or some other group.
G One such role is to provide a widely accepted, stable currency that eliminates
the need for cumbersome and inefficient systems of barter, and to maintain the
value of that currency through policies that limit inflation (an increase in the
overall level of prices of goods and services).

Ex.20. Answer the following questions. Refer to the text if needed.

1. Why are private companies unable to provide such public services as national
defense?
2. What are externalities?
3. Providing examples, explain the difference between external costs and external
benefits.
4. What is intellectual property? How can it be protected by the government?
5. What is a social safety net?
6. Supporters of wealth redistribution argue that this role of government limits the
concentration of wealth and maintains a wider diffusion of economic power among
households. Those who oppose major redistribution programs counter that
additional taxes on high-income families decrease the incentives of these groups to
work, save, and invest, which adversely affects the overall economy. Which
opinion do you support?
7. What policies does the government use to stabilize the economy in periods of
inflation and unemployment?
8. There is one more role of governments in market economies not discussed in the
above text, namely maintaining an effective degree of competition in the economic
system. Explain how this can be done.

TEXT C: INVISIBLE HAND

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 Before reading
What do you think Adam Smith meant by the “invisible hand” of the
market? What does the “invisible hand” do?

Reading
Read the text and do the tasks following the text.

(1) By following their own self-

interest in open and competitive
markets, consumers, producers and
workers are led to use their economic
resources in ways that have the
greatest value to the national economy
– at least in terms of satisfying more of
people’s wants. The first person to point out this fact in a systematic way was the
Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, who published his most famous book, An
Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in 1776. Smith was
the first great classical economist, and among the first described how an economy
based on a system of markets could promote economic efficiency and individual
freedom, regardless of whether people were particularly industrious or lazy.
(2) Smith argued that if people are naturally good and kind, a market
economy offers them a great deal of freedom to carry out their good deeds, backed
up by an efficient system of production, which generates more material goods and
services for them to use in doing those good works. But what if people are selfish,
greedy, or lazy?
(3) Anyone who wants to enjoy more of the material goods and services
produced in a market economy faces strong economic incentives to work hard,
spend carefully, and save and invest. And most successful businesses have to

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produce good products, sell them at market prices, pay their employees market
wages, and treat their customers courteously – even if that isn’t their natural way of
doing things.
(4) The basic reason for that kind of change in some people’s behaviour is
competition. As Adam Smith pointed out, when there are several butcher shops in
a community, any butcher who is rude or tries to sell inferior meat at unreasonable
prices soon loses business and income to other butcher shops. If your
neighbourhood butcher is naturally friendly and benevolent, so much the better.
(5) But even customers who do not know a butcher personally don’t have to
depend on such altruistic characteristics to get good service and products. The
more a greedy, selfish, or lazy person wants to enjoy a higher standard of living,
the more he or she will try to meet the competition and build up a large base of
satisfied customers. Or as Smith described this feature of market economies,
people are led “as if by an invisible hand” to work and behave in ways that use
resources efficiently, in terms of producing things that other people want and are
willing to pay for, even though that may have been “no part of their original
intentions”.
(6) Another factor must be at work for Smith’s invisible hand to function
properly: the butcher must own or rent the shop, so that he or she has the rights to
its profits. Without this right to private property, and to the profits it brings, the
invisible hand of competition will not motivate businesses to offer the best and
most varied products at reasonable prices. Butchers who are employees of the state
will view their jobs very differently than those who are in business for themselves.
This fact holds true throughout the economy, whether one considers a butcher, a
carpenter, a restaurant chain, or a multinational insurance company.

Task 1. Discuss how the example of a butcher’s character and behaviour illustrates
the functioning of a free market. (paras.4 and 5)
Task 2. According to Adam Smith, what factor determines the difference between

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“butchers who are employees of the state” and “butchers who are in business for
themselves”? (para.6.)

Task 3. If somebody treats you courteously, is their attitude showing

a) politeness and respect;

b) caution and fear;

c) courage and bravery? (para.3)

Task 4. Having read the above text, how can you define the “invisible hand” with
one or two words?

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

AT THE AIRPORT
Look at the picture. What do you think the phrase Live out of a suitcase
mean?

John works for a major airline. He complains about his job:

When I applied to work in this position, I had no idea that I'll be living out of a
suitcase six to seven months of the year.

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Here is some vocabulary about airports and air travel.
Beginning and ending your journey:
a departures board - a notice board in an airport that tells passengers information
about their flight
a boarding pass - a piece of paper or card that is given to a passenger at check-in.
A passenger must have one to be allowed to go onto the plane
passport control - the place in the airport where your passport and boarding card
are checked before you go to the departure lounge
a final call - an announcement that's made over the airport's loudspeaker system to
let passengers know that the flight is almost ready to go
baggage reclaim - part of the airport where you go to collect your luggage after
you arrive at your destination airport. Usually there is a 'carousel' - a continuous
moving strip of material that goes round in a circle with passengers' bags on it

Types of flights:
a short-haul flight - a flight that takes a short time (up to about three hours),
compared to a long-haul flight
a long-haul flight - a flight that takes a long time (over seven hours), compared to
a short-haul flight
a domestic flight - a flight between two airports in the same country
an international flight - a flight between two airports in the different countries
a red-eye (flight) - a flight that leaves late at night and arrives early the next
morning

Types of seats on a plane:

a window seat - a seat next to the window
an aisle seat - a seat next to the aisle (the walkway between rows of seats)
an economy seat - a seat in the economy class part of the plane (in the back part of
the plane, where the seats are smaller and closer together than in other parts of the
plane)
a first-class seat - a seat in the first-class part of the plane (in the front part of the
plane, where the seats are bigger and spaced further than in other parts of the
plane)

Ex.1. If you take a flight from an airport in an English-speaking country,

you're likely to hear some of these dialogues. In pairs read the dialogues and
be ready to act them out later.

Dialogue 1. Check in.

A: Good morning. Can I have your ticket, please?

B: Here you are.
A: Thank you. Would you like a window or an aisle seat?
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B: An aisle seat, please.
A: Do you have any baggage?
B: Yes, this suitcase and this carry-on bag.
A: OK, please place your bag on the scale.
B: I have a stopover in Frankfurt – do I need to pick up my luggage there?
A: No, it’ll go straight through to Los Angeles. Here is your boarding pass – your
flight leaves from gate 15A and it’ll begin boarding at 3:20. Your seat number
is 26E.
B. Thank you.

Dialogue 2. Passport Control

A: Good morning. Can I see your passport?

B: Here you are.
A: Thank you very much. Are you a tourist or on business?
B: I'm a tourist.
A: That's fine. Have a pleasant stay.
B: Thank you.

Dialogue 3.Going through security.

A: Please lay your bags flat on the conveyor belt, and use the bins for small
objects.
B: Do I need to take my laptop out of the bag?
A: Yes, you do. Take off your hat and your shoes, too.
(B. walks through the metal detector)
[BEEP BEEP BEEP BEEP]
A: Please step back. Do you have anything in your pockets – keys, cell phone,
loose change?
B: I don’t think so. Let me try taking off my belt.
A: Okay, come on through.
(B. goes through the metal detector again)
A: You’re all set! Have a nice flight.

Situation 4: On the plane

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Flight attendant: Chicken or pasta?
Passenger: Sorry?
Flight attendant: Would you like chicken or pasta?
Passenger: I’ll have the chicken.
Flight attendant: Anything to drink?
Passenger: What kind of soda do you have?
Flight attendant: Coke, Diet Coke, Sprite, Orange, and Dr. Pepper.
Passenger: A Diet Coke, no ice, please.
Flight attendant: Here you go.
Passenger: Thanks.

Conversation Tips:
If you didn’t understand what the flight attendant said, you can say Sorry? or
Pardon? to ask him or her to repeat it.
If you want to ask for something, you can use the phrase “Can I have..?” For
example:
Can I have a blanket?
Can I have a pair of headphones?
(or: Can I have a headset?)
Can I have some extra napkins?
Can I have some water?
Can I have a decaf coffee?

Dialogue 4. Meeting people on arrival

A: Was your plane on time?
B: Yes, it was right on time.
A: Did you have a good trip?
B: Yes, it was fine.

Ex.2. Complete the phrases with the following options.

1.Would you like… a smoking/ a non-smoking?
a window seat/ an aisle seat?
an economy seat/a first-class seat?
2. I am here … on business.

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 to attend a … conference.
to visit my friends.
to see the sights of …
3. What do you have in your luggage? Just my personal belongings.
Only some books.
Only some cough/heart/flu medicine.
A (video) camera and a lap-top.
4. Where will you be staying? At a hotel.
At my friends.
At the host family.
At a students’ residence.
5. How many bags do you have to check Just this bag.
in? Two suitcases and this carry-on bag.
Only a backpack.
Only my hand luggage.

Ex.3. Choose the best option to complete the sentence.

1. _________ I have a coffee with milk, please?
A. Can B. Will C. Do
2. Excuse me, where is the Delta check-in __________?
A. desk B. station C. table
3. I lost my __________ pass - can I get another one?
A. traveling B. seating C. boarding
4. I have a ________ in Paris on the way to Israel.
A. stayover B. stopover C. layoff
5. ______ have the pasta, please.
A. I'll B. I'm C. I'd
6. A __________ coffee, please.
A. regular B. standard C. normal
7. The metal in my belt _________ the alarm.
A. set off B. took off C. went off
8. Do I __________ to take off my shoes?
A. want B. need C. should
9. Is the flight on __________?
A. hour B. time C. departure
10. There's a half-hour __________.
A. depart B. delay C. late
11. What _______ of juices do you have?
A. can B. kind C. mark
12. How much is the oversized luggage ________?
A. fee B. tax C. bill
13. You need to ________ up your bag in Charlotte.
A. take B. pick C. get
14. What’s my ________ number?
A. chair B. sit C. seat
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15. Will my luggage go straight __________ to New York?
A. away B. through C. out

Ex.4. Read the dialogue.

Going through Customs.

Customs Officer: Next. Your passport, please.
Woman: Here you are.
Customs Officer: What is the purpose of your visit?
Woman: I’m here to attend a teaching convention for the first part of my trip, and
then I plan on touring the capital for a few days.
Customs Officer: And where will you be staying?
Woman: I’ll be staying in a room at a hotel downtown for the entire week.
Customs Officer: And, what do you have in your luggage?
Woman: Well, just my personal belongings, ... clothes, a few books, and a CD
player.
Customs Officer: Okay. Please open your bag.
Woman: Sure.
Customs Officer: Okay ... Everything’s fine. By the way, is this your first visit to
the country?
Woman: Well, yes and no. Actually, I was born here when my parents were
working in the capital many years ago, but this is my first trip back since then.
Customs Officer: Well, enjoy your trip.

Ex.5. Choose the correct answer to the following questions.

1. What is the purpose of the woman’s visit?
a) business; b) pleasure; c) business and pleasure
2. Where will the woman stay during her trip?
a) at a friend’s home; b) at a hotel; c) at a university dormitory
3. About how long will the woman be in the country?
a) one or two days; b) three or four days; c) more than four days
4. What things are in the woman’s luggage?
a) clothing, computer, and books; b) CD player, clothing, and books;
c) books, gifts and computer
5. What other piece of information do we learn about the woman?
a) Her parents are on the same trip.
b) She enjoys travelling to different countries.
c) She was born in that country.

Ex.6. Vocabulary Quiz. For each of the six questions choose the correct
answer.
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1. Check the ______ to see which gate you need to go to for your flight.
a. passport control
b. departures board
c. baggage carousel
d. window seat
2. Didn't you hear the ______ ? Come on, we need to go now or we'll miss our
flight.
a. call finally
b. call final
c. final call
d. final calling
3. The flight from London leaves at 2.30 PM and arrives in Berlin at 4.00 PM. It's
a ______ flight.
a. short-haul, international
b. long-haul, international
c. short-haul, domestic
d. short-haul, red-eye
4. We had to wait for ages at the ______ for our luggage to arrive.
a. bag conveyor belt
b. luggage reclaim
c. baggages reclaim
d. baggage reclaim
5. ______ sets are always more expensive than ______ seats because they're so
much bigger and more comfortable.
a. Best-class / economy
b. First-class / economy
c. Economy / first-class
d. First-class / Second-class
6. I don't mind having ______ but I'd rather have ______ and be able to see the
view as we land.
a. an aisle seat / a window seat
b. an aisle chair / a window seat
c. a seat in the aisle / a seat by the window
d. a window seat / an aisle seat

Ex.7. Airport Role-play.

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You are going to be a traveller going through customs. Visit as many
countries as you can and write down which countries you visited.
1) Do the drills.
A: Welcome to Canada. May I see your passport please?
B: Sure. Here it is.
A: Where are you coming from?
B: I’m coming from Seoul, Korea.
A: What is the purpose of your visit?
B: I’m here on business.
visiting relatives.
here as an exchange student.
here as a tourist.
A: How long are you planning to stay?
B: I’ll be staying for three weeks.
for 1 month.
until tomorrow.
until next Tuesday.
A: Where will you be staying?
B: I’ll be staying at a hotel.
at my aunt’s house.
at a dormitory.
A: Have you ever been to Canada before?
B: No, this is my first time.
A: Do you have anything to declare?
B: No, nothing.
A: Enjoy your stay.
B: Thank you.

2) Role-play the situations in the airport using the vocabulary of the lesson.

GRAMMAR

FUTURE TENSES

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Ex.1. Find the verbs in the sentences below, define their tense forms and
translate them into Ukrainian.
Model:
Next year our company will have been building bridges for over 50 years. (Future
Perfect Continuous) We will have fulfilled the main project by the end of the
autumn. (Future Perfect) Most probably, we will take part in the tender for the
construction of a new bridge. (Future Simple) I believe we will be able to win the
tender. (Future Perfect) I am going to discuss it with the board of directors in
Hamburg. This time tomorrow I’ll be flying there. (Future Continuous)

1. By the beginning of November, Brian and I will have been working here for ten
years. My friend is going to quit the job and make a fresh start. I think he will
accept the job offer from the Los Angeles Times.
2. I’ll be very busy at 4 this afternoon. We will be discussing our new project with
the investors. It will be our third meeting. We will have finished the meeting by
the time you arrive at the office.
3. We’re going to make a contract with this company. I hope we will make a
contract with them tomorrow. By the time Nadine finishes her job and prepares
all the necessary papers, we will have been working on this contract for a few
hours. We will have signed the contract by 6 o’clock.
4. Shall I get the papers for you, Martin? – No, not now. I’m going to Glaxo in a
few minutes. You will have booked the flight by the time I get back, won’t
you? – I’ve booked it already. And I’ve arranged your accommodation. You’ll
be staying in the Carlton Hotel. – Good. Thank you, Patricia.

Ex.2. Define what tense forms should be used in the following micro-
situations. You don’t need to translate the sentences.
1. Що я буду робити завтра о десятій годині? У цей час я буду готуватися
до екзамену. Я цілий день буду зайнятий. Удень я збираюся попрацювати
в університетській бібліотеці. Гадаю, я попрацюю там години дві або три.
Ні, до третьої години я не закінчу. Я буду повторювати матеріал вже
кілька годин, коли ви прийдете.
2. Ти завтра не чекай на мене о першій годині. Я у цей час буду складати
екзамен Сподіваюсь, до четвертої години я вже складу. Я тобі одразу
зателефоную. У будь-якому випадку, до того часу, коли я прийду додому,
ти вже будеш відпочивати і дивитись телевізор години півтори.
3. Наступного місяця ми отримаємо перші інвестиції і робота пожвавиться.
До того часу, коли він вийде на роботу, ми вже закінчимо всі підготовчі
роботи. У жовтні буде півроку, відколи ми готуємо цей проект.
4. Я збираюсь поїхати завтра. Я їду завтра. Мій поїзд рушає о п’ятій годині.
Добре, я поїду післязавтра. У цей час я якраз буду їхати (буду в дорозі).
До того часу я вже поїду. Я буду їхати вже більш години, коли ти зможеш
повідомити мені, поїдеш ти туди чи ні.

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 THE FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE

Ex.3. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Simple.

1. Take this opportunity, and I guarantee you ____________ (not regret) it.
2. I don’t think we ____________ (need) to cook anything else for them.
3. Do you think we ____________ (win)?
4. I’m sure your luggage ____________ (turn up) soon.
5. I promise we ____________ (write) to you regularly.
6. We certainly ____________ (consider) your suggestion.
7. I am afraid Mr Jarvis ____________ (not be) there tomorrow.
8. His parents believe he ____________ (become) a great pianist one day.
9. Life ____________ (be) better a hundred years from now.
10.Did you remember to reserve a table in the restaurant? – Oh no, I forgot. I
____________ (telephone) right now.
11.She has cut my hair too short. – Don’t be so upset. It ____________ (grow)
again very quickly.
12. I expect the article ____________ (appear) in May’s issue of the magazine.
13.Is that the phone? – Yes, but don’t get up! I ____________ (answer) it.
14.If I finish before you, I ____________ (wait) for you outside.
15.You ____________ (understand) a lot when you grow older.

Ex.4. Read and write the opposite (positive or negative). Make other changes
if necessary. The first sentence has been done for you as an example.
1. I’m sure he will drive us to the airport. – I’m afraid he won’t drive us to the
airport.
2. I hope we will arrive on time. – ____________________________________.
3. She says we won’t have a test tomorrow. – ___________________________.
4. We’ll stop at the next filling station. – _______________________________.
5. He won’t pay the bill. – ___________________________________________.
6. People will forget about him in a few years. – _________________________.
7. This week we won’t need more money than usual. – ____________________.
8. I think Frederick will go to Africa next year. – _________________________.
9. I don’t think they will support us. – _________________________________.
10.Scientists predict that climate won’t seriously change in the third millennium. –
______________________________________________________________.

Ex.5. Put will or won’t in the best place in the sentence.

1. I hope there be no problems getting a visa.
2. It isn’t a holiday season, and there be many tourists there.
3. I’m sure it be difficult to find accommodation at this time of the year.
4. Do you think we be able to buy tickets there?
5. Ruth be here for your engagement party?
6. I’m afraid we get there in time.
7. Could you possibly change my flight to the evening? – Wait a minute. I just
check the computer.
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8. I’m sorry, but there be any time for us to have lunch.
9. Our ice-creams are melting. I put them in the freezer.
10.Tomorrow be a very busy day for me. I don’t think I have time to go shopping
with you.
11.You hold this box for a moment while I am unpacking it?
12. Someone kindly tell me what is going on around here?
13.Is there anything good on TV tonight? – I don’t know. I have a look in the
newspaper.
14.Your fax is absolutely illegible. I can’t read the document. – Sorry about that. I
send it again.
15.Just tell me what it cost in round numbers.

Ex.6. Make questions using the question words in brackets.

1. Jane says she will speak to the manager about it. (when) - When will Jane
speak to the manager?
2. Helena says her brother will graduate from college in a few months. (when)
3. Martin says he won’t start looking for a job after leaving school. (why)
4. He will apply to two or three universities instead. (where)
5. Mary will probably start studying Spanish next year. (what language)
6. I guess William will be the driving force in this business. (who)
7. The installation of a new computer system will take about a week. (how long)
8. The first stage will be finished in a couple of days. (when)
9. John will take you from the airport. (who)
10.Wait for me, please. I’ll be ready in a few minutes. (when)

Ex.7. Complete the statements with question tags. Make a response.

Model:
You’ll help Linda in understanding the details of the contract, won’t you? -
Certainly, I will.
Let’s go swimming, shall we? - A good idea, let’s.
Don’t be long, will you? - No, I won’t. At least, I’ll try.

1. She won’t go on a night train, __________?

2. You’ll drive carefully, __________?
3. They won’t raise the prices again, __________?
4. Customers will get huge discounts by booking in advance, __________?
5. This job will offer you excellent opportunities for promotion, __________?
6. You won’t sign this document, __________?
7. There will be enough room for everyone, __________?
8. You won’t tell anyone, __________?
9. Let’s go for a walk, __________?
10.Don’t forget to call us as soon as you arrive, _________?

Ex.8. Replace the words in bold with will or shall.

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1. Can you hold this parcel for me so I can tape it up? – Will you hold this parcel
for me so I can tape it up?
2. Why don’t we go out for dinner tonight?
3. Do you want me to open the champagne?
4. Can you help me with it?
5. Would you like me to carry that for you?
6. Why don’t we contact Eric? He may be able to help?
7. Сan you explain how it works?
8. Where do you want me to put all these papers? – On my desk.
9. Let’s take one more swim before we go back to the hotel.
10.Do you want me to e-mail these sales figures to our head office?
11.Can you hold this shopping bag for me while I open the door?
12. Why don’t we wait until the rain stops?
13. It’s hot and very stuffy in here. Can you open thе window?
14.What do you want me to do with all this shopping?
15.Can you call me as soon as you arrive in Toronto?

Ex.9. Make a request or offer to do something in the following situations.

Model:
This programme isn’t very good.
a request: Will you change the channel to a news programme?
an offer: Shall I change this channel to another one?

1. This box is very heavy. I can’t even lift it.

2. I can’t find my glasses.
3. I’ve forgotten all about posting the letter.
4. It’s so hot and stuffy in here.
5. Oh dear! I haven’t got any money with me.
6. I see you don’t know how to make it start.
7. You’re short of time. And you haven’t booked a taxi yet.
8. It’s late now, and the television in your room is so loud!
9. Our dinner is almost ready but we haven’t got any bread.
10. This coffee is too sweet for me. I can’t drink it.

THE FUTURE SIMPLE versus THE PRESENT SIMPLE

Ex.10. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense form: the Future
Simple or the Present Simple.
1. She ________ (call) us as soon as the plane lands.
2. Excuse me, what time ________ the train from London ________ (arrive)?
3. Daisy is waiting for Charles. She wonders if her husband ________ (be) late as
usual.
4. ________ we ______(go) to the football match? – That’s a good idea! What
time ________ it (start)?
5. I wonder if they ________ (give) us a discount.
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6. I don’t know if they ________ (give) you a discount. But if they ________
(do), I’ll be surprised.
7. Unless you ______ (hurry), you will be late for the interview.
8. Mike, ________ you ______ (give) this message to Helen, please? – Well, I’ll
try, but I doubt if I ________ (see) her today.
9. I can’t help you unless you ________ (tell) me what’s wrong.
10.I’ll call you as soon as I ________ (come) home from work.
11.Jane will be at my house when you ______ (arrive).

THE FUTURE SIMPLE versus BE GOING TO

Ex.11. What does will or be going to express in each sentence? Choose the
correct variant from the meanings in brackets.
1. Can I take your order, sir? – Yes, I’ll have the salmon with a salad, please. (on-
the-spot decision/ promise)
2. My younger brother is a computer nerd. He says he is going to become a great
computer programmer. (planned action/ ambition)
3. Your brother is very clever for his age. He will probably have a very successful
career. (warning/ prediction about the future based on past experience, belief
and expectation)
4. We’re going to visit the Louvre tomorrow. (planned action/ ambition)
5. It’ll probably be really busy and you’ll have to queue. (expectation/ warning)
6. I’m not going to get petrol here. It’s too dear. (a firm decision/ a plan)
7. Look at those black clouds! It’s going to rain. (a prediction about the near
future, when we can see something that is about to happen/ a prediction based
on our intuition, expectation or belief)
8. I expect she’ll want to stay in one of the best hotels. (a prediction based on the
evidence of something that is going to happen in the near future/ a prediction
based on our intuition, expectation or belief)
9. I’m afraid we’re lost. I’ll stop and ask the way. (on-the-spot decision/ a
decision already made)
10. She’ll be 40 this coming October. (a future event which will definitely happen
and which we cannot control/ a prediction based on our intuition, expectation or
belief)

Ex.12. Fill in: will or be going to.

1. I don’t know how to use this camera. – It’s quite easy. I ________ show.
2. These plants need watering. – I know. I ________ water them later.
3. Is Roger coming to the party? - Yes, but he ________ probably be late.
4. (In a hotel) I’ve got a problem with my shower. It isn’t working. – I ________
send someone up straightaway. Which room is it?
5. You ________ certainly make a big impact on Carter.
6. Madonna ________ give a charity concert next month.
7. What do you want for lunch? – I think I ________ have chicken and a small
salad.
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8. Watch out! You ________ bang your head on the door frame.
9. I’ve got a splitting headache! – Have you? Wait there and I ________ get a
tablet for you.
10. Don’t worry about these dirty marks. They ________ wash off easily.
11.Why have you set the alarm clock to go off at five thirty? – Because I ________
get up then. I need to go to the railway station to meet someone.
12.Don’t sit in the sun for too long. You ________ get sunburnt.
13.My sister Ruth ________ study abroad next year.
14.We have excellent sales opportunities in Asia, and we ________ increase sales
by at least ten percent this year.
15.I hope he ________ recognize me when he sees me.

BE GOING TO versus THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Ex.13. Open the brackets to complete the sentences. Use be going to or the
Present Continuous with the meaning of future.
1. Aunt Ann (come) out of hospital next Thursday. I (drive) her home. – Aunt Ann
is coming out of hospital next Thursday. I’m going to drive her home.
2. ________ you really ________ (give up) smoking? – Yes, I am. I threw my last
packet of cigarettes away yesterday.
3. The Sales Manager ________ (fly) to Italy on Friday.
4. Have you washed the car? – Not yet, I ________ (wash) it later.
5. The strikers ________ (return) to work on Monday.
6. Tomorrow is Dad’s birthday and we ________ (go) out for a meal to celebrate.
7. When ________ you ________ (pay) the electricity bill?
8. I don’t like this pizza. I ________ (not finish up) it.
9. I’ve arranged for the window cleaner to come. He ________ (come) at 9
tomorrow morning.
10.Our company ________ (open) a new branch in Amsterdam next month.
11. I’m tired of the whole thing, and I ________ (not talk) about it anymore.
12.I can’t promise you anything today. We ________ (interview) a few candidates
for the post this Thursday.

Ex.14. Open the brackets and use the correct tense form. Put the sentences
into the appropriate column. Explain why.
Future Simple be going to Present Continuous
(I think/hope) Paul and Paul and Mary are going Paul and Mary are
Mary will get married. to get married in spring. getting married at 3
tomorrow afternoon.
(They have decided. They (Everything has been
haven’t agreed on a arranged, and we know
date.) exactly when it is taking
place.)

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1. We ________ probably ________ (buy) a new car. We ________ (buy) a new
car. We ________ (buy) a new car next week.
2. Have you decided what to do with the money you inherited? –
Richard: Not yet. Perhaps, I ________ (buy) a luxury car.
Don: Yes, I’ve decided not to spend this money. I ________ (invest) it instead.
3. I hear Arnold ________ (make) a speech at our conference today. — Yes, it’s
on the agenda.
4. Who do you think ________ (win) the next election? – It’s too early to predict.
I can only say that the Green Party ________ (not to win), definitely.
5. What a lovely new bike! Is it yours? And what ________ you ________ (do)
with your old bike?
6. Don’t let him play in the sun for too long: his delicate skin ________ (burn)
very easily.
7. Look at that tree! It ________ (fall) down!
8. Have you finished your work? – Not yet, but I’m sure I ________ (finish) it on
time.
9. My sister ________ (become) a ballet dancer when she grows up.
10.Peter doesn’t know how to light a fire. Look! He ________ (burn) himself.
11.We ________ (move) into our new flat next Saturday. My parents have
arranged everything.
12.What are you doing this evening? – Nothing special. I ________ probably
________ (watch) TV.
13.________ we meet tomorrow evening? – Sorry, Martin, I can’t. We ________
(celebrate) my granny’s birthday.
14. What about Wednesday? – I __________ (go) to the fitness centre on
Wednesday.
15. Can we meet at the weekend then? - I ________ (spend) this weekend with my
parents. Actually, I have no free time.

Ex.15. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. Are you going to pick me up from work today, please? – Certainly, I will. I’ll
be there at 5 o’clock sharp.
2. Look! Your cat going to catch the bird.
3. Wash your hands. Dinner will ready in five minutes.
4. Jerry expects he is going to get a pay rise soon.
5. When you going to get your hair cut?
6. We don’t go to Nicole’s party tonight because George is working.
7. What will I do with this application form? – You must fill it in and return to the
office by Wednesday.
8. Excuse me, what time will Flight BA 577 from London arrive?
9. What are you planning to do this summer? – I will spend two weeks in June
with my cousin in France. And then… We will probably go to Spain. I haven’t
decided yet.
10.Shall you do the shopping for me, please?
11. I’ll call you when I will finish work.

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Ex.16. Translate the dialogue.
- Ти слухала прогноз? У неділю буде чудова погода. У мене пропозиція. Чи
не поїхати нам на пікнік?
- Чудова ідея. Я приготую сандвічі, візьмемо овочі, що-небудь смачненьке.
- Може запросимо когось з друзів?
- Звичайно, буде тільки веселіше.
- Я збираюсь завтра зустрітися з Сильвією. Запросимо її з Ніком?
- Буде чудово, якщо вони складуть нам компанію (if they join us).
- Тоді я поговорю з нею. Гадаю, вони не відмовляться.

THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

Ex.17. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Continuous.

1. What ______ you ______ (do) at around 7 o’clock tomorrow evening?
2. _____ you ______(wait) for me when the plane arrives tonight?
3. In an hour, you ____________ (sit) in front of your TV and I____________
(bake) your favourite apple pie.
4. Are you nervous about the interview? – Yes, a little. This time tomorrow, I
____________ (talk) to the HR manager.
5. We ____________ (have) dinner when the film starts.
6. Don’t phone them so early. They ____________ (sleep).
7. I ____________ (wait) outside the cinema at 7.30. See you then!
8. My father ____________ (work) the whole day tomorrow.
9. I’d better go out tomorrow because my sister ____________ (practise) the
violin all day.
10._______ you ________ (take) your car to the meeting? – Yes, I think I will.
Why are you asking me?
11.Do you think she ____________ (still work) here in five years’ time?
12.Steve, let’s wait! They ____________ (change) the guard in a few minutes. We
can’t miss such a good view.
13.Just think, this time next Friday I ____________ (sit) in a Paris café reading Le
Figaro.
14.You _______ (not read). You ________ (look) at all the pretty girls passing by.
15.What hotel ________ you __________ (stay) at?

Ex.18. You want to ask your friend or colleague to do something for you.
First, ask them politely about their intentions for the near future and, if your
wishes fit in with their plans, make a request. Use the prompts in brackets to
make questions.
Model:
You want your colleague to give a book to Roger tomorrow. (see) -
- Will you be seeing Roger tomorrow? - Certainly, why?
- Could you give him this book?

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1. Your colleague is busy photocopying a lot of papers. You need to quickly make
a photocopy of one document. (use a photocopier for long)
2. You want some aspirin from the chemist’s. Claire is just leaving the house.
(walk past the chemist’s when you’re out)
3. You would like your friend to buy Cola for you. (go out during the lunch time)
4. You know that Betty is going to the dentist. You would like to ask her to make
an appointment for you. (go to the dentist after work)
5. Sue is going out with her boyfriend. You want to ask her to post the letter. (go
by the post office)

THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS versus THE FUTURE SIMPLE

Ex.19. Open the brackets and use the correct tense form in the following
dialogue.
Situation: Stella and her family are going on holiday tomorrow morning. Now, she
is talking with her sister Valerie.
Valerie: What time are you going to leave for the airport?
Stella: At about 6 a.m.
Valerie: 6 a.m.? You __________ (arrive) at the airport terribly early!
Stella: I know, but we want to avoid the rush. We _____ (check in) as quickly
as we can, then we __________ (have) breakfast at the airport cafeteria.
Valerie: Perhaps you’re right. Are you excited about the trip?
Stella: Yes, a little.
Valerie: I still can’t believe that this time tomorrow morning you _______ (sit) on
a plane to Malta. Lucky you are!
Stella: Yes, this time tomorrow….
Valerie: This time tomorrow evening, you __________(relax) on the beach and I
__________ (do) the ironing or something!
Stella: I only hope there _________ (not be) a delay of our flight, and we
__________ (not sit around) at the airport. You never know these days!

Ex.20. Choose the correct variant to complete the sentences. Explain your
choice.
1. I’ve got toothache again. I see/ am seeing the dentist this afternoon.
2. I’m going to the supermarket. - You’d better be quick then as it is going to
close /closes at eight o’clock.
3. I know exactly. When we arrive, she will pick/ will be picking cherries.
4. Is Janet coming to the theatre with us next Saturday? - I don’t know, but I’ll be
seeing /I am going to see her in the fitness club tomorrow. I’ll ask her then.
5. I’ll call you as soon as I arrive /will arrive at the airport.
6. I’m sure when I get home my dog will sit/ will be sitting at the door waiting for
me.
7. I doubt if she passes/ will pass her exams.
8. If you ask/ will ask Bob nicely, I’m sure he will help you.

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9. Don’t call Amanda between 8 and 9. She will put/ will be putting her child into
bed.
10.He will finish his course paper when he will have/ has all the material.

THE FUTURE PERFECT versus THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Ex.21. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Perfect.

1. Let’s hope they ____________ (repair) the road by the end of this summer.
2. The train ____________ (leave) by that time. We have to look for another way
to get there.
3. He _________ (not graduate) from university by May.
4. Don’t say anything. You _________ (forget) me by then.
5. By Christmas, Patrick and his wife ________(be married) for 20 years.
6. My uncle _________ (retire) by the end of this year.
7. _______ you ______(buy) a new printer by the end of this week?
8. By the time you get home we _________ (clean) the house from top to bottom.
9. I _________ (not complete) the report until 5 o’clock. Will you help me?
10.We’d better wait till the end of the month. Charles ________ (pass) his exams
by then, so we’ll be able to travel together.

Ex.22. Say or write what they will have been doing by the end of this year.
Be attentive: state verbs cannot have the Perfect Continuous Tense form.
Model:
My brother /run/ his own business/ five years –
By the end of this year, my brother will have been running his own business for
five years.
1. Monica /design clothes/ three years.
2. My father/work for the same company/ ten years.
3. Elizabeth /be in this job/six years.
4. My friend Kevin/ study/economics/ four years.
5. They/ build their new house/ two years.
6. William Brown/train the Irish national basketball team/ five years.
7. The Greens /live in this house/ twenty years.
8. Martha /specialize in growing tulips/ about four years.
9. Helen /play the piano/over ten years.
10.Her elder brother Nick/play football/ five years.

Ex.23. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form, the Future Perfect or
the Future Perfect Continuous.
1. Television began broadcasting in 1947. By the year 2017, people
____________ (watch) TV for 70 years.
2. Tom is on holiday and he is spending his money very quickly. If he continues
like this, he ____________ (spend) all his money before the end of his holiday.

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3. I came to England six months ago. I started my economics course three months
ago. When I return to Australia, I ____________ (study) for nine months and I
____________ (be) in England for exactly one year.
4. By the time they arrive, we ____________ (go) home.
5. You only imagine! You ____________ (fly) non-stop for fourteen hours before
you get to Kolkata.
6. In June, my grandmother and grandfather ________ (be married) for fifty years.
7. The party ____________ (go) for ages by the time we arrive.
8. You _________ (perfect) your English by the time you come back from the US.
9. By the time we get to Chicago this evening, we ____________ (drive) more
than four hundred miles. We are going to be exhausted.

FUTURE TENSES REVIEW

Ex.24. Identify the tenses, then match the sentences on the left with their
functions on the right.
1. How long will you have been a. a prediction about what you think,
studying English by the end of this expect, believe, doubt, suppose, etc.,
term? may or may not happen in the future,
2. Don’t put too much in that bag or it often with the words certainly, perhaps,
will burst. probably
3. Look! The lorry is on fire, it’s going b. an action or situation which will
to explode. definitely happen in the future and we
4. Will you be going out during the cannot control or change it
break? – Yes, why? - Could you get me c. a spontaneous (on-the-spot) decision
a bottle of mineral water, please? d. promises, warnings, threats, etc.
5. The milk doesn’t smell fresh. I’ll e. a form of request
pour it out. f. an offer or suggestion, asking for
6. We’re flying to Cyprus next Friday. instructions
The plane takes off at 9 a.m.
7. This time next Wednesday, we’ll be g. an action which will be in progress
having an English lesson. at a stated future time
8. By the time we get home, the football h. a planned action or an action which
match will have begun. will definitely occur in the near or
9. Shall I give you a lift to the airport on distant future as a result of a routine
Friday? (almost the same as the Present
10. Have you decided how to promote Continuous)
your products? – Yes, we’re going to i. asking politely about someone’s
advertise them on the Internet. arrangements in order to see if our
11. What are you thinking about? – My wishes fit in with their plans
holiday. This time next week I’ll be j. prediction based on what you see or
relaxing in Miami. feel and there is evidence that
12. Spring will set in early this year. something will definitely happen in the
13. Don’t bother. I’ll tell Ann about it. near future
I’ll be seeing her at work anyway. k. plans, firm intentions to do
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14. I won’t have completed all these
forms before he comes. Will you help
me with it?
15. In time, people will find an efficient
way to dispose of toxic waste and even
fight nuclear radiation.
16. I haven’t decided yet. Perhaps, I’ll
buy this smart phone.
17. Now that I’ve got the money, I’m
going to buy it.
something in the future or ambitions
l. fixed arrangements in the near future
(we often know when and where)
m. timetable/programme
n. actions which will be finished before
a stated future time
o. emphasis on the duration of an action
up to a certain time in the future

Ex.25. Choose the correct tense form.

1. Don’t sit in the draught or you ____________ a cold.
a) are catching b) are going to catch c) will catch d) will have caught
2. Ask her again. Perhaps she ____________ her mind.
a) will change b) is going to change c) will have changed d) will be changing
3. They __________ Kennedy Airport by now and will be on their way to England.
a) will be leaving b) will left c) will have been leaving d) will have left
4. We ____________ to London tomorrow. Would you like to come with us?
a) drive b) will have been driving c) are driving d) will have driven
5. Margie just called and said she would be here at 8 o’clock. By the time she gets
here, we ____________ for her for two hours.
a) will wait b) will be waiting c) will have been waiting d) will have waited
6. ____________ to town today? - Yes, why? – Can I come with you?
a) Will you be going b) Will you go c) Are you going to go d) Will you have
gone
7. I can’t believe that you ____________ on a plane to Malta while I’m driving to
work tomorrow morning.
a) will sit b) will have been sitting c) will be sitting d) will have sat
8. Be careful, Tony! You ____________ the vase.
a) will drop b) are dropping c) are going to drop d) will have dropped
9. Cars of tomorrow ____________ using gas and they won’t pollute the air.
a) are going to stop b) will be stopping c) will stop d) will have been stopping
10. I’m afraid the train ____________ before we reach the station.
a) will leave b) won’t leave c) will have left d) is going to leave
11. I can’t believe that by the end of this week we ____________ all our exams.
a) will pass b) will have passed c) pass d) are going to pass
12. Just imagine! This time next summer we ____________ on a beautiful beach in
Palma de Majorca.
a) are going to lie b) will lie c) will be lying d) will have been lying
13. When the mountaineers get back to the base, they ____________ in the
snowstorm for two days.
a) will be b) will be being c) are going to be d) will have been
14) Tom will be very tired when he ____________. He will have been travelling
for twenty four hours.
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a) will arrive b) arrives c) have arrived d) will be arriving
15. The film ____________ by the time we get there.
a) will start b) is going to start c) will have started d) will be starting

Ex.26. Identify the mistakes and correct them. One sentence is correct.
1. I’m not sure but perhaps they are visiting us next week.
2. I won’t speak to him until he will apologize.
3. By the end of this month, she will be teaching for twenty years.
4. I’ve come out without any money. – Never mind, I am going to lend you some.
How much do you want?
5. Cathy doesn’t study enough. – I know. I’m afraid she won’t have passed the
exam.
6. She won’t have complete the balance sheet by Friday.
7. Any suggestions? What shall we do tonight? – I don’t know. Will we go to the
coffee house we enjoyed last time?
8. The workers will have had finished the repairs by Friday.
9. Will you use the photocopier for long? – No, this page only. Do you have
something urgent?
10. Don’t lend him your car – he’ll crash it. I know him.
11.If I’ll finish before you, I will wait for you.
12.I want to call Simon. – Well, don’t call him before ten. He will sleep anyway.
13. Nicole can type these letters as soon as she will come back from her lunch
break.
14. What are your plans for the holidays? Do you go anywhere this summer?

Ex.27. Translate into English. You may need the following words and
expressions: sort out something; turn on the heating; meet with an accident;
apply to the University; delay a flight; move to a new flat; land

1. Не хвилюйся так! Я впевнена, ти складеш іспит.

2. Поквапся, за кілька хвилин починається урок.
3. Що ті збираєшся робити з усіма цими паперами?
4. Тобі допомогти їх розсортувати?
5. У кімнаті доволі прохолодно. Ти не включиш опалення?
6. Обережно! Ти ж потрапиш в аварію.
7. Не думаю, що вони складуть контракт до кінця дня.
8. У майбутньому, можливо буде лише одна валюта і зовсім не буде банків.
9. Тобі потрібна буде машина сьогодні ввечері? - Ні, а що? - Можна, я візьму
машину на кілька годин?
10.Подумай тільки, завтра у цей час ми будемо плавати у морі.
11.Можливо, через погану погоду буде затримка рейсу.
12.Батько говорить, що в жовтні буде 10 років, як він працює в цьому банку.
13.Дженіфер збирається стати адвокатом. Цього року вона буде вступатиме
до університету. Сподіваюсь, вона поступить.
14.Наступного тижня ми нарешті переїзжаємо на нову квартиру.
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15.За кілька хвилин літак сідатиме.

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

Ex.1. Complete the sentences, using the following expressions.

Be careful! Have a good journey/holiday! Help! Hurry up! Look out! Sleep well.
Come in. Don’t forget… Don’t worry. Follow me. Have some (more)… Make
yourself at home. Sit down. Wait for me!

1. I’m going to bed. – Good night! ______________________________________

2. Could I see Mr.Smith, please? I have an appointment for 3 o’clock. – Of course,
sir. ___________________________, please.
3. ____________________. – Thanks. I’ll phone you as soon as I get to the place.
4. ________________________! It’s so slippery here!
5. ________________________. We are going to be late!
6. ________________________I can’t swim!
7. _________________________ I can’t catch up with you!
8. ____________________ coffee. – No, thanks, I don’t drink more than one cup.
9. I’ll be home late tonight. – OK. ________________________ your keys then.
10. Hello. _____________ and __________________, please. ______________ .
11. Jane hasn’t called yet! – . __________________. She will if she has promised.

Ex.2. Use adverbs always and never in the following imperative sentences.
1. Add salt to potatoes when you cook them.
2. Check the tyres before you drive a car.
3. Cook chicken when it's frozen.
4. Wait more than fifteen minutes for somebody who's late.
5. Unplug electrical appliances before repairing them.
6. Count your change after buying something.
7. Put off till tomorrow what you can do today.
8. Say “'I will love you forever”.
9. Pay bills the day you get them.
10. Apologise for things that are not your fault.

Ex.3. Change the following sentences according to the model.

Model:Will you stop whistling? → Stop whistling, will you?

1. Can’t you do something useful?

2. Won’t you stop asking questions?
3. Could you post this letter?
4. Would you hold this bag?
5. Can you get me some stamps?
6. Won’t you come in?
7. Will you take a seat?
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8. Can you answer the phone?
9. Could you type this document today?
10. Won’t you come too late?

Ex.4. Decide which of the following imperatives sound too direct and make
them more polite.
1. You stay here and wait for me.
2. Stop talking! I can’t hear anything because of you.
3. Take your seats, everybody, and let’s start.
4. Don’t ask me how to get to the railway station. I’m not from here.
5. Go to the traffic light and turn right.
6. Don’t you touch this iPad - it’s not yours!
7. Get out of my way and let me pass!
8. Give me your phone. I promised Jane to call her at 6.
9. Tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth.
10. Take off your hat when you enter the room.

Ex.5. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences.

1. Remember always what I told you.
2. Don’t tell anybody, won’t you?
3. Let he will call me tonight, and I’ll tell him about the results of the meeting.
4. The letter has arrived but let’s don’t open it until John gets home.
5. Shall we have a break for a cup of coffee now? - Let us have a break.
6. What cake shall we buy for Dad’s birthday? – Let me consider. I think I’ll bake
a cake myself.
7. You don’t believe her; she never tells the truth!
8. Look never at me like that!
9. Let’s don’t argue about these obvious things.

Ex.6. Translate into English.

1. Не ходіть по траві!
2. Я ніколи не була у Франції, давай поїдемо до Парижа цього літа!
3. Ну сідай ж!
4. Ніколи більше про це не запитуй!
5. Почувайте себе як вдома!
6. Замовкніть, усі!
7. Не паліть тут, добре?
8. Обережно, ти можеш впасти!
9. Нехай він сам вирішує, що робити.
10. Поквапся, ми запізнюємось.
11. Не приходьте завтра, я буду зайнятий.
12. Не хвилюйтесь, усе буде добро.
13. Давай повечеряємо сьогодні разом.
14. Обід готовий, йди мий руки.
15. Завжди перевіряйте рахунок перед тим, як сплатити.
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 Unit 6. FORMS OF BUSINESS ORGANISATION

TEXT A: Forms of business organisation

TEXT B: Nonprofit organisations
TEXT C: Franchising
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: At the hotel
GRAMMAR: Nouns. Articles.

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 Entrepreneurs are simply those who understand that there is little
difference between obstacle and opportunity and are able to turn
both to their advantage.
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527),
Italian writer and statesman

LEAD-IN
1. What do you think “an entrepreneurial person” means? Are you entrepreneurial
by nature? Can you make decisions? How organised are you? Are you self-
motivated?
2. Have you ever thought of launching your own business? If yes, why do you
think it is more preferable to be “your own boss” than to be directed and
managed by somebody else?
3. What are the arguments for the work in a company? Would you prefer to work
for a big or small company? Why? What are the advantages of each?

PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills
Ex.1. Read the following words with letter u.
[ʌ] fund, function, suffer, structure, number, production, vulnerable

[ju:] use, numerous, assume, dispute, future, unique, pursue, contribute

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[u:] junior, true, rule, rude, prudence
[u] full, pull, push, fulfil, fulfilment
[juə] security, contractual, individual, during
[ə] difficult, successful, circumstance, upon
[i] business, businessman, busy

Ex.2. Read the words with the following letter combinations.

qu [kw] quickly, require, quantity, quality, quarter
igh [ai] light, bright, sight, high, sigh, might, fight
ous [əs] numerous, dangerous, famous, glamorous, obvious

Ex.3. Read the words in the groups below. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
numerous, profit, asset, vision, partnership, income, flexible, generate, personal,
legal, crisis, argument, favour, process (n,v – обробка, обробляти), corporate,
ordinary, management, separate, government, charter, dividend;
b) words with the stress on the second syllable:
particular, security, potential, achievement, fulfilment, process (v – рухатися у
процесії), control, proprietor, requirement, advantage, majority, complete,
distinct, receive, dissolve, desire, adaptable, assume, distinguish, incentive;

c) polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:

entrepreneur, opportunity, liability, corporation, disadvantage, responsibility,
disagreement.

Ex.4. Practise reading the following words.

Entrepreneurship, independence, liability, vulnerability, proprietorship, decision,
restructure, high-calibre, opportunity, distinguish, corporate, bankruptcy,
withdrawal, unique, weighty, weightiest, obviously, shareholders, circumstance,
pursue.

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B. Word formation
Ex.5. Using the following endings, change each of the following words into a
verb.
Model: soft +-en → soften; motive + -ate → motivate; memory + -ize →
memorize; note + -ify → notify.

Short, final, dark, intense, industrial, different, person, sweet, just.

Ex.6. Make up adjectives from the following nouns as in the model.

Model: noun + - ful/-ous = adjective
e.g. success → successful; danger → dangerous

Care, doubt, duty, event, harm, help, hope, law, peace, power, purpose, skill,
thought, truth, use;
advantage, fame, humour, industry, labour, luxury, mystery, religion.

Ex.7. What does prefix co- mean in the following words? Translate them into
Ukrainian.
Co-worker, co-owner, co-author, co-operative, cooperation, coexistence,
coordination.

TEXT A: FORMS OF BUSINESS ORGANISATION

Active Vocabulary

Key terms: entrepreneur, asset(s), liability/liabilities, sole proprietorship,

partnership, corporation, investment fund, corporate tax, income tax, bankruptcy,
entity, shareholder, board of directors, stock, securities, charter, to incorporate, to
place/impose/levy a tax, dividend.

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Other words and expressions: numerous, achievement, self-fulfilment, to suffer
losses, to choose, choice, vision, vulnerability, a number (of), to dissolve, flexible,
adaptable (to), to assume responsibility, debts, to raise capital, to share, to
distinguish (between), to split up, to contribute (to), relatively, incentive, liable,
senior, junior, similar (to), drawback, to affect smth/smb, adversely, separate, apart
from, distinct, weighty, to transfer, to do with, subject (to), to disclose, permanent,
to prevent (from).
Linking words and phrases: in view of, first and foremost, besides, like/unlike,
since (=because), at the same time, generally, obviously, to start with, it is a fact
that..., in order to do smth.

Entrepreneurship, as one of the factors of production, has its particular

function. It brings together the other three – Land, Capital and Labour. When they
are successful, entrepreneurs earn profit. When they are not successful, they suffer
losses.
There are numerous reasons why people do business. Financial
independence and security, profit potential, desire for achievement and self-
fulfilment, the opportunity to work at something they really love are some of these
reasons.
When organising a new business, one of the most important decisions to be
made is choosing its structure. The choice will be based on the entrepreneur’s
vision regarding the size and nature of the business, the level of control he or she
wishes to have, expected profit of the business, the risks for the business’s assets
from liabilities, the business's vulnerability to lawsuits and so on. In view of these
requirements, different forms of business organisation – sole proprietorships,
partnerships and corporations – have their advantages and disadvantages.
Sole Proprietorships
The vast majority of small businesses start out as sole proprietorships. Such
a firm is owned by one person, usually an individual, who has day-to-day
responsibility for running the business. A sole proprietor enjoys a number of

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advantages. First and foremost, it is the easiest and least expensive form of
ownership to organize. Sole proprietors are in complete control, within the law,
over all decisions. They receive all income generated by the business to keep or
reinvest. The business is easy to dissolve, if desired. This form of business
organisation is the most flexible and adaptable to changing times because of their
ability to restructure themselves and react more quickly and successfully to
changes than large corporations. Sole proprietorships do not have to pay special
taxes placed on corporations. On the less bright side, however, is the fact that a
sole proprietor has unlimited liability. He assumes "complete personal"
responsibility for all of his business’s liabilities or debts because, in the eyes of the
law, he and his business are one and the same. Besides, it is very difficult for a
sole proprietor to raise investment funds and to attract high-calibre employees from
among those who are motivated by the opportunity to own a part of the business.
Partnerships
In a partnership, two or more people share ownership of a single business.
Like in proprietorships, the law does not distinguish between the business and its
owners. The partners should have a legal agreement that sets forth how decisions
will be made, profits will be shared, disputes will be resolved, how future partners
will be admitted to the partnership, how partners can be bought out, or what steps
will be taken to dissolve the partnership when needed. It is a fact that a lot of
partnerships split up at crisis times, and unless there is a defined process, there will
be even greater problems. They also must decide up front how much time and
capital each will contribute, etc.
An important argument in favour of this type of business organisation is that
partnerships are relatively easy to establish. Another advantage is that with more
than one owner, the ability to raise funds may be increased. Unlike in sole
proprietorship, prospective employees may be attracted to the business if given the
incentive to become a partner. A partnership does not pay corporate tax like
corporations but only ordinary income tax, since the co-owners can use the profits
gained as their personal income.

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 At the same time, partners are jointly and individually liable for the actions
of the other partners. In case of bankruptcy, the co-owners who invested more
capital (the senior partners) lose more than the junior partners, who invested less. If
the business activity is successful and generates profits, these profits must be
shared with the others. Similar to a sole proprietorship, a partnership has a limited
life: it may end upon a partner’s withdrawal or death. Another serious drawback of
partnerships is the threat of potential disagreements among partners over decision-
making, which may cause management conflicts adversely affecting the business.
Corporations
A corporation is considered by law to be a unique "entity", separate and
apart from those who own it. A corporation can be taxed; it can be sued; it can
enter into contractual agreements. The owners of a corporation are its shareholders.
The shareholders elect a board of directors to oversee the major policies and
decisions. The corporation has a life of its own and does not dissolve when
ownership changes.
If compared with sole proprietorships and partnerships, a corporation has
distinct advantages. One of the weightiest factors is that shareholders have limited
liability for the corporation's debts or judgments against the corporations.
Generally, shareholders can only be held accountable for their investment in the
stock of the company. Corporations have wider opportunities to raise additional
funds through the sale of securities. They can transfer ownership through the
transfer of securities. With all these advantages, we may wonder why there are
much fewer unincorporated businesses than incorporated ones. Obviously, the
answer has to do with the disadvantages of the corporation. To start with, the
process of incorporation requires more time and money than other forms of
organisations because this business organisation is to be created under a
government charter. Corporations that are public, i.e. whose shares are sold to the
public, are to disclose information about their finances and activities, which may
be used by their competitors. Corporations are subject to double taxation. It means

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that in addition to corporate tax levied on the corporation’s profit shareholders
must pay income tax imposed on their dividends.
The form of the business organisation an entrepreneur has chosen is not
permanent. If the circumstances of his business change, he can always change the
form of his business. For example, he may start his business as a sole
proprietorship, but, as his business grows, he may take on a partner and become a
partnership. Or, he may choose to incorporate in order to prevent his business
creditors from pursuing his personal assets.

Language notes:
a lawsuit – судовий розгляд, позов;
if desired – за бажання (див.нижче when needed – за необхідності; if given –
поза наявності);
within the law – у рамках закону;
one and the same – те ж саме;
high-calibre employees – високопрофесійні працівники;
unless there is a defined process = if there is no defined process;
… a legal agreement that sets forth how … – … юридичну угоду, яка чітко
формулює, як ...;
up front – тут чесно, відкрито;
withdrawal – вихід з угоди, зі складу учасників;
to be sued – залучати як відповідача за позовом;
to be held accountable – бути відповідальним, звітувати;
to incorporate – інкорпорувати, зареєструвати як корпорацію;
incorporated – акціонерний, що має статус акціонерного товариства;
зареєстрований як корпорація
i.e. – id est (Latin) = that is (to say) – тобто

Note the difference:

sole proprietor (US and UK) = sole trader (US)

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public limited company (UK) = close(d) corporation (US)
private limited company = open corporation (US)
shareholders (UK) = stockholders (US)

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Отримувати прибуток; нести збитки; фінансова незалежність; успіх і
самореалізація; активи (власність) компанії; уразливість перед судовими
позовами; величезна більшість компаній малого бізнесу; управляти
компанією; найбільш гнучка та адаптована форма; оподатковувати
корпорації; мати необмежену відповідальність; брати на себе
відповідальність; з точки зору закону; залучати висококваліфікованих
працівників; спільно володіти власністю; укласти юридичну угоду; довід на
користь; стимул стати партнером; нести спільну та індивідуальну
відповідальність у випадку банкрутства; недолік/вада; розбіжності між
партнерами; викликати конфлікти; обирати раду директорів; здійснювати
нагляд над чимось; мати явні переваги; видобувати/знаходити додатковий
капітал; передавати власність; надавати інформацію; підлягати подвійному
оподаткуванню.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and phrases.

To do business; profit potential; size and nature of the business; level of control;
to have advantages and disadvantages; to have day-to-day responsibility; to be in
complete control over smth; to dissolve the business; to be adaptable to smth; on
the less bright side; to assume personal responsibility; to be one and the same with
the business; to raise funds; to distinguish between smth; to resolve disputes; to
contribute time and capital; prospective employees; threat of potential
disagreement; to affect smth adversely; unique entity; one of the weightiest
advantages; incorporated/unincorporated business; to be created under a

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government charter; to impose tax on dividends; to prevent smb from (doing)
smth.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these
verbs in the text.
Bring, suffer, do, make, choose, have, own, run, keep, react, pay, attract, buy, take,
contribute, raise, give, tax, sue, hold, transfer, sell, mean, grow.

Ex.4. Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
1 sole proprietorship
2 securities
3 liability
4 shareholder
5 charter
6 liabilities
7 board of directors
8 entity
9 to incorporate
10 dividend
11 assets
a the state of being legally responsible for smth
b a formal written statement of the principles and
aims of an organisation; a legal document
created when a corporation is formed (US)
c the group of people chosen by shareholders to
control a company
d a business that is owned by a group of
professional people who work together and
share the profits
e a business that is owned and run by one person
f things of value that a person or a company
owns, such as money or property
g an amount of the profits that a company pays to
shareholders
h a financial asset, such as a share or bond
i a person or group that owns shares in a
company or business
j the amount of money that a company or a
person owes
k to form a legal company or organisation, for
example, by obtaining a certificate from the

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 authorities
12 entrepreneur l a business that exists as a separate unit and has
its own legal identity
13 partnership m a person who makes money by starting or
running businesses

Ex.5. Make up verb+noun collocations (there may be several variants).

to have (a) business
to do losses
to make a responsibility
to earn advantages and disadvantages
to levy decisions
to suffer a drawback
to assume taxes
to pay funds
to run a partnership
to raise (a) profit
to establish capital
to invest

Ex.6. Fill in the gaps in the following verb collocations with appropriate
prepositions or adverbs.
To base the choice _____ one’s vision; to have responsibility _____ running the
business; to adapt _____ changes; to place a special tax _____ corporations; to
distinguish _____ the business and its owners; to admit potential partners _____
the partnership; to attract prospective employees _____ the business; to be created
_____ the government charter; to be subject _____ double taxation.

Ex.7. Choose the appropriate word or phrase to complete the following

sentences.

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Shareholders, flexible and adaptable, drawback, corporate tax, dividends, share
the ownership, advantages and disadvantages, securities, sole proprietorships, a
board of directors, unlimited liability, choosing its structure, a government
charter.

1. One of the most important decisions to be made in organizing a new business is

__________ .
2. Different forms of business organisation – sole proprietorships, partnerships
and corporations – have their __________ .
3. Most small businesses start out as __________ .
4. A sole proprietorship is __________ to changing times.
5. A sole proprietor has __________ for his business’s debts.
6. In a partnership, partners __________ of a single business.
7. A partnership does not pay __________ like corporations.
8. A serious __________ of partnerships is the threat of potential disagreement
among partners.
9. The owners of a corporation are its __________ .
10. The shareholders elect _________ to oversee the major policies and decisions.
11. Corporations have wider opportunities to raise capital through selling its
_________ .
12. Corporations are to be created under __________ .
13. In addition to corporate tax, income tax is levied on shareholders’ __________.

Ex.8. Combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.

1 The choice of the form of a
business organisation is based on
2 A sole proprietorship is owned
by one person, who has day-to-
day responsibility for
3 Sole proprietors receive
a all income generated by the business
to keep or reinvest.
b for the actions of the other partners.
c information about their finances and

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 activities.
4 Sole proprietors may have d between the business and its owners.
problems in
5 In a partnership, the law does not e when ownership changes.
distinguish
6 Partnerships are relatively easy f attracting high-calibre employees.
7 Prospective employees may be g the entrepreneur’s vision regarding
attracted to a partnership the size and nature of the business.
8 Partners are jointly and h only for their investment in the stock
individually liable of the company.
9 Management conflicts in a i running his business.
partnership caused by
disagreements may
1 A corporation does not dissolve j to double taxation.
0
1 Shareholders are held k to establish.
1 accountable
1 Corporations are subject l adversely affect the business.
2
1 Open (public) corporations are to m if given the incentive to become a
3 disclose partner.

Ex.9. Look through the text again and replace the words in bold with the
linking words and phrases given below.
In view of, first and foremost, besides, like, at the same time, obviously, to start
with, since, it is a fact that..., in order to..., generally.

1. An entrepreneur may choose to incorporate his business so that he could

prevent his creditors from pursuing his personal assets.

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2. Shareholders have limited liability for the corporation’s debts. In general, they
are accountable only for their investment in the stock of the company.
3. Considering various requirements, sole proprietorships, partnerships and
corporations have their advantages and disadvantages.
4. A partnership pays only ordinary income tax because the co-owners use the
profits gained as their personal income. Concurrently, they are jointly and
individually liable for the actions of the other partners.
5. If we enumerate advantages of a sole proprietorship, more than anything else
it is the easiest and least expensive form of ownership. In addition to this, it
does not have to pay special taxes placed on corporations.
6. Clearly, corporations have a number of disadvantages. In the first place, the
process of incorporation is costly and time-consuming.
7. Similar to proprietorships, in partnerships the law does not distinguish between
the business and its owners.
8. It is well known that a lot of partnerships are dissolved at crisis times.

Ex.10. Translate into English.

1. Вибір організаційної форми бізнесу заснований на уявленні підприємця
про розмір і характер майбутньої компанії.
2. Існують різні організаційні форми бізнесу: одноосібне підприємництво,
партнерство, акціонерна компанія.
3. Більшість компаній малого бізнесу починають свою діяльність як
одноосібні підприємці.
4. Одноосібне підприємництво − найлегша і найменш дорога форма
організації.
5. Така форма є більш гнучкою і пристосованою до змін на ринку.
6. Недоліком є той факт, що одноосібний підприємець несе необмежену
відповідальність за зобов'язання фірми.
7. Важливим аргументом на користь партнерств є те, що їм легше залучати
додаткові фінансові кошти.

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8. Партнерства платять звичайний прибутковий податок, оскільки
співвласники можуть використовувати прибуток компанії як особистий
дохід.
9. Акціонерна компанія (корпорація) розглядається законом як самостійне
підприємство, окреме від його власників.
10.Власниками такої компанії є її акціонери, які обирають раду директорів
для управління компанією.
11.Однією з вагомих переваг є обмежена відповідальність акціонерних
компаній.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Ex.11. Ask questions to which the following sentences may be answers.

1. Yes, it is. It helps to bring the other three together.
2. It is based on the entrepreneur’s vision of his future company’s nature and size.
3. They are sole proprietorships, partnerships and corporations.
4. It is the easiest and least expensive form of business organisation to organize
and easy to dissolve, if required.
5. Because being small, they can react more quickly and successfully to changes
at the market.
6. No, they do not. They have to pay only ordinary income tax.
7. Because they may be interested in owning a part of the business, while sole
proprietors cannot provide this.
8. One of them is the fact that partners are personally liable for the company’s
debts.
9. Yes, it does. It may end upon a partner’s withdrawal or death.
10.No, it is considered by the law as a unique entity.
11.Shareholders are.
12.The board of directors is.
13.They can transfer the ownership through selling their securities.

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14.No, it is not permanent. It can be changed as a result of the business’s growing.
15.It can be incorporated.

Ex.12. Answer the following questions.

1. Why is entrepreneurship important?
2. Why would people want to launch their own business?
3. What factors do they consider when choosing the structure of their future
business?
4. What forms of business organisation are there?
5. What are advantages and disadvantages of these forms?
6. Why are flexibility and adaptability of sole proprietorships an advantage?
7. What does “limited” or “unlimited liability” mean?
8. Why can partnerships attract more high-calibre workers than sole
proprietorships?
9. Which form of business organisation can raise investment funds more easily?
10. Why are there more unincorporated businesses than incorporated ones?
11. How is a corporation managed?
12. What does “double taxation” mean?

Ex.13. Make a presentation of the topic “Forms of business organisation”.

WRITING

Ex.14. Write a plan for a summary of Text A. Start with

1. Factors to be considered when choosing a form of business organisation.
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________

Ex.15. Write a brief summary (25-30 sentences) of Text A.

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Ex.16. Write an essay “Small business activity in a market economy” (100-150
words).

DISCUSSION POINTS

Ex.17. Discuss the following questions.

1. “A real entrepreneur is somebody who has no safety net underneath them”, said
H.Kravis, co-founder of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. (KKR). What do you
think he meant?
2. In what type of a company do people find a better possibility to realize their
potential?
3. Prepare a short list of the questions that you would need to ask yourself before
starting a business.
Example: How much money will I need?
Compare and discuss the questions you consider important with the questions
other students have chosen.

TEXT B: NONPROFIT ORGANISATIONS

Ex.18. Scan the text below and give headlines to each paragraph.

When launching a business, ask yourself, "Who

will benefit from the activity?" If the answer is that
you or your family will benefit, (0) ___________ rather
than a nonprofit organisation. If your answer is that the
community or the public at large will benefit, then a
nonprofit structure may be the best route. The
difference between nonprofit and for-profit organisations is that nonprofits use
their profits to advance their programmes, (1) ___________ . Nonprofit
organisations fall into five main categories:

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 1. Trade associations, organized to advance a group of people who have a
profession in common (for example, Association of Research Librarians,
International Association of Meeting Planners). This group also includes chambers
of commerce and unions.
2. Charitable organisations, (2) ___________ . This is a diverse category,
including religious groups, museums, environmental and educational
organisations, libraries, and a lot of helping groups referred to as "charities."
3. Social clubs, such as country clubs and fraternal organisations.
4. Governmental groups, (3) ___________ .
5. Political groups, generally organized to promote certain policies, issues, or
candidates for political office.
While Not-for-profit organisations are able to earn a profit, more accurately
termed a surplus, such earnings must be retained by the organisation for its self-
preservation, expansion, or plans. NPOs have controlling members or boards. (4)
___________ , while others employ unpaid volunteers and even executives who
work without compensation.
Profit is not the primary goal of an NPO, (5) ___________ , the term Not-
for-profit is often considered more appropriate than Non-profit. The extent to
which an NPO can generate income may be constrained, or the use of that income
may be restricted. Nonprofits therefore (6) ___________ (which may be tax
deductible) from the private or public sector, and are typically exempt from income
and property taxation. Some NPOs may internalize profit in the form of
comparatively good wages or benefits.

Ex. 19. Read the text. Choose the best sentence A-F to fill each of the gaps 1-7.
Do not use any letter more than once. There is an example at the beginning.
0 then it's a good idea to start a for-profit company

A which must generally demonstrate a benevolent component.

B but because an NPO can legally and ethically trade at a profit,

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C are funded typically by donations
D Many have paid staff including management,
E while for-profits distribute their profits to their owners or stockholders.
F including city, county, state, and federal agencies.

Ex.20. Answer the following questions. Refer to the text if needed.

1. What is the difference between for-profit and nonprofit organisations?
2. What categories do nonprofit organisations fall into?
3. What groups of people do trade associations unite?
4. What do you think is the aim of charitable organisations? Give examples of
such organisations.
5. Can nonprofit organizations earn profit? If yes, what do they use it for?
6. How are most NPOs funded?
7. Do NPOs have to pay taxes?

Ex.21. Find in the text the following phrases and choose the most suitable
explanation:
1. launching a business
a) starting business activity;
b) completing business activity;
c) developing business activity
2. the public at large
a) politicians;
b) powerful and influential people;
c) general public
3. the best route
a) the best place;
b) the best way;
c) the best management
4. fraternal organizations

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 a) brotherhoods;
b) fatherhoods;
c) motherhoods
5. benevolent (component)
a) improving a situation;
b) very popular with smb;
c) kind and generous
6. to internalize (profit)
a) to closely connect with smth;
b) make smth international;
c) make smth personal, use smth for one’s own needs .

TEXT C: FRANCHISING

Before reading
Can you explain what franchising mean? Without looking at the logos
below, give examples of franchises.

Reading
Read a text from the Franchise Direct website and do the tasks following it.

(1) You want to be your own boss running

your own business, but you are not sure where to
start, what resources you need, how to market
products and services, how to hire and train
employees etc. Don’t despair – a franchise
opportunity could the right choice for you.
(2) You’ve seen the slogans:
“Be in business for yourself, but not by yourself.”
“When you succeed, we succeed.”

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 “We’ve been successfully putting people like you in business for 16
years!”
“Be your own boss; we’ll help you get there.”
These quotations from franchisors convey the idea that even though you
work for yourself, franchising is first and foremost about partnership. Franchising
is everywhere in the first decade of the 21 st century so partnership with a proven
brand is clearly a winning formula for many small business owners.
(3) When people think of franchising, the most common example that comes
to mind is McDonald’s. But franchising has older roots, and it is Isaac Singer, the
inventor of the sewing machine in 1858, who is credited with starting the franchise
concept. After successfully inventing the new machine, he needed a way to
distribute them by people trained to use the machines. So a legal system for selling
the rights to distribute a service or product was born.
(4) Put simply, a franchise is a method by which the owner of the business,
the franchisor, confers on investors, the franchisees, the right to operate the
business in an agreed manner and style in return for ongoing fees. The agreement
is governed by a contract, the Franchise agreement, which runs for a defined
period of time, generally renewable and ranging from five to 20 years.
(5) What is it you are buying when you invest in a franchise? A franchise
operation is a fully operational business concept that is proven, with operating
processes clearly mapped out in an Operations Manual. Most franchisors provide
comprehensive training in how to operate the business, and give clear instructions
on all the visible trappings such as trademarks, logos, uniforms, furnishings etc.
(6) Franchise opportunities are everywhere, and their success and
widespread popularity offer endless potential. And you can bet that when new
trends emerge and grow popular -- be it in food, exercise, home improvement, pet
care, party planning, etc. – franchised versions ready to profit from these trends are
sure to follow. What types of new franchises will be popular in the near future?
Anything that helps busy people manage their home lives and domestic tasks. And
the current concerns about global warming are sure to generate companies that

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offer “green” eco-friendly products and services, such as lawn care, prepared
foods, cosmetics, and cleaning supplies. For the individual who wants to start a
business, franchising offers a wide array of new opportunities. For the existing
successful business, franchising can be the model for rapid expansion.
(7) It should also be noted that there are several types of business
opportunities that involve partnership but are not franchises. These include:
 Dealerships – where an existing business owner, such as a home décor store, is
licensed to sell a company’s line of products, such as floor tiles or paint.

 Distributorships – this is an opportunity where a business owner invests in

equipment, such as DVD kiosks or coffee makers, and distributes them in high
traffic locations, like malls or offices.

Task 1. Look through the text and say what is the main advantage of franchising.
Can you think of any disadvantages?
Task 2. Explain slogans of well-known franchises given in para.2.
Task 3. To be credited with smth means
a) to be given money from a bank;
b) to be of a particular type or quality;
c) to be responsible for doing smth, especially smth good. (para.3)
Task 4. In what spheres of business do you think franchising will be most popular
in future?
Task 5. True or false?
1) A franchise is a formal permission given by a company to smb who wants to sell
its goods or services in a particular area. (para.4)
2) The franchise agreement is of an idefinite duration. (para.4)
3) As a franchisee, you have to use the franchisor’s trademark and logo but you
have freedom in determining your inner policies, for example concerning the
dresscode. (para.5)
4) Dealerships and distributorships are two forms of franchising. (para.7)
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 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
AT THE HOTEL

Read the words and phrases below. Can you add anything else?
To book, credit card, cash, lobby, a porter, baggage/luggage, reception, a
receptionist, room service, tip, to check in, to check out, a single room, a twin
bedroom, a double room, apartments, en suite bathroom, to fill in a registration
form, B&B, self catering.
Very often the word ‘en suite’is used instead of ‘room’.
en suite[ˌɑːn'swiːt] – (French) as part of a set; forming a unit – суміжний e.g. a
hotel room with bathroom en suite
Single ensuite. This room has 1 single bed and accommodates 1 person.
Double ensuite. This room has 1 double bed and accommodates 2 persons.
Twin ensuite. This room has 2 separate beds and accommodates 2 persons.

Ex.1. Match the pictures with the words from the box.
reception, a single room, conference hall, apartments, a twin bedroom, restaurant,
lobby, double bedroom

1. 2.

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3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

Ex.2. When you are staying in a hotel in an English-speaking country, you're

likely to hear some of these dialogues.
1) In pairs read the following situations.
Situation 1
(R = receptionist, M= Michael, J = Jennifer)
R: Good morning. Can I help you?

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M: Good morning. We have a reservation for two rooms booked for us, in the
names of Michael McGregor and Jennifer Hunter.
R: Umm, just a moment. Yes, two single rooms with en-suite bathrooms?
M: That's right. We're attending the 'Big Fish Games' conference. Does that mean
we get a discount?
R: Yes. We are one of the conference partner hotels, so there is a five per cent
discount. Is it for ten days? Is that right?
J: Yes, until the twentieth. That's ten days.
R: Good.
R: Right then. You'll need to fill in a registration form. You can settle the account
by card or cash, or cheque, as you wish.
T: OK, thanks.
R: Right. You, Ms. Hunter, are in room 205 and you, Mr. McGregor, are in room
209. If you take the lift over there to the second floor the porter will accompany
you with the luggage.
M: Thank you very much.
R: Have a good day!

Situation 2.
R: Good morning. Can I help you?
M: Good morning. I think there should be two rooms booked for us? In the names
of Michael McGregor and Jennifer Hunter.
R: Umm, just a moment.
M: We're attending the 'Big Fish Games' conference.
R: Well sir, I'm afraid you have nothing booked. All I have left are two small
rooms at the front of the hotel. They will be a bit noisy I'm afraid, as there is a pub
opposite.
M: What? That's terrible! How did that happen? What do you want to do, Jennifer?
Should we find somewhere else?

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J: Well, I suppose we have no choice, really. It's too late to find another hotel now.
We'll just have to take them.
R: Fine. I'm very sorry about that.
R: Right, so that's all booked now. Can you sign a credit card voucher?
M: OK. Oh no, I can’t find my card. And where's my wallet?
J: Did you leave it somewhere? In the taxi?
M: Oh no! I think I did, I left my wallet in the taxi. I put it on the seat when we got
in. Oh what a disaster!
R: Not to worry sir. We'll help you with that. I'll have phone the taxi company to
see if they found any wallet.
M. I can't thank you enough. You have been most helpful.

2). Choose the correct options to the questions.

Situation 1.
1. What rooms do Michael and Jennifer want?
a)adouble room
b)a single room
c)two single rooms with bathroom
d)a twin room
2. How much discount can they get at the hotel?
a) ten per cent
b) fifteen per cent
c) twenty per cent
d) thirty per cent
3. How many days will they stay?
a) five days
b) ten days
c) twenty days
d) a month
4. How can they settle an account?

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a) by card or cash
b) by a credit card voucher
c) by cheque
d) they don’t need to pay
5. Who will help them with the luggage?
a) the receptionist
b) the manager of the hotel
c) the porter
d) no one

Situation 2.
1. What is the first problem?
a) The receptionist cannot find their reservation
b) The rooms are too cold
c) They are too late
d) The hotel is full
2. What is the problem with the rooms?
a) They are small and noisy
b) They are too expensive
c) The rooms are too cold
d) There are no beds
3. Michael and Jennifer have a choice:
a) They will find another hotel
b) They will call the manager
c) They will take the rooms
d) They will go back home
4. Michael has lost something. What is it?
a) He has lost his briefcase
b) He has lost his money
c) He has lost his wallet

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d) He has lost his taxi
5. In the end the receptionist wants to phone someone. Who does she want to
phone?
a) She wants to phone the taxi company to find the wallet
b) She wants to phone her boss
c) She wants to phone her mother
d) She wants to phone her boyfriend

Ex.3. Complete the phrases with the following options.

1. I think there should be __________ two rooms
booked for us. a single room
a twin room
an apartment

2. You can settle the account _________ by card.

3. Take the lift over there to _________
4.I'm afraid ______________________
5. I suppose _____________________
by cash.
by cheque.
as you wish.
the second floor.
the conference hall.
to the fifth floor.
the lobby.
you have nothing booked.
there are no vacancies.
we are full at the moment.
you have to find another hotel.
we have no choice, really.
it's too late to find another hotel now.
we need to speak to the manager.
we have to take the room.

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6. There must be two double rooms Mr. and Mrs. Brown.
booked for us, in the names of McDonald &Sons.
____________________________ Mr. Havocking and Isabella Rossellini.
Big Fish Games and Partners.
7.What time do you want __________ to leave ?
to arrive ?
to check out?
to check in?

Ex.4. Use the prompts from the box to fill in the missing information.
-How long are you going to stay? - Have a nice day. -Can I help you, miss? –Of
course. You may order your dinner to your room. -Is there a bathroom there? -You
can settle an account by cheque or cash, as you wish. - We are one of the
conference partner hotels, so there is a ten per cent discount. – Would you like a
single or a double room? -How much do you charge for the room?

Situation 1.
R- receptionist Y- you
R. ___________________________?
Y. Yes, I would like a room.
R. ___________________________?
Y. A twin room, please. ___________________________?
R. OK, let me check.Yes, there isa twin room with en suite bathroom.
Y. Great, thank you so much. We're attending the 'International Agricultural Fair’.
Does that mean we get a discount?
R. ___________________________. ___________________________?
Y. For a week. __________________________?
R. That’s 55 pounds.
Y. Can I pay cash or cheque?
R. ___________________________.

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Y. Thanks a lot. Do you have a room service?
R. ___________________________.Here is the key, sir. The bellman will show
you up to your room, sir. Just follow him. _________________

Situation 2.
– I think I have no choice. It's too late to find another hotel now. - That’s terrible!
What should I do? – How can I pay? -–I wonder if you have any vacancies. – Here
you are.- A twin room would be better.

R. Hello, sir. Can I help you?

Y. __________________________________
R. Would you like a single or a double room?
Y. __________________________________
R. Just a moment. Let me see. Sorry. But we have no twin roomsat this time.
Y. __________________________________
R. All I have left are two small single rooms.
Y. __________________________________
R. Right, so that’s booked now. We'll need you to fill in the registration form.
Y. __________________________________
R. You can sign a credit card voucher.
Y. __________________________________
R. Here is your guest’s card. You’ll get the key to your room from the receptionist.
Have a nice day.

Ex.5. Read the dialogues in pairs and act them out.

G-guest R- receptionist

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Check in.
R.Good evening. Can I help you?
G.Yes, please. I'd like a room for the night.
R.Would you like a single room, or a double room?
G.A single room, please. How much is the room?
R.It's $55 per night.
G.Can I pay by credit card?
R.Certainly. We take Visa, Master Card and American Express. Could you fill in
this form, please?
G.Do you need my passport number?
R.No, just an address and your signature.
G.(fills in the form) Here you are.
R.Here's your key. Your room number is 212.
G.Thank you.
R.Thank you. If you need anything, dial 0 for the reception area. Have a good stay!
Check out.
R: Did you enjoy your stay with us?

G: Yes, very much. However, I need to get to the airport now. I have a flight that
leaves in about two hours, so what is the quickest way to get there?

R: We have a free airport shuttle service.

G: That sounds great, but will it get me to the airport on time?

R: Yes, it should. The next shuttle leaves in 15 minutes, and it takes approximately
25 minutes to get to the airport.

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G: Fantastic. I'll just wait in the lounge area. Will you please let me know when it
will be leaving?

G: Of course, I will.

R: If you like, you can leave your bags with the porter and he can load them onto
the shuttle for you when it arrives.

G: That would be great, thank you.

R: Would you like to sign the hotel guestbook too while you wait?

G: Sure, I had a really good stay here and I'll tell other people to come here.

R: That's good to hear. Thank you again for staying at our hotel.

Ex.6. Read the story and try to choose the right words from the list below to
complete it.
En suit, form, left, receptionist, filled in, a clerk, the bar, small change, a
participant of, reservation, lobby, checked in.
When I arrived at the hotel I entered the (....1....) and immediately I walked up to
the (....2...). I spoke to the hotel (....3....) and I asked her to see if I had a (....4....).
I wanted a single room with an (....5....) bathroom. The receptionist asked me 'Are
you (....6....) the Mayfair conference?'.
Then I (....7....). I signed a blank (....8....). Then I (....5....) a new registration form.
But after I found out that I had (....6....) my passport in the taxi.
The porter carried my bags to my room, but I didn't have any (....7....) to tip him.
Finally, I decided to order a sandwich but (....8....) was closed.

Ex.7. Vocabulary Quiz.

1. When breakfast and dinner in the hotel are included with the price of the room,
it is__________________.
2. A different way to say the 'customers' at a hotel, is ___________.
3. A phrasal verb that means somebody leaves a hotel and pays for the room, is
____________________.

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4. A phrase that is used to tell a customer/guest that their room is not available for
them to occupy/enter yet, is _________________.
5. A different way to say 'reserve' a hotel room, is ___________________.
6. A different way to say 'bags' or 'suitcases', is ____________________.
7. When only breakfast in the hotel is included with the price of the room, is
_________________.
8. A piece of paper that shows how much money somebody has to pay for staying
in a hotel, is ________________.
9. When a hotel has no rooms available to stay in, it is _____________.
10. When no food or meals in the hotel are included with the price of the room, is
________________.
11. The public area in a hotel where people can sit down and wait for people or
relax, is called the ______________________.
12. When breakfast, lunch and dinner in the hotel is included with the price of the
room, is _________________________.
13. A phrasal verb that means to arrive and register (give your details) at a hotel, is
_______________________.
14. When no meals in the hotel are included with the price of the room and you can
cook your own food, is ___________________.
15. The place in a hotel where you check in and check out, is called the ________.

GRAMMAR

NOUNS

Ex.1. Give the plural of the following nouns.

a) Fog, apple, face, quiz, list, cucumber, master, horse, spoon, tongue, bell, eye,
bridge, game, banana, idea, pen, set, bed, tip, lip, test, pin, net, seed, lid, pie,
type, pine, page, cage, story, baby, lady, bag, city, day, army, party, fly.

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b) Glass, month, brush, box, fox, bench, lunch, bush, bath, witch, mouth, path, tax,
match, cough, louse, truth, boss, patch, dish.

c) Concerto, tomato, cuckoo, potato, photo, mango, echo, hero, piano.

d) Tooth, man, woman, mouse, goose, heir, child, knife, shelf, deer, ox, fish, chief,
basis, woman-worker, forget-me-not.

Ex.2. Choose countable nouns and give their plural form.

Porridge, daughter, salt, sugar, butter, milk, tea, cake, bacon, toast, pleasure,
tea-pot, water, egg, marmalade, mustard, watch, sausage, bread, pepper, soup, fruit,
waitress, knife, discussion, chop, beer, potato, orange, export, information,
research, accountant, figure, turnover, capital, sales.

Ex.3. Give the singular of the following nouns where possible.

Languages, lilies, ranches, suburbs, watches, echoes, gates, quizzes, means,
ladies, pyjamas, figures, heroes, countries, plaice, scissors, oases, pence, elves,
benches, sleeves, flies, sheep, sciences, theses, vegetables, oxen, outskirts, sledges,
headquarters.

Ex.4. Define the number (singular/plural) of the following nouns.

Hair, watch, onions, boss, athletics, police, analysis, meat, scissors, weather,
deaths, people, fruit, passers-by, physics, butter, massmedia, darkness, furniture,
halves, macaroni, journey, news, trousers, rice, phonetics, grapes, kilo, dress,
spaghetti, cattle, jeans, billiards, oats, progress, buckwheat, clock, women,
opportunity, ink, tobacco.

Ex.5. Read the sentences. Write all the nouns in four groups: countable
singular (C), countable plural (CP), uncountable singular (U) or uncountable
plural (UP).

224
1. A gifted conversationalist seems to remember every name, every time.
2. With a little help and some practice, you can too.
3. Gather your wits before you meet a new group of people.
4. If you can, do your homework ahead of time with a list of names that you will
then connect to faces.
5. When you are introduced, pay attention to the other person's name.
6. Say it out loud as you make eye contact, say it at least once during the
conversation, and say it again when you part.
7. Say the name over a few times in your mind and link it to a visual image: if her
name is Mary Jane, imagine her wearing Mary Jane shoes.
8. Or connect the person with others who have that name; visualize the Ben
Lincoln you've just met standing next to Abe Lincoln.
9. Use rhyming: "Tall Paul" or "Nate the waiter." (Just don't say it out loud.)
10. Follow up. Reinforce your memory by looking at his name tag, asking him for
a card, and writing his name down as soon as you get home.

Ex.6. Complete the sentences using the noun in brackets in the plural form.
1. Please cut this melon in two ________ (half).

2. King Henry VIII had six ________ (wife).

3. The ________ (thief) broke into the house without attracting attention of
________ (passer-by).

4. Shakespearean ________ (hero) are generally the victims of circumstance.

5. The police called for _______ (eyewitness) to come forward and give evidence.

6. Many teachers in schools are ________ (woman) but some are________ (man).

7. Victor fell off his bicycle and broke two ________ (tooth).

8. These shoes are too small: my ________ (foot) hurt.

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9. Many kinds of ________ (sheep) are raised for the wool, meat, milk, and skin.

10. The eyes are sometimes ________ (index) of character.

11. He agreed that these were strange ________ (phenomenon).

12. We cannot proceed on such unlikely ________ (hypothesis).

13. He wished to place certain ________ (memorandum) before the committee.

14. Television and newspapers are mass ________ (medium) of information.

15. I like different flowers, especially ________ (forget-me-not).

Ex.7. Complete the sentences using the noun in brackets in the singular or
plural.
1. It is easy when we are in prosperity to give (advice) __________ to the

afflicted.(Aeschylus)
2. Abundance of (knowledge)__________ does not teach men to be wise.
(Heraclitus)
3. Wise (man) __________ talk because they have something to say. (Fool)
__________ talk because they have to say something. (Plato)
4. I don't believe in (miracle) __________ . I rely on them.(Unknown)
5. To repeat what others have said requires education, to challenge itrequires
(brain) __________ (Mary Pettibone Poole)
6. The big (thief) __________ hang the little ones. (Czech proverb)
7. (Mathematics) __________ is the queen of the sciences. (Carl Friedrich Gauss)
8. Greedy eaters dig their graves with their (tooth) __________ . (French proverb)
9. One kind word can warm three winter (month) __________ . (Japanese
proverb)
10. Democracy must be something more than two (wolf) __________ and a sheep
voting on what to have for dinner. (James Bovard)

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Ex.8.Choose the correct word.
1. There _______ (is, are) natural phenomena that can harm man.
2. A pair of designer jeans __________ (costs, cost) about $200.00.
3. A thorough knowledge of economics _______ (is, are) necessary for investing
money wisely.
4. It's said that politics _______ (is, are) very boring.
5. At the end of a lane there _______ (is, are) a house and a barn.
6. One hundred dollars _______ (is, are) too much to pay for a pair of gloves.
7. TV news __________ (sensationalises, sensationalise) all important events.
8. The jury _______ (is, are) meeting now; a decision should be reached soon.
9. ‘Two Gentlemen of Verona’ _______ (is, are) one of Shakespeare's plays.
10. Physics _______ (is, are) the most difficult course I've ever taken.
11. Marriage _______ (is, are) an important step in every person's life.

Ex.9.Choose the correct word and explain your choice.

1. Advice is/are what we ask for when we already know the answer but wish we
didn't. (Erica Jong)
2. Clothes makes/make the man. Naked people has/have little or no influence on
society. (Mark Twain)
3. Wisdom begins/begin in wonder. (Socrates)
4. Beauty is/are internal; looks means/mean nothing. (Unknown)
5. The first 90 percent of the task takes/take 90 percent of the time, the last 10
percent takes/take the other 90 percent. (Murphy's Law)
6. I am still a victim of chess. It has/ They have all the beauty of art -- and much
more. (Marcel Duchamp)
7. Too bad the only people who knows/know how to run the country is/are busy
driving cabs and cutting hair. (George Burns)
8. Don't lend people money. It gives/ they give them amnesia. (Unknown)
9. For most folks, no news are/is good news; for the press, good news is/are not

227
 news. (Gloria Borger)
10. I'm not against the police; I'm just afraid of it/them. (Alfred Hitchcock)

Ex.10. Choose the correct verb according to the noun form (singular or
plural).
1. Twenty hrivnias (seem, seems) a fair price.

2. A hundred dollars (is, are) a lot of money.

3. The news (is, are) wonderful.

4. Their wages (is, are) high.

5. His trousers (is, are) a bit short.

6. Politics (is, are) interesting for everyone nowadays.

7. Darts (is, are) a game played in British pubs.

8. Her clothes (is, are) luxurious.

9. Linguistics (has, have) developed rapidly in modern times.

10. A reward of $500 (has, have) been offered for his article.

11. The Times (has, have) a half-inch front page article.

12. The police (is, are) investigating this theft.

13. Your advice (was, were) very useful.

14. Your hypothesis (is, are) very interesting.

15. The fruit (was, were) fresh.

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Ex.11. Complete the following text by choosing the sutable alternative to each
noun.
1. Every year/years the company publishes its annual account/accounts in a report
for the shareholder/shareholders.

2. The main detail/details concern the financial report.

3. It contains information/informations about sale/sales, turnover/turnovers,

cost/costs and profit/profits.

4. The document also reports the asset/assets that are held by the company, and the
liability/liabilities.

5. These ones are any debt/debts or cash/cashes that the company owes.

6. All this data/datas is presented in the profit and loss/profits and losses account
and the balance sheet.

Ex.12. Correct the mistakes if any.

1. The informations you need is in the post.
2. There’s three hundred people coming to take part in the conference.
3. The company’s headquarters is in Kyiv.
4. We have had a lot of troubles with this equipment.
5. This company makes good quality furnitures.
6. The travel agency gave very useful advices.
7. The premises was built in 2001.
8. Economics are interesting.
9. The news are very surprising.
10. This is an expensive equipment.
11. People you don't know are not a big, amorphous crowds of strangers.
12. When you introduce yourself by saying your own names, don't use your title.
13. If another persons is introducing you, just make eye contact and offer to shake
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 hands when you are being introduced.

Ex.13. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate nouns (plural or singular).
1. I have a ________ but I don’t take many photos.

2. There are seven ________ in a week.

3. There are twelve ________ in a year.

4. A vegetarian is a person who doesn’t eat ________.

5. There was a good ________ on at the cinema.

6. There are sixty________ in anhour.

7. He is not very good at writing ________ .

8. There were very few ________ at University today.

9. I want to water the flowers. I need some ________ .

10. I can speak two foreign ________ .

11. Victor travels a lot. He has been to many ________ .

12. Our house is very small. We don’t have many ________ and there is not much
________ in it.

13. I have a lot of ________ in my group. They all are very nice.

14. John works for a company that makes agricultural ________ .

15. Please can you help me with these ________ ? They are very heavy.

Ex.14. Translate into English.

1. Дозвольте мені відправити цього листа з Вашого комп’ютера.
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2. Дозвольте мені зустріти Віктора та його братів.

3. Знайди мої контрольні роботи на тих полицях.

4. Ваші поради дуже корисні, але я не можу ними скористатися.

5. Інформація була дуже важливою для них.

6. Яка чудова погода!

7. У мене для вас свіжі фрукти.

8. Ви сьогодні слухали новини?

9. Я вважаю, що лише напружене навчання може допомогти успішно

скласти іспити.

10. Я люблю каву з молоком.

11. Це не мої гроші, я не можу вам їх позичити.

12. Поліція ще не спіймала злодія.

13. Приємно провести відпустку біля моря, якщо погода сонячна.

14. Мама принесла свіжих овочів та фруктів з магазину.

15. Хто надав вам такіцікаві дані?

Ex.15. Give the feminine of the following nouns.

Host, prince, male, actor, son, bull, heir, bachelor, emperor, steward, monk,
gentleman, duke, gander, sir, earl, lion, husband, nephew, stallion, bridegroom,
hero, king, drake, stepfather, god, tiger, boy-friend, boar, father-in-law, barman,
landlord, cock, count, salesman, prince, uncle, policeman, conductor.

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Ex.16. Give the masculine of the following nouns.
Landlady, doe, policewoman, queen, nun, barmaid, ewe, countess, heroine, mother,
empress, leopardess, conductress, niece, sow, manageress, aunt, duchess, queen,
widow, hostess, actress, stewardess, waitress.

Ex.17. Rewrite the following phrases as compound nouns (remember that the
first noun is normally in the singular).
1. a holiday which lasts 3 days

2. a report on an accident

3. a court of law

4. a licence to export

5. research into the market

6. a person who pays taxes

7. the manager responsible for sales

8. a publisher of newspapers

9. the launch of the product

10. the campaign of advertising

11. information about products

12. list of prices

13. services for customers

14. message by telephone

15. a person who holds shares

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Ex.18.Make compound nouns from the following words.
weather share
credit clock
inflation holder
alarm forecast
market card
satellite software
container washer
card research
hotel ship
computer room
identity rate
dish number

Ex.20. Match English compounds with Ukrainian equivalents.

1. Outbreak a) спалах, раптовийпочаток
2. Break out b) бійнапрорив

3. Upturn а) покращення
4. Turnupb) щось загорнуте, відігнуте

5. Outlook а) погляд, краєвид

6. Lookout b) перспектива, оглядовий майданчик

7. Upset а) ситуація, становище

8. Set up b) план, змова

9. Outline а) контури, план_схема

10. Lineout b) пересаджування рослин

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11. Overlay а) серветка
12. Layover b) тонкий шар покриття

13. Turnover а) грошовий обіг

14. Overturn b) переворот

Ex.21. Choose the correct form. In some cases, two variants are possible.
1.

a) the house of Nina b) Nina’s house c) Ninas’ house

2.

a) thecar of the Chief Executive b) the Chief Executive’s car

c) the Chief Executives’ car
3.

a) the market share of NTL is 12% b) NTL’s market share is 12%

c) NTLs’ market share is 12%
4.

a) the newspaper of yesterday b) yesterday’s newspaper

c) yesterdays’ newspaper
5.

a) the students’ canteen b) the canteen of the students

c) the student’s canteen
6.

a) the design of the computer b) the computer’s design

c) the computers’ design
7.

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a) Dr Audley’s job b) Dr Audleys’ job c) The job of Dr Audley

8.

a) the cat’s food b) the cats’ food c) the food of the cat

9.

a)Ukraines’ economyb) the economy of Ukrainec) Ukraine’s economy

10.

a) the companies’s results b) the companies’ results

c) the results of the companies

Ex.22. Complete the sentences according to the following information.

Anna and Victor are married. They have two children, Katherine and Bob. Katherine
is married to Andrew. Katherine and Andrew have a daughter, Helen.
1. Anna is ________wife.
2. Victoris________husband.
3. Katherineis________sister.
4. Bob is ________uncle.
5. Bob is ________brother.
6. Helen is ________niece.
7. Katherine is ________wife.
8. Katherine is ________mother.
9. Victor is ________father.
10. Victor is ________grandfather.
11. Helen is ________granddaughter.
12. Andrew is ________husband.

Ex.23. Put the nouns from the brackets into Possessive Case.
1. When is ____________(your mother / birthday)?

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2. Do you like ____________(your father / car)?

3. What is ____________(telephone number / Helena)?

4. ____________is near the city centre. (the flat / my friend).

5. ____________is very good. (Silvia / knowledge / history).

6. The ____________(report / Research Director) was very positive.

7. We hope that all _________(customers / our company) will like the new product.

8. We think it will meet ____________(needs / our customers).

9. I agree with ____________(opinion / our Sales Manager).

10. With this new product ___________(performance / next year) will be very good.

Ex.24. Give answers to the questions. Put the nouns in brackets into
Possessive Case.
1. Whose bag is this? (my brother)
2. Whose daughter lives in L’viv? (my neighbour)
3. Whose book is on the desk? (my friend)
4. Whose marks are good? (their son)
5. Whose name is Vanessa? (my sister)
6. Whose car is this? (his father)
7. Whose is this umbrella? (Trinity)
8. Whose is this idea? (Michael)
9. Whose are these clothes? (his brother)
10. Whose poetry do you like best? (Byron)
11. Whose are these uniforms? (the soldiers)
12. Whose is this pen? (her friend).

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Ex.25. Choose the correct variant.
1. I stepped on (the tail of the dog, the dog’s tail).
2. (The test of Maria, Maria’s test) was written without mistakes.
3. (The leaves of the trees, Trees’ leaves) are green.
4. Have you seen (the newspapers of yesterday, yesterday’s newspapers)?
5. Where is (the cat’s food, the food of the cat)?
6. When is (the doctor’s visit, the visit of the doctor) arranged?
7. Be careful, (the back of the car, the car’s back) is very close to the building.
8. The students have (two months’ holidays, holidays of two months) in summer.
9. Where did you last see (the glasses of your mother, your mother’s glasses)?
10. Is that (his father’s car, the car of his father) over there?
11. (The house’s roof, The roof of the house) is red.
12. (The sun’s rays, The rays of the sun) are very hot at the equator.
Ex.26. Correct the mistakes if there are any.
1. Always forgive your enemys, but never forget their names. (R. Kennedy)

2. The only place where success come before work is in a dictionary. (Vidal
Sassoon)

3. Manycomplainoftheirlooks, butnoneof their brains. (Yiddish proverb)

4. Wise men don't need advices. Fools won't take it. (Benjamin Franklin)

5. There are three ways to get something done: do it yourself, employ someone, or
forbid your childrens to do it. (Monta Crane)

6. The USA are a superpower with highly developed industry and agriculture.

7. The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet. (Aristotle).

8. The best man for a job is a women.

9. Heat the oil in the pan and fry the onion and garlics for about two minutes.

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10. I am more afraid of an army of 100 sheeps lead by a lion than an army of 100
lions lead by a sheep. (Talleyrand)

Ex.27. Translate into English.

1. Чоловік вашої подруги добре говорить англійською?

2. Це зошити наших студентів.

3. Ви знаєте дітей ваших сусідів?

4. Дружина нашого сусіда – вчителька.

5. Як називається книжка твого брата?

6. Волосся моєї сестри темного кольору.

7. Здобуті в університеті знання допомогли йому отримати хорошу роботу.

8. Племінниця герцога не вірила тим пліткам, що розповідали про її

нареченого.

9. Ці новини були опубліковані у вчорашній газеті.

10. Влітку ми споживаємо набагато більше фруктів і овочів, ніж взимку.

11. Його поради допомагають мені в роботі.

12. На відміну від лева, левиця не має гриви (mane).

13. Поліція шукає злодіїв, які обікрали будинок спадкоємиці графа.

14. Одяг мого брата був розкиданий по всій кімнаті.

15. Ці макарони несмачні. Я не буду їх їсти.

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 ARTICLES

Ex.1. Decide which article you should put before the noun while translating
intoEnglish.
1. До будинку під’їхав автомобіль.
2. Автомобіль уже під’їхав до будинку.
3. Книга була дуже цікава.
4. Це була дуже цікава книга.
5. Газети і журнали принесли вчасно.
6. Йому принесли газети і журнали.
7. Вони живуть у великій сучасній квартирі.
8. Квартира їм дуже сподобалася.
9. На станцію прибув поїзд.
10. Поїзд прибув із запізненням.
11. Діти люблять цукерки.
12. Цукерки були дуже смачні.
13. Це будинок.
14. Будинок дуже великий.
15. Це великий зелений десятиповерховий будинок.

Ex.2. Read the sentences. Say what the people’s jobs are. Choose from the list.
The first sentence has been done as an example for you.
Cook, driving instructor, journalist, nurse, pilot, plumber, poet, travel agent,
waiter.
1. Andrew drives a taxi. – He is a taxi driver.
2. Mike works in a cafe, he brings the food to the tables. – _______________.
3. Mary arranges people’s holidays for them. – _________________.
4. Andrew works for an airline. He flies airplanes. – _______________.
5. Victor teaches people how to drive. – _______________.
6. Indy fits and repairs water pipes. – _________________.

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7. Olaf writes articles for a magazine. – _______________.
8. Brian writes poems. – _______________.
9. Hanna cooks food at a restaurant. – ___________________.
10. Nina looks after patients in a hospital. – _______________.

Ex.3. Fill in the gaps with a/an or – (no article).

1. It's ____ honour to work with you.
2. I read ____ humorous article in the paper.
3. She is ____ O.A.P. (old age pensioner).
4. The IRA want ____ united Ireland.
5. He stayed in ____ hotel in the city centre.
6. That's ____ elitist point of view.
7. You'll find ____ information on the subject in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
8. I like ____ coffee.
9. In Britain people don't have ____ ID cards.
10. ____ thing of beauty is ____ joy forever.
11. Peter lives in ____ old village in England.
12. In the centre of the village, there is ____ nice little church.
13. In front of the church, there is ____ old and beautiful park.
14. Herbert, ____ teacher of English from Dusseldorf, visits the village for the first
time.
15. He says, "I'd like to live in such ____ little village".

Ex.4. Insert a/an, - or some.

1. I’ve seen ____ good films recently.

2. What's wrong with you? Have you got ____ headache?

3. I know a lot of people. Most of them are ____ students.

4. When I was ____ child, I used to be very shy.

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5. Would you like to be ____ actor?

6. ____ birds, for example the penguin, cannot fly.

7. I don't feel very well this morning. I've got ____ sore throat.

8. Do you enjoy going to ____ concerts?

9. When we got to the city centre, ____ shops were still open but most of them
were closed.

10. I don't believe him. He's a liar. He's always telling ____ lies.

11. Jane is ____ teacher. Her parents were teachers too.

12. Could you buy ____ stamps for me, please?

13. We have brought our camera. We'll be able to take ____ photographs of the
building.

14. I'd like ____ cornflakes, please.

15. This is ____ excellent test.

Ex.5. Fill in the gaps with some, any or a/an.

1. I’m really thirsty. I need ____ water, please.
2. I went to the library, but I couldn’t find ____ books about art.
3. Can you give me ____ coffee, please?
4. She sent ____ postcards to her friends, but she didn’t make ____ phone calls
when she was in Britain.
5. It’s very sunny but there is only ____ child playing in the street.
6. I bought ____ coffee, but I didn’t buy ____ tea.
7. Have you got ____ chocolate biscuits? I’m sorry, there are ____ biscuits left.
8. Mary, I’m afraid there isn’t ____ juice in the fridge but there’s ____ pineapple.
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9. They ate ____ apples, ____ mango, but they didn’t eat ____ oranges.
10. Would you like ____ cheese? It’s delicious. - Ok, give me ____ .
11. Is there ____ olive oil in the kitchen? No, there isn’t ____ but there’s ____
butter.

Ex.6. In each sentence, choose the best phrase to complete the gap from the
choices below (a, b, c, or d).
1. The recetionist at the front desk gave me two ____ .

a) informations b) information c) pieces of information d) lots of information

2. My cousin is very beautiful. She has green eyes and ____ .

a) long hair b) long hairs c) a long hair d) a long length of hair

3. ____ have you got in the bank? Is it enough to buy a house?

a) How many moneys b) How many money c) How much money

d) How much moneys

4. On Saturday, my friend Paul went fishing and he caught ____ .

a) three fish b) three fishes c) three items of fish d) three of fish

5. Can I borrow ____ from you? I've left mine at home and I want to make some
notes.

a) paper b) a paper c) a slice of paper d) a piece of paper

6. How much ____ did the teacher give us today? He always gives us a lot to do.

a) homework b) homeworks c) a lot of homework d) pieces of homework

7. Every morning before I come to University, I spend thirty minutes doing ____ .

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 That's how I stay so slim.

a) exercise b) an exercise c) some exercises d) some pieces of exercise

8. Your sister is a great pianist. She played ____ at the party.

a) a lovely music b) some lovely musics c) lovely musics

d) a lovely piece of music

Ex.7. Give answers to the questions.

Example: How often do you have your English classes? – Twice a weak.
How much does it cost to go by metro? – Two hryvnias a trip.
1. How often do you go to the cinema?
2. How much does it cost to go by tram?
3. How often do you have holidays?
4. What’s the speed limit on motorways?
5. How much sleep do you need?
6. How often do you eat out?
7. How much does a loaf of bread cost?
8. How often do you phone your parents?
9. What is the price of potato?
10. How often do you go to the theatre?

Ex.8. Decide whether to use the definite article the or not.

1. My grandmother likes ____ flowers very much.

2. I love ____ flowers in your garden.

3. See you on ____ Wednesday.

4. I always listen to ____ radio in the morning.

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5. Alex goes to work by ____ bus.

6. Don't be late for ____ school.

7. Listen! Dennis is playing ____ trumpet.

8. We often see our cousins over ____ Easter.

9. She has never been to ____ Alps before.

10. What about going to Australia in ____ February?

11. Last year we visited ____ St. Paul's Cathedral and ____ Tower.

12. Mount Everest is ____ highest mountain on earth.

13. Loch Ness is ____ most famous lake in Scotland.

14. ____ most children like sweets.

15. ____ summer of 1996 was hot and dry.

Ex.9. Put the definite article the where necessary.

1. ____ Chicago River runs through the heart of the city.

2. ____ Rocky Mountains separate the West from the rest of the U.S.

3. ____ Mount St. Helens erupted with the force of a nuclear explosion on May
18, 1980.

4. ____ Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world, it is also the world's
largest single physical feature.

5. ____ Mediterranean Sea attracts tourists during the summer.

6. ____ Lake Tahoe is located on the border between California and Nevada.
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7. I live on ____ West Coast.

8. I live on ____ Kamchatka Peninsula.

9. ____ Bryce Canyon is in Utah.

10. We visited ____ Galapagos Islands.

11. Have you ever been to ____ British Museum?

12. ____ Hyde Park is a very large park in ____ central London.

13. ____ Grand Hotel is in ____ Baker Street.

14. We flew to ____ New York from ____ Gatwick Airport near ____ London.

15. ____ Statue of Liberty is at the entrance to ____ New York harbour.

Ex.10. Read Peter’s letter to his friend and correct it inserting the definite
article the where necessary.
Hi John,
I arrived in ____ USA last Monday. We left ____ Rome, flew over ____ Alps
and made a quick stop in ____ London. There we went shopping in ____ Harrods,
visited ____ Tower and enjoyed ____ sunny afternoon in ____ Hyde Park.

On __ following day we left for __ New York. ___ time on board wasn't boring as
there were two films to watch on monitor. ___people on ___plane were all Italian.

Before we landed at ____ JFK airport, we saw ____ Statue of Liberty, ____ Ellis
Island and ____ Empire State Building.

____ hotel I stayed in was on ____ corner of ____ 42nd Street and ____ 5th
Avenue. I don't like ____ hotels very much, but I didn't have ____ time to rent
____ apartment.

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Please say hello to ___ Tom and ___ Kate.
Yours,
Peter

Ex.11. Fill in the gaps with the, possessive adjectives her/their/your or - .

1. John and Jane like ____ house very much.

2. With ____growth of global trade, many companies need ____foreign

currencies to pay ____producers in other countries.

3. Can’t you look me in ____eye?

4. Fax machines have replaced ____letters for most daily business transactions.

5. ____problem of controlling access to ____Internet needs to be addressed.

6. Control of access to ____Internet poses ____problems.

7. Nowadays, Internet users have access to information from around ____world.

8. Be careful not to cut ____finger.

9. The report will discuss ____marketplace changes.

10. The speakers discussed ____social problems.

11. Kate broke ____arm two weeks ago.

12. The speaker warned of ____declining living standards of rural families.

13. I can't believe I failed ____yesterday's test!

14. I recommend you to try ____tomato soup at this restaurant.

15. We need to be at ____university in an hour.

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Ex.12. Fill in a/an, the where necessary.
1. This flat is very nice. Has it got ___ sitting room?

2. He is going on holiday for ___ month in summer.

3. Lillian has a part-time job. She works three days ___ week.

4. There isn’t ___ railway station near where she lives.

5. Histrainwaslate. Hehadtowaitat___ railwaystationfor___ hour.

6. Canyoutellmehowtogetto___ railwaystation?

7. I read ___ very interesting article yesterday but I don’t remember ___ name.

8. Canyourecommend___ goodbookforreading?

9. Itis___ bestbookIhaveeverread.

10. Heiseating___ apple.

11. Howoftendoyougoto___ dentist?

12. Couldyouopen___ window, please?

13. Itwas___ mistake.

14. My sister has just got ___ job in ___ bank in ___ Manchester.

15. Please meet me at the train station in ___ hour from now.

Ex.13. Read the story and fill in the gaps with a/an, the, or zero article.
1. In ___ autumn of 1935, when I was ___ young man, I was travelling in ___
north-west of ___ India.

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2. One evening, after hunting in ___ forest all day, I was returning alone to ___
place where I had put up my ___ tent.

3. It was getting dark, and I was walking along ___ narrow path.

4. On my right was ___ wide river, on my left ___ thick dark forest.

5. Suddenly I saw two green ___ eyes looking at me from among ___ trees.

6. ___ man-eatingtiger was ready to jump on me.

7. What could I do? Should I jump into ___ river and hope to save my life by
swimming?

8. I turned my head to ___ right.

9. In ___ river there was ___ immense crocodile waiting to welcome me with its
mouth wide open.

10. I was so frightened that I shut my ___ eyes.

11. I heard branches moving as ___ tiger jumped.

12. I opened my eyes. What do you think had happened? The tiger had jumped
right over me and was now in ___ jaws of ___ crocodile.

13. That’s ___ true story, believe it or not!

Ex.14. Fill in the gaps with a(n), the if necessary.

1. I am ___ international student from ___ Philippines.

2. I decided that if I wanted to improve my English skills I should study English in

___ English speaking country.

3. First of all, I researched ___ all English speaking countries and considered

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 many factors including tuition fees, cost of living, approval to work part-time
and climate.

4. I decided that I would like to study in ___ Australia.

5. Then, I applied for ___ student visa.

6. ___ application process was complex and I had to wait ___ long time for ___
decision.

7. However, it was worth ___ long wait because finally I was approved.

8. Once I received ___ visa I made my arrangements: airfare, accommodation,

institution and start date. I was so excited.

9. Before too long I was on ___ airplane flying to Australia.

10.I arrived on ___ glorious sunny day.

11.I took ___ taxi to my accommodation.

12.___ taxi driver was very friendly and welcomed me to Australia.

13.___ family I am staying with is very nice.

14.They are ___ Australian family and they usually have two international students
staying with them at any one time.

15.I had two days to explore my new city and then I started this course. Today is
___ very special day for me. I am nervous but I am happy!

Ex.15. Read the sentences and complete them with a, an, the or - (no article).
1. What’s ___ date today? It’s ___ 9th of June.

2. She wants to be ___ architect but she isn’t good at ___ Maths.

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3. Please clean up ___ bathroom. You left ___ terrible mess there.

4. He is fourteen but he behaves like ___ small child.

5. Let’s wait for ___ others. Perhaps they will want to go to ___ cinema with us.

6. What is ___ capital city of ___ Czech Republic?

7. She is not working at ___ moment. She is ___ unemployed technician.

8. We arrived ___ home at ___ six o’clock in ___ morning.

9. Don’t make ___ noise. I have ___ headache.

10.She bought ___ American car.

11.She lives in ___ north of ___ Spain but her parents live in ___ east.

12.Do you like ___ exams?

13.Do you need ___ degree in Economics or ___ degree in finance to be a better
manager?

14.___ Mt. Everest is ___ highest mountain in ___ world.

15.Do you like ___ weather here? Isn't it too hot during ___ day but it is very cold
at ___ night?

Ex.16. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. Children learn easily what they see.
2. The sugar has lots of calories.
3. Where is the sugar I bought?
4. Life is difficult in this area because there isn’t enough water.
5. The life of the people in this area is difficult because there isn’t enough water.

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6. The music makes me happy.
7. The music we’re listening to isn’t modern but it is very catchy.
8. The friends should help you when you need it.
9. The friends I was waiting for arrived this morning.
10. The Japanese is a difficult language.
11. The Japanese language is difficult.
12. The Japanese are really hard-working.
13. The Japanese people are really hard-working.
14. I can’t play piano.
15. She plays basketball in a famous team.

Ex.17. Translate into English.

1. Вона працює вісім годин на день шість днів на тиждень.

2. Кілограм картоплі коштує гривню.

3. Ми ходимо до театру двічі на місяць.

4. Він працює у центрі міста.

5. Я не люблю ходити до дантиста.

6. Мені потрібно сьогодні сходити до банку та на пошту.

7. Я хотів би поговорити з менеджером.

8. Я взяв таксі, щоб дістатися до залізничного вокзалу.

9. Чи не могли б Ви відчинити вікно?

10. Я виключив телевізор і почав читати книжку.

11. Коли ми були студентами, ми не могли дозволити собі вечерю в

ресторані.

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12. Французи відомі своїм гумором, англійці – коректністю, а німці –
пунктуальністю.

13. Київ – столиця України, незалежної європейської держави.

14. Ви вмієте грати на гітарі?

15. Хлопці з нашої групи кожен вечір грають у футбол.

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 Unit 7. MONEY

TEXT A. Money and its role in the economy

TEXT B. A Glimpse of the American, British and Euro currencies
TEXT C. A Barter way of doing business
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: On the telephone
GRAMMAR: Determiners. Numerals

Money never starts an idea; it is the idea that starts the money.
W.J. Cameron (1879-1953),
spokesman for Henry Ford

LEAD-IN
1. Think of two or three things that you spend your money on every day. Do you
spend it on the same things?
2. When you go shopping, how do you pay for goods: in cash or by credit card?
3. Have you ever put your money in a piggy-bank?
4. Some people put their money on deposit in a bank; others invest it in companies
by buying their shares? What else do people do with their money?
5. Do you think that in time people will live in a cashless society?

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 PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills
Ex.1. Revise the reading rules of the following letter combinations ir / ur/ er;
ow/ ou; ee /ea and read the words:
firm, thirdly, circle, circulate; return, further, furthermore, purchase; serve, service,
transfer, convert, emergence; decree, redeem, irredeemable; easily, cheap, means;
nowadays, powerful, countable, amount, account, cowrie

Ex. 2. Practice reading the words with qu.

qu [kw] quarter, quota, quote, quotation, quit, quarrel, liquidity, acquisition;
[k] technique, unique, cheque, picturesque, grotesque, queue

Require, qualified, questionable, unique, liquid, queue, quality, quantity, technique

Ex.3. The letters in bold are silent in the following words. Read the words
accurately.
p /b receipt, psychology, debt, plumber, doubt, climb
k before n: know, knowledge, known, knee, knight, knit, knob, knock
g before n at the beginning or at the end of a word:
sign, resign, design, reign, gnat
t often after s: fasten, castle, listen, bristle, glisten, whistle, rustling
h honour, honourable, honest, hour, hourly
gh after i, au, ou and before t: sigh, sightseeing, brightly, highlight;
taught, caught; brought, sought, thought
but at the beginning of a word, these letters are read as [g]:
ghost, ghosting, ghetto, ghastly
w wholesale, wholly, whose, answer, wrap, wreck, wrong, written

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Debtor, highlighter, reign, honesty, soften, doubting, listening, answerphone,
well-known, hustle, firefighter, whistle, Knightsbridge, walk, ghostwriter,
climbing, knot, sight, bought, ghastly, knees, fought, resign, sigh, island, iron,
government.

Ex. 4. Read the words in the groups below. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
ancient, attribute, asset, barter, constitute, counterfeit, cumbersome, diamond,
dominant, effort, iron, medium, measure, mechanism, origin, output, perishable,
precious, privacy, purchase, relatively, standard;
b) words with the stress on the second syllable:
coincidence, commodity, convenient, convertible, criterion, decree, determine,
divisible, economy, economist, effect, emergence, essential, millennium, occur,
percentage, possess, society, simplicity, spontaneous, withstand;
c) polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:
characteristic, electronically, evolutionary, introduction, independently,
irredeemable, organization, representative.

Ex. 5. Read these two-syllable words. Pay attention to the change of the word
stress.
Noun Verb
conflict conflict
contrast contrast
convert convert
decrease decrease
increase increase
export export
import import
process process
progress progress

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 record record
transfer transfer
Ex.6. Now, read the sentences with some of the words from Ex.5.
1. I try to avoid conflict wherever possible. This conflicts with the police
evidence. She is in conflict with her employers over sickness pay.
2. Helen was transferred from marketing to sales. We’re currently dealing the
paperwork for your transfer. We’re transferring our production to Detroit.
3. Learning a foreign language is a slow process. Data is processed as it is
received.
4. Food prices increased by 10% in less than a year. Our costs have increased
dramatically. Sales have been good despite last year’s price increases.
5. Profits were $1million, which is a decrease of 5 per cent on last year. Prices are
expected to decrease by less than 1% this year. There has been a decrease in
the annual birth rate for the last twenty years.

B. Word formation
Ex. 7. Make up adverbs by adding the ending - ly to adjectives.
Model: adjective + - ly = adverb
e.g. usual → usually; happy - happily
Absolute, eventual, easy, exact, immediate, independent, normal, original,
particular, preferable, smooth, universal.

Ex. 8. Form verbs by adding the ending – ize/-ise to the following nouns and
adjectives.
Model: noun/adjective + -ize (ise) = verb
e.g. American → Americanize
Legal, industrial, modern, national, neutral, popular, private, rational, visual;
author, apology, computer, hospital, stability, symbol, sympathy

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Ex.9. What is the difference between these words? Compare the suffixes
–er/or and –ee.
Addresser – addressee, consigner – consignee, dedicator – dedicatee, donor –
donee, employer – employee, endorser – endorsee, inspector – inspectee, inviter –
invitee, nominator – nominee, payer – payee, vendor – vendee.

Ex.10. Form nouns by adding suffix -ee to the verbs below. Translate these
words.
Model: Absent - absentee, etc.
Examine, interview, license, mortgage, refer, train, trust.

TEXT A: MONEY AND ITS ROLE IN THE ECONOMY

Active Vocabulary

Key terms: barter, bank account, cash, coin, coincidence of wants, convert
smth into smth, credit/debit card, counterfeit, currency,
commodity/representative/ credit/fiat money, electronic money, exchange smth
for smth, in payment for, irredeemable, legal tender, means of liquidity,
medium of exchange, measure of value, monetary unit, money supply,
purchasing power, quote prices, redeem, store of value, transfer, transaction,
unit of account
Other words and expressions: attribute, basic/essential characteristics,
demand/need for, grow dramatically, in terms of, judge on, keystone of, the
origin(s) of, perform a function, serve as, solve a problem, solution to (a
problem), supersede
Linking words and phrases: to begin with, originally, eventually,
firstly/secondly/thirdly/finally, in addition to, of no less importance, as a matter
of fact, in fact, in this way, to summarise

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 What is money? Why do we use money at all? In order to better understand
the concept of money and get an answer to these questions, let us turn to the
origins of money and examine its principal functions.
To begin with, money is the result of a long evolutionary process. Before
there was money, people living in primitive societies used barter as a means of
exchanging goods and services, and it worked quite well. However, as time went
by and society advanced, the volume and range of goods and services expanded.
Eventually, bartering became very complicated and cumbersome.
It was money that solved the basic problems created by barter -
‘indivisibility’ and ‘coincidence of wants’. The emergence of money was
spontaneous. No king, government or person created money. It came into being
through barter, and evolved independently in different parts of the world. The
oldest recorded use of money dates back to ancient Mesopotamia (now southern
Iraq) about 4,500 years ago.
Originally, money took the form of commodity money or money with its
own value as a good. It means that the commodity itself constitutes the money, and
the money is the commodity. In fact, any commodity used as a medium of
exchange is commodity money. At different times different commodities were
used as money: iron and bronze, cattle and fish, furs and skins, cowries and
precious metals, specifically gold and silver. Gold coins are examples of
commodity money because gold is worth something as a commodity, not just as a
monetary unit.
Over time other types of money came into use: representative, fiat money,
credit money, etc. The system of commodity money in many instances evolved
into a system of representative money which refers to paper currency backed by a
government or bank’s promise to redeem it for a given weight of precious metal
(gold or silver). During the late 19 th and early 20th century, most currencies were
examples of representative money. Money of this type was based on the gold
standard, and, in theory, could be exchanged for a fixed amount of gold. For
example, the US dollar was convertible to gold until 1934.

258
 Currency that is found today in most countries is fiat money. Unlike
representative money, fiat money is not backed by any commodity, and is
absolutely irredeemable. It serves as legal tender by a government decree, or fiat
which means in Latin ‘let it be done’. “Legal tender for all debts, public and
private” is written on the US dollar. The value of fiat currency is based merely on
trust that people will accept it in payment for goods and services and that its value
will remain relatively stable. A prime example of fiat money is the new
international currency - the euro. The introduction of the euro changed the face of
money, superseding many of the world's oldest currencies.
Whatever the type of money, it should be judged on how well it performs its
major functions: (1) a medium of exchange, (2) a measure of value, and (3) a
store of value. As a matter of fact, money is what money does.

FUNCTIONS OF MONEY

a medium of a measure of a store of

exchange value or value
a unit of account

Money is a medium of exchange

Firstly, money is the mechanism that enables parties to make an indirect
exchange of goods and services. In a money economy, if you want to buy or sell
something, you don’t need to find someone who has what you want and who wants
what you have. Money effectively eliminates the problem of a double coincidence
of wants by serving as a medium of exchange. It is easily accepted in all
transactions, by all parties, regardless of whether they desire each others’ goods
and services. What is important, money transmits value through space. In a
barter system, this is very difficult because transfer of large items and perishable
goods makes moving around rather problematic.
Money is a measure of value or a unit of account
Secondly, money is the benchmark for measuring value of goods and
services. If you want to buy a mobile telephone, you don’t need to calculate how

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much tobacco or honey will be necessary to buy it. Instead, you see the product’s
price, set in terms that everyone can understand, and you immediately know how
cheap or expensive it is, comparing that value to other products.
Money is a store of value
Thirdly, money acts as a store of value for future use or for storing wealth.
By saving money, you are able to spend some now and some later. In this way
money transmits value over time. This couldn’t occur in a barter economy
because not all commodities could be stored for future use. Some items were
perishable and subject to decay while others might die. Food items, expensive
spices, fine silks, oriental rugs, etc. could not be suitable for use as money.
Note: In the time of high inflation or political instability, money may not be
a good store of value.
Money is a means of liquidity
In addition to these three functions of money, economists often point out the
fourth criterion – a means of liquidity. Liquidity describes the ease with which an
item can be traded for something that you want, or into the common currency
within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally
recognised and accepted as the common currency. It has a big advantage over other
assets. It can be used immediately to purchase goods and services while converting
gold, diamonds, or a house into cash takes time and effort. In this way, money
gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to
barter.
In a modern society, money has several basic characteristics:
 Portability or transportability. Modern money is portable. It can be
easily carried from place to place. Paper money has proved highly convenient
in this regard.
 Divisibility. Money can be divided into small units without destroying its value
so as to make large and small transactions.
 Durability. Money is long lasting, able to withstand the wear and tear in
changing hands. A good illustration of the durability of money is the fact that

260
 money left in pockets withstands the wash. Coins are often made with ridges
around the rim to prevent coin shaving or debasement.
However, it is not only the physical durability that matters. Of no less
importance is its social and institutional durability. People are willing to accept
money in payment for one good because they are confident that they can use it at a
later time for some other good or service. It works as a medium of exchange
precisely because it stores value from one transaction to another. And this requires
durability. While government-issued paper currency might remain physically intact
for centuries, its ability to function as money depends on the institutional durability
of the government.
 Stability. The value of money must be more or less stable over long periods of
time so people do not lose its purchasing power if they use their money at a
later time.
 Recognisability and acceptability. The most essential attribute of money is its
quality of being easily recognised and readily accepted as a medium of
exchange.
 Relative scarcity. For the purpose of controlling the money supply, money
must be scarce but not too scarce.
 And finally, the monetary item must be difficult to counterfeit.
Money that is easily duplicated ceases to be a medium of exchange.
Modern money takes two primary forms: cash, which is paper currency
and metal coins, and cheques (Am. checks). Banknotes and coins are commonly
used for small person-to-person transactions. Cheques, debit cards and wire
transfers are used as a means of transferring larger amounts of money between
bank accounts more easily. Electronic money is non-physical currency that is
traded and used over the Internet. The percentage of money moved electronically is
growing dramatically these days.
To summarise, money is any commodity or token used by society as a
medium of exchange, a measure of value and a store of value. The invention of
money is probably one of the most important inventions in the world. Money helps

261
to bring simplicity and organisation to our economy. Without the use of money,
trade would be reduced to barter. Money makes it easier to trade, borrow, save,
invest, and compare the value of goods and services. Thus, money may be
regarded as a keystone of modern economic life.
Despite predictions of a "cashless society" relying on electronic payments,
the public demand for currency continues to grow. Debit cards used for purchases
and transaction records could greatly reduce the need for cash, but paper currency
still has the advantage of privacy. Will the present forms of currency last or change
eventually? Only time can give the answer.

Language notes:
As time went by and society advanced the volume and range of goods and services
… – У силу того, як час ішов і суспільство розвивалось, обсяг і асортимент
товарів і послуг …

It was money that solved the basic problems … – Тільки з виникненням грошей
вдалося вирішити основні проблеми …
Зворот ‘It is … that’ використовується для того щоб виділити найбільш
важливе в реченні, надати йому більшу емоційність. При перекладі зазвичай
використовують слова «саме», «це», «тільки» .

The oldest recorded use of money dates back to ancient Mesopotamia ... –
Історично, перше використання грошей зафіксовано у давній Месопотамії ...
Whatever the type of money, it should be judged on how well it … – Якого б виду
не були гроші, оцінювати їх потрібно за тим наскільки добре вони …

Despite predictions of a "cashless society" relying on electronic payments, the

public demand for … – Незважаючи на прогнозування «безготівкового»
суспільства, яке засноване на системі електронних платежів, попит на …

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has the advantage of privacy – … мають перевагу конфіденційності;
without having to barter – … не використовуючи бартер;
a prime example – відмінний/чудовий приклад

cowrie – a small yellowish-white shell with a fine gloss, used by

various peoples as money. It is abundant in the Pacific and Indian
oceans, and is collected in the Maldives and the East Indian
islands, in Siam, and on parts of the African coast. It was used in
China as a medium of exchange in primitive times, and also in Bengal. It is still so
employed in Africa, and in the countries of Further India.

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Співпадання потреб, товарні гроші, представницькі гроші, кредитні гроші,
нерозмінні паперові гроші, банкноти і монети, золотий стандарт, у якості
посередника, виконувати функції засіб обміну, міра вартості, засіб
накопичення (засіб збереження вартості), рахункова одиниця, еталон
вимірювання, ліквідний засіб, законний платіжний засіб, єдина валюта,
переказ (грошей), банківський рахунок, гарний приклад, наріжний камінь.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and phrases.

The concept of money, the origins of money, the emergence of money, the most
essential attribute, general characteristics, solve the basic problems, a range of
goods, coincidence of wants, precious metals, perishable goods, any commodity or
token, a monetary unit, the value of currency, a fixed amount of, difficult to
counterfeit, evolve (into), in payment for, for this purpose, the gold standard,
electronic payments.

263
Ex. 3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these
verbs in the text.
Become, begin, buy, find, get, give, grow, keep, let, make, overcome, pay, sell,
speak, spend, take, tell, understand, withstand.

Ex. 4. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right.
1 barter a a medium of exchange in which money is a commodity
generally accepted because it has value as a good and as
money
2 money b anything generally accepted as payment for goods and
services as well as for settlement of debts
3 currency c a direct exchange of one commodity for another, without
the use of money
4 commodity d money issued by the government but not backed by any
money commodity and is absolutely irredeemable
5 representative e an economic process in which prices increase so that the
money purchasing power of money falls
6 fiat money f paper money issued by a government or a bank and
backed by their promises to redeem it for a given weight
of precious metal, specifically gold or silver
7 inflation g money that is used in a particular country

Ex. 5. Find in the text the words which go in pair with: currency, barter,
exchange, money, function, value, duplication. You can add other word
collocations. Give examples either from the text or of your own.

Model: currency → national/international, local/foreign, weak/stable/hard

currency, the single European currency
e.g. A stable currency means that your savings do not diminish in value. You can
always convert euro into your local currency.

264
Ex.6. Choose the appropriate word or phrase from the list below to complete
the sentences.
Attribute, an indirect exchange, medium of exchange, barter, credit money,
durable, fiat money, high inflation, solve, over time, through space

1. Without the use of money, trade would be reduced to ______________ .

2. Money is the mechanism that enables parties to make ___________________
of goods and services.
3. It was money that _________________ the basic problems created by barter.
4. Any commodity used as a _______________________ is commodity money.
5. _________________ serves as legal tender by government decree.
6. Examples of _________________ include bank deposits and credit card loans.
7. As a medium of exchange, money transmits value _________________ , and it
transmits value _________________ as a store of value.
8. The most essential _________ of money is its recognisability and acceptability.
9. Money must be portable, __________, divisible and stable.
10. In the time of ______________ money may not be a good store of value.

Ex.7. Fill in the gaps with the correct preposition or adverb.

1. In order to get an answer ____ these questions, let us turn ____ the origins of
money and examine its principal functions.
2. Money came into being ____ barter.
3. The oldest recorded use of money dates ____ ____ ancient Mesopotamia about
4,500 years ago.
4. ____ , money took the form of commodity money.
5. Representative money refers ____ currency issued by governments or banks
and backed by their promises to redeem it ____ a given weight of gold or silver.
6. The value of fiat currency is based ____ trust that people will accept it ____
payment ____ goods and services and that its value will remain ____ stable.

265
7. Whatever the type of money, it should be judged ____ how well it performs its
major functions.
8. In addition ____ these three functions of money, economists often point ____
the fourth criterion – to serve ____ a means of liquidity.
9. Money has a big advantage ____ other assets.
10. Debit cards used for purchases and transaction records could greatly reduce the
need ____ cash, but paper currency still has the advantage ____ privacy.
11.The percentage of electronic payments is growing ____ these days.
12. We must admit that despite predictions of a “cashless society” relying ____
electronic payments, the demand ____ currency continues to grow.

Ex.8. Look through the text again and replace the words/phrases in italics
with similar ones.
1. First of all, money is the result of a long evolutionary process.
2. Apart from these three functions of money, economists often point out one
more criterion - a means of liquidity.
3. In effect, money is what money does.
4. Actually, any commodity used as a medium of exchange is commodity money.
5. All things considered, it must be said that money can be any commodity or
token used by society as a medium of exchange, a measure of value and a store
of value.
6. And lastly, money units must be difficult to duplicate.
7. However, it is not only the physical durability of money that matters. Its social
and institutional durability is also very important.
8. There are some general characteristics that are extremely important and
necessary for whatever acts as money in a modern society.
9. An excellent example of fiat money is euro.
10. The percentage of money moved electronically is growing surprisingly these
days.

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Ex.9. Choose and combine two parts logically to make complete sentences.
1. An economy that lacks a
medium of exchange uses …
2. In a monetary economy, ….
3. In a barter economy, …
4. To be a good medium of
exchange, money must be …
5. To be a good store of value,
money must be …
6. To be a good measure of
value or a unit of account,
money needs to be …
7. Bank deposits and credit card
loans are examples of …
8. Currency backed by
government or bank’s promise
to redeem it for a given weight
of gold or silver refers to
9. The type of money that is
found today in most countries
(the euro, American dollar,
British pound, etc.) is
Ex.10. Translate into English.
a) commodity money.
b) barter.
c) flexible exchange rates.
a) a person having something to trade must
find somebody who wants it and has
something to offer in exchange.
b) the owner of a commodity may sell it for
money and buy anything he wants for this
money.
a) durable so it can be kept for future use
and have a stable value so people do not
lose its purchasing power if they use the
money at a later time.
b) portable, divisible, easily measured and
willingly accepted by people.
c) useful for quoting prices.
a) representative money.
b) fiat money.
a c) credit money.
267
1. До появи грошей був бартер, тобто, прямий безгрошовий обмін товарами.
2. Гроші - це будь-який товар або знак, що використовується суспільством
як засіб обміну, міра вартості і засіб накопичення.
3. Щоб бути хорошим засобом обміну, гроші повинні бути легко
впізнаваними, загальноприйнятими і зручними в користуванні, тобто бути
подільними і легко переноситися з одного місця до іншого.
4. Як міра вартості, гроші служать в якості еталону для виміру вартості
товарів і послуг.
5. Гроші виступають як засіб заощадження для використання в
майбутньому, або як засіб накопичення багатства.
6. Щоб бути хорошим засобом накопичення, гроші повинні бути тривалого
користування і мати більш-менш стабільну вартість.
7. У часи високої інфляції і політичної нестабільності гроші навряд чи
можуть бути гарним засобом накопичення.
8. Гроші мають велику перевагу над іншими формами капіталу.
9. Це найбільш ліквідний капітал, оскільки вони повсюдно впізнавані і
приймаються як єдина валюта.
10.Їх можна використовувати в будь-який момент для купівлі товарів і
послуг, у той час як, для того щоб обміняти золото або діаманти на
готівку, потрібен час і якісь зусилля.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Ex.11. Ask questions to which the following may be answers.

1. Money overcomes the problems of a barter system and the need for a
coincidence of wants.
2. Bartering doesn’t suit the needs of a modern, diversified economy, even though
some bartering still goes on in the world today.
3. Money makes it easier to trade, borrow, save, and invest. It brings simplicity
and organisation to our economy.

268
4. A credit or debit card is not money. They are both payment mechanisms by
which we access money in a more convenient way.
5. Money can be any good or token that functions as a medium of exchange, a
measure of value and a store of value.
6. The earliest forms of money were commodities, such as cattle and grain, furs
and skins, iron and bronze, silver and gold and more.
7. The first banknotes were used in China in the 7 th century. In Europe, the first
banknotes were issued by Stockholm Bank in 1661.
8. The general characteristics of money in a modern economy include
acceptability, portability, divisibility, durability and others.
9. The only civilization that functioned successfully without money was that of
the Incas.

Ex.12. Answer the following questions.

1. What is barter?
2. What are the problems with barter?
3. What are the advantages of using money over bartering?
4. Who is generally acknowledged as the inventor of money? Alexander the
Great? King Solomon? Somebody else?
5. What is commodity money? Give examples.
6. What problems occur when using commodity money?
7. What is money? How can you define it?
8. What are the functions of money?
9. What are the main characteristics of modern money?
10.What forms of money are there?
11.What’s the difference between representative money and fiat money?
12.Why do people willingly accept money?
13.Why can’t money be a good store of value in the time of political instability and
inflation?
14.How does the invention of money affect the trading process?

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15.Do you agree that money is the keystone of the economic life? Why?

Ex.13. Choose the best variant from a, b, с to complete the statements. Explain
your choice.
1. Money is ______________.
a) the same as income.
b) the value of all coins and currency in circulation at any time.
c) anything generally accepted as a final payment for goods and services.
2. As a store of value, money _____________.
a) is not affected by inflation.
b) is easily stored until some future time.
c) simplifies the process of trading

Define which is odd.

1. Money serves as _____________.
a) a medium of exchange.
b) a unit of account.
c) a shelter of value.
d) a store of value.
2. Modern money is _____________.
a) portable
b) divisible
c) durable
d) easy in duplication
e) recognisable and willingly acceptable.

Ex.14. Read one of the versions regarding the origin of the word “money” and
reproduce it in English.
Moneta, a name related to the goddess Juno

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 За однією з версій, слово ‘money’ пов’язано з іменем богині Юнони
Провісниці (Juno Moneta). Згідно з міфами Стародавнього Риму, богиня
Юнона попереджала про небезпеку, давала гарні поради. Римляни (the
Romans) були так вдячні богині, що побудували їй храм. Вони називали
богиню Юнона Монета, оскільки латинське слово ‘moneo’ означало
«попереджати». За легендою, у часи особливого безгрошів’я Юнона
порадила римлянам вести війну справедливо, і тоді з'являться гроші. Саме з
цим епізодом пов'язують той факт, що перший в історії Риму державний
монетний двір (mint) був розташований у храмі богині Юнони Монети, а
гроші, які там відливали, стали називатися монетами. Сама ж богиня Юнона
стала для римлян берегинею фінансів.
З часом, латинське слово ‘moneo’ трансформувалося в англійське
‘money’, а ‘moneta’ - в англійське слово ‘mint’.

Ex. 15. Make a presentation of the topic “Money”.

Writing

Ex.16. Write a plan for a summary of Text A.

Ex.17. Write a brief summary of the text.

Ex.18. Write an essay (100 – 150 words) about

a) the history of money;
b) principal functions of money;
c) essential characteristics of modern money.

Discussion points
Ex.19. Discuss the following:

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1. If you have to send money to someone, a family member or your friend in
another city or country, what do you normally do? What way of sending money
do you choose: by air mail or transfer with companies like Western Union or
MoneyGram? Why?
2. You’re going to buy a car, a flat or just an expensive present for somebody but
you don’t have enough money at present. Which source of finance would you
use:
- borrow it from a member of your family, your friend or a colleague,
- try to get a loan from a bank or
- use another source?
3. As you know, barter is sometimes practiced nowadays. Do you think there is
some difference between direct barter in pre-market economies and modern
barter?
4. Why is inflation a matter of concern to us?

Ex.20. Read the following proverbs, sayings and quotations about money.
Which do you like best? Express your viewpoint.

1. Time is money.
Benjamin Franklin, Am. statesman and philosopher, 1706-1790
2. “Money never made a man happy yet, nor will it. There is nothing in its nature
to produce happiness. The more a man has, the more he wants. Instead of its
filling a vacuum, it makes one.” Benjamin Franklin
3. “Beware of little expenses; a small leak will sink a great ship.” Benjamin
Franklin
4. “When it is a question of money, everybody is of the same religion.” Voltaire,
French writer, 1694-1778
5. Money is the root of all evil. (proverb)

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6. “Money isn’t the root of all evil. Poverty is.” Silva Hartmann, UK author and
lecturer on psychology, born 1959
7. Money spent on the brain is never spent in vain.
8. Money doesn’t grow on trees.
9. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.
10.Out of debt, out of danger.
11.“Money is like an arm or leg – use it or lose it.” Henry Ford, Am. industrialist
and founder of the Ford Motor Company
12.“Money is a universal passport to everywhere except heavens, and a universal
provider of everything except happiness; however, it helps.” Evan Esar, (1899–
1995), an American humorist who wrote Esar's Comic
Dictionary, 1943

Ex. 21. Choose the answer and test yourself. Then write two or more questions
to add to the quiz below and ask your partner to answer them.
1. Do you know how much cash you have with you at the moment?
a. I know exactly.
b. I know approximately.
c. I don’t know at all.
2. How do you spend your money?
a. I often spend more than I earn.
b. I spend less than I earn and even manage to save a little.
c. I always try to spend as much as I earn, in other words, I stick to my budget.
3. Do you normally check
a. your receipts when shopping?
b. your change?
c. prices in several shops before you buy something?
4. What would you do if your friend or colleague borrowed some money from you
for a short period of time and forgot to pay it back?
a. I would say nothing.

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 b. I would remind them politely that they owe me money.
c. I would do a kind of trick on them and ask to lend me a small amount of
money.
5. If you got a big sum of money as a present, would you
a. spend it all immediately?
b. spend some and invest the rest?
c. invest it all in a high-interest account?

TEXT B: A GLIMPSE OF THE AMERICAN, BRITISH AND EURO

CURRENCIES

Before reading the text, answer the following questions:

1. What country has the motto "In God We Trust" inscribed on their banknotes?
2. Do you know any other country, besides the USA, where the dollar is used as
legal tender?
3.The United Kingdom is a member state of the European Union. Does this
country use the euro as the official currency?

Ex.22. Scan through the text and give headlines to its main parts and
paragraphs.
As we know, most countries in the world have their own monetary system
and their own national currency. Though the United States, Canada or Australia
use dollars, these dollars are different and they circulate only in the countries for
which they are created.
If people need to sell or buy foreign currency for their local currency, they
normally do it at banks or at special exchange offices, often called simply
exchange. (1) ______________________.

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 The U.S. monetary system is based on
the dollar ($1.00). There are 100 cents
in a dollar. The most commonly used
U.S. coins are the quarter (25 cents),
dime (10 cents), nickel (5 cents), and
penny (1cent). (2) __________________.
Many Americans don't like to carry
much cash and use traveller's checks
(printed pieces of paper that you sign and use as money when you are travelling)
are a good idea for visitors. You won't have to carry large amounts of cash with
you. Moreover, traveller’s checks can be replaced if they get lost or stolen.
In the United States, only small transactions are made with currency and coins,
and the total spending done in this form is less than 1% of all transactions. For
larger transactions, (3) _______________.
Writing checks is becoming less and less important as people increasingly use
electronic transfers to make purchases.

Note: There are also other countries where the U.S. dollar is used as their official
currency. The process is known as official dollarization. For instance, in 2000
Ecuador and in 2001 El Salvador adopted this currency independently. In some
countries, the USD is accepted, though it is not officially regarded as legal tender.
(4) _______________. Many stores in Canada also accept the U.S. dollar. In
Cambodia, the USD circulates freely and is even preferred to the local currency. A
chain of examples can be long.

The official currency of the

United Kingdom is the pound
sterling, which is equal to 100

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pence. There are banknotes of the following denominations: ₤5, ₤10, ₤20, ₤50 and
₤100. English banknotes are issued by the Bank of England. (5) _______________
. The coins in circulation are halfpenny, one penny, two pence, five pence, ten
pence, fifty pence.
The pound sterling has traditionally been among the highest-valued base
currency units in the world. Today it is the fourth-most-traded currency in the
foreign exchange market after the US dollar, the euro, and the Japanese yen.

Note: As a member of the European Union, the United Kingdom has the option of
adopting the euro as its currency. However, the idea of replacing the pound with
the euro has been controversial with the British public because of its identity as a
symbol of British nationalism.

The euro (currency sign: €; banking

code: EUR) is the single currency shared by the
European Union’s Member States, which
together make up the euro area.
About 330 million EU citizens who live in
17 euro area countries now use it as their
currency and enjoy its benefits. It is also used,
either formally as legal tender or for practical purposes, by other countries such as
close neighbours and former colonies.
The euro was launched in 1999. First it was introduced as an accounting
currency for cashless payments and accounting purposes, while the old currencies
continued to be used for cash payments. Since 2002 the euro has been circulating
in physical form, as banknotes and coins.
There are €5, €10, €20, €50, €100, € 200 and €500 banknotes. Euro
banknotes increase in size with increasing denominations. The paper used for euro
banknotes is 100% pure cotton fibre, which improves their durability as well as

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imparting a distinctive feel. The design of euro banknotes includes several
characteristics suggested in co-operation with organizations representing blind
people. These characteristics aid people who are visually impaired and those who
are entirely blind.
The euro today has become the second most important international currency
after the dollar. Apart from making travelling easier within the EU, a single
currency makes economic and political sense. The framework under which the
euro is managed underpins its stability, contributes to low inflation and encourages
sound public finances. A single currency is also (6) ______________________.
Using a common currency increases price transparency, eliminates currency
exchange costs, facilitates international trade and gives the EU a more powerful
voice in the world. (7) ________________. Last but not least, the euro gives the
EU’s citizens a tangible symbol of their European identity.

Ex. 23. Read the text. Choose the best sentence or part of the sentence A-G to
fill each of the gaps 1-7. Do not use any letter more than once.
A. Exchange rates for various currencies are determined by numerous factors and,
they change every day.
B. a logical complement to the single market and contributes to making it more
efficient
C. people use their checking account balances, either writing checks or spending
these deposits with debit cards or automatic payments.
D. The first sterling notes were issued by the Bank soon after its foundation in
1694.
E. They can be used in almost any coin-operated machine: clothes washers and
dryers, pay phones, and vending machines dispensing food, drinks, stamps, tickets,
newspapers, etc.
F. The size and strength of the euro area also better protect it from external
economic shocks, such as unexpected oil price rises or turbulence in the currency
markets.

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G. In Mexico, particularly, on the territory of major tourist zones, it is accepted as
if it were a second legal currency.

Ex.24. Read the text again. Decide whether these statements are true or false.
Correct the false statements.
1. The United States, Canada and Australia have the single currency, which is the
dollar.
2. There are other countries where the US dollar is used as their official currency
and legal tender. This process is known as official dollarisation.
3. The motto “In God We Trust” is inscribed on the Australian, Canadian and US
dollars.
4. Traveller's cheques are particularly good as money for those who are travelling.
5. The pound sterling is the second-most -traded currency in the foreign exchange
market after the US dollar.
6. The euro is not the currency for all EU Member States.
7. The design of euro banknotes helps people who are visually impaired.
8. A member of the European Union, the United Kingdom has adopted the euro as
its currency.
9. The introduction of the euro in 1999 was a major step in the European
integration.
10.The euro today has become the first most important international currency.

Ex. 25. Answer the following questions. Refer to the text if needed.
1. Why does a single currency make economic and political sense?
2. What does the euro as a common currency give to the European Union?
3. Have all the European Union’s member states adopted the euro?
4. When were euro banknotes and coins introduced?
5. Where do people normally buy or sell foreign currency if they need it?

Ex. 26. Say what you know about the monetary system in GB and the USA.

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Now check your answers to the questions given before Text B.

TEXT C: A BARTER WAY OF DOING BUSINESS

Before reading
Can you anticipate what arguments the author will use in favour of a barter way of
doing business nowadays?

Reading
The article you are going to read is written by Charlotte Baxter, a subeditor of The
Guardian. The author brings up for discussion a project of a barter way of doing
business.

(1) Exchanging goods and services without cash is becoming a way of life in
parts of Greece. But does it work on a smaller scale?

Here are some baby clothes ... can you fix my washing machine?
(2) Bartering is back. Well, of course the direct exchange of goods and
services championed by Aristotle never went away, but in these straitened times,
old practices are being reinvigorated using modern tools.
(3) As the main form of exchange, it's a bit of a palaver. Imagine going to the
market looking for a sack of grain, you have to exchange your two chickens for a
small pig, swap that for a nice shrubbery and take it to a local grain farmer who

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just happens to be doing up his garden. Currency was always going to look more
appealing.
(4) But barter still has its place alongside the mainstream, particularly in the
midst of an economic crisis. A shortage of cash or an unstable currency can drive
alternative local economies – barter schemes are becoming a way of life in parts of
Greece and time banks, in which people exchange units of their own time instead
of money, have exploded in popularity with the unemployed in parts of Spain.
(5) According to the International Reciprocal Trade Association (IRTA),
governments such as China, France and Ireland are considering launching state-
sponsored barter schemes. Bartercard, a bartering organisation for small and
medium enterprises, has more than 35,000 members and many companies have
exchange mechanisms in place. The IRTA says that 30% of business worldwide is
done on a barter basis – Mercedes Benz bartered buses for bananas in a deal worth
$65m, and Pepsico had a long-running Russian deal in which it swapped cola for
Stolichnaya vodka.
(6) But does it work on a smaller scale? Say, I need to find someone to fix my
washing machine. LETs schemes, which focus on the exchange of labour, always
seemed like a useful sideline to the formal monetary system – but after 30 years of
service they are in decline. There's a limit to what a city-dweller working in the
"knowledge economy" (in which you use your head, not your hands) can offer
their local plumber, and these community schemes work on the basis of credits that
people often find difficult to use. As a subeditor, I could proof-read your novel,
perhaps, or check the punctuation on your advertising hoarding. It's not in quite the
same league as an electrician's ability to prevent your untimely death by toaster.
(7) And what about using all those baby clothes in the loft? Several websites
facilitate exchanges - Craigslist, U-Exchange and Gumtree have thriving barter
markets. One new site, One Fair Market, focuses solely on direct trade. Swap
oranges for shoes, it suggests, perhaps rather optimistically. The site is still in its
infancy, but it's a good example of the way the internet is offering international
reach to local exchanges, reinvigorating the concept in the process.

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 (8) Most modern barter systems involve some form of currency, or credit,
substituted for money, avoiding the main problem with direct exchange – finding
someone with grain who wants chickens. But what U-Exchange calls "reciprocal
barter" (direct exchange), can offer better value for local schemes as you are
directly swapping goods of far higher worth to each individual – once the goods
are pooled, their value declines relatively. Kyle Macdonald famously turned a
paperclip into a house by trading up, but as one barter fanatic points out, trading up
in pure monetary terms isn't really the point – it's to acquire something that has
more value to you personally than whatever you're selling.
(9) This means, advocates suggest, that you always do better than if you'd just
sold it for cash. And then there's the personal touch, the idea that you're cutting out
big business to exchange directly with your fellow man in an ancient ritual that
helps you feel closer to your community.
(10) Some might advocate getting rid of money altogether but I think the cash
genie might prove a little too vast – I'll settle for offering all my old baby gear to
someone … Any new parent plumbers out there?

Guardian.co.uk, 4 January 2013

After reading

Task 1. Discuss what Charlotte Baxter meant saying that “bartering is back again.” (para.
1)
Task 2. The author of the article considers that “a shortage of cash or an unstable
currency can drive alternative local economies – barter schemes are becoming a way of
life.” (para.4) Do you share her viewpoint? If not, why?
Task 3. Divide into groups of advocates and opponents of the idea of doing
business by bartering and discuss the matter. Ask questions, agree or
disagree with your opponent, argue in favour of your position.

The following is given to you as an example.

Advocates (supporters) Opponents
In the midst of economic crisis, bartering The project seems strange and vulnerable.

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enables people to, at least economically, Wouldn’t barter lead to less tax being paid?
communicate with each other, if not the rest of Can the tax be calculated and paid without
the world, which is better than the stagnation using £ or $ signs?
and wasted capacity of no means of economic
communication at all.
Bartering is, in my opinion, a healthy way to
recycle, reuse and get in touch with your
community, and that is why I decided to start
the OneFairMarket.com project.

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
On the phone

Look at the following pictures. What do you think symbolizes Britishness?

Is there anything more British than red telephone boxes? Like giant red soldiers, they have been
a landmark for a lifetime.

Read the words and expressions in the box below. Can you add anything else to this list?

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telephone box (Am.- tel. booth), telephone directory, phone card, (tele)phone number, answering
machine/answer phone, mobile phone (Am. cellphone), telephone handset, videophone;
to telephone /phone/call/ring somebody, dial a phone number, answer/get the phone, be wanted
on the phone, talk on the phone, hang up

Ex.1. Read the telephone numbers.

097 577 4261, 067 732 0455, 863 451 2779, 340 366 7875, 831 6745, 561 5775

Say numbers separately. Make a pause between groups. Say oh for 0 if you are in the UK and
zero in the USA. Say double seven for 77, double five for 55, etc.
You write You say
037 801 6233 oh-three- seven eight-oh-one six-two- double three

Ex.2. Work in pairs. One student asks the caller for his telephone number and area code,
the other student responds.
Can I take your number, please? – Sure. It’s _______________.
What is the code for Ukraine/Great Britain/the USA? – It’s ______.
The code for Kyiv is 044, right? - Yes, it is.

Ex.3. In pairs, read the mini-dialogue. Then make up your own telephone talk and role-
play it.
Inquiring about the telephone number
Operator: Information.* Can I help you?
Mr. Dodge Could you please give the telephone number of the sales
department at ABC Electronics?
Operator Just a moment, sir. The number is 357 34 52.
Mr. Dodge Three-five-seven three-four fifty-two. Is it right?
Operator: That’s right.
Mr. Dodge Thank you very much.

* In business, the telephone is answered by giving the name of the firm.

Ex.4. Study the structure of a business telephone talk. As a rule, phone communication
includes the following:

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 Steps taken by the person who Caller’s steps
answers the telephone
Phone rings. The switchboard operator or He greets the switchboard operator;
receptionist asks the operator to connect him
1. identifies the company and greets to the person he needs;
the caller; identifies himself;
2. asks for the caller’s identification explains the reason for his call and,
and the reason for the call; if necessary, leaves a message.
3. offers to take a message if
necessary.

If the person who was called answers the If the person needed answers the telephone
telephone, he identifies himself, greets the himself, the caller greets him,
caller and then discusses the matter. introduces himself, explains the reason for the
call, states the problem and discusses the matter.

At the end of the talk, he summarises The caller summarises what they’ve discussed,
what they’ve discussed, says polite formulae and
says polite formulae, says good-bye.
says good- bye

Ex.5. Put the following extracts of telephone calls into the correct order.
- Just a moment, Mr. Berston, I’ll put you through.
- Oh, good morning. Could I speak to Mr. Larson, please?
- My name is Paul Berston. I’m from Plant Installation Limited.
- Yes. Who’s calling, please?
- ABC Electronics. Good morning. Can I help you?

- He’s got it, but just in case, it’s 097 253 466.
- Yes, could you ask him to call me back?
- Mr. Dorsan here. Could I speak to Mr. Shelton, please?
- Yes, of course. Could I have your number?
- I’m afraid he’s out at the moment. Can I take a message?

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 Ex.6. Look at the language used in telephone communication. It is not always the same as
when we are face to face with a person. Compare:
Face to face On the telephone
What’s your name? Could I have your name, please?
- I’m John Brown. - This is John Brown.
Are you Mr. Brown? - Yes, I am. Is this Mr.Brown? - Speaking.
Could you wait a moment? Hold the line, please. / Hold on a minute.

Now read the following and choose the phrases you think appropriate and correct for
telephone conversation. Sometimes two variants are possible.
1. When you want to contact somebody, you can say:
a. Let me talk to Mr. Croft.
b. Can/Could I speak to Mr. Croft, please?

2. When you want to ask who is calling you, you can say:
a. Who are you?
b. Who’s calling/speaking, please?
c. Can/May I ask who’s calling, please?

3. If you answer the phone and offer your help, you can say:
a. May/Can I help you?
b. What do you want?

4. When you ask someone on the phone to wait, you can say:
a. One moment, please.
b. Hello, wait.
c. Hold on a moment, please.

Ex.7. Choose the correct response.

a) Tracy Brighton speaking.

1. Who’s calling, please? b) I’m Tracy Brighton.
c) Oh, this is Tracy Brighton.

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 2. Can I take a message? a) Please tell him to call me back.
(Would you like to leave a c) Yes, could you ask him to call me

\ message?) back, please?

3. The reason I’m calling a) Really? That surprises me./ I’m

you is we're having sorry to hear that.
problems. b) I don’t believe it.
c) I don’t mind.

4. Could you manage a) No, I can’t.

Monday? (Could we meet on b) No.
Monday, say, at 10 o’clock?) c) I’m afraid I can’t. Could we fix
another time?

a) I’m afraid that’s out of the

5. So that’s fixed – Tuesday question.
at 10.30. b) Good. See you on Tuesday.
c) Bye.

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 6. Sorry, Sophie. I’ve got to
go to a meeting now.
a) That’s all then.
c) Oh, that’s OK. I’ll be in touch
soon. Bye.
d) OK. Talk to you soon, no doubt.
Bye.

Ex. 8. Identify and correct the mistakes in the sentences and substitute those which are not
appropriate for a telephone conversation.
1. Give me James, please.
2. The line is occupied.
3. Please can you wait on the line?
4. I’m frightened Mr. Ellington isn’t here at the moment.
5. Do you want me to tell him something?
6. Can I give a message, please?
7. Could you ask him to call to me back?
8. Could you just tell to her that I called?
9. One moment, please. I’ll just put through you to one of his colleagues.
10. I’m Katy Darley speaking.

Ex. 9. Fill in the missing remarks. Refer to the box of useful language if necessary.
a)
- Rockline Safety Equipment. Good morning. Can I help you?
- _________________________________________
- Yes. Who’s calling, please?
b)
- _________________________________________
- Oh good morning. Can I speak to Mr. Benson, please?
- _________________________________________
- This is Mathew Brown, from GST Systems.
- Right, Mr.Brown. I’ll ________________________
c)
- Sorry, Madam. Mr. Roberts is not available.
- _________________________________________
- No, thank you, I’ll call back later.

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 d)
- Just a minute. I’ll see if he is in. Sorry, he is in the middle of a meeting now. Could he
call you back?
- _________________________________________
e)
- I’m sorry. I can’t hear what you’re saying. Could you speak up, please?
- _________________________________________
f)
- Sorry, Charles. I’ve got to go and see someone.
- OK. ____________________________________
g)
- Nice talking to you. See you on Friday.
- Thanks for ________________________________
h)
- I’m afraid you’ve got the wrong number.
- _________________________________________
- That’s all right.

Ex.10. Complete this telephone conversation and then role-play it.

Secretary: Good morning, Somerset Industries.
Mr. Gross: Hello. _______________________________________.
Secretary: I’m sorry. She’s not in. Would you like to leave a message?
Mr. Gross Yes, ____________. This is _______________________.
Secretary: Is that C-R-O-S-S?
Mr. Gross: No, it’s ________________________________________.
Secretary: All right.
Mr. Gross: Please tell her the meeting __________________________.
Secretary: I see. Wednesday at _______________________________.
Mr. Gross: Right. And would you ask her _______________________.
Secretary: 356 40 31. Yes, Mr. Gross. I’ll give Ms Jones the message.
Mr. Gross: _______________________________________________.
Secretary: Goodbye.

Ex.11. Practice making telephone calls. Refer to the box of useful language.
Situation 1

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Student A: You are a client of the Central Bank PLC and you have a problem with your account.
Introduce yourself. Say you want to speak to the manager and why. Don’t leave a message. Say
you’ll call back later.

Student B: You are the receptionist at the bank. Answer the phone. Apologise to the caller and
say that the manager’s line is engaged. Offer him/her to leave a message. Say goodbye.

Situation 2
Student A: You are the switchboard operator at Columbia Sportswear. Ask who is calling and
say that Mrs. Palmer is not in. Take a message if necessary.

Student B: You want to speak to Mrs. Palmer in the Sales Department of Columbia Sportswear.
If she is not available, leave a message to say that you will call again at 2 p.m.

Situation 3
You took delivery of ten telephone handsets. You have been trying them out and have found that
two of them are faulty: one has a cracked receiver; the other always dials wrong numbers. Phone
your supplier and complain. You want a replacement or refund. Find out how soon they can let
you have the replacements.

Situation 4
A buyer from the Romanian Construction Machinery firm calls the Production Manager of the
British engineering company JCB about a recent order. JCB have sent them the wrong spare
parts.

Useful Language Box

Receiving a call Making a call

Answering the phone and identifying Identifying yourself

289
yourself
Global Electronics. Good morning. Can I help
you? ( a typical switchboard response)
Good morning, JCB. How can I help you?
Hello, Marta Morris (speaking).
Asking for identification and further
information
Who’s calling / speaking, please?
Could you give me your name, please?
Which company are you calling from?
Where did you say you’re calling from?
Right, I’ll put you through.
Making excuses
I’m afraid … is not available at the moment.
……………. is out.
…………… is in the middle of a meeting.
………….. is on the other line at present.
I’m sorry but he is off sick today.
………….....he is with a client.
Sorry, his line is engaged. (AmE. busy)
Taking a message
Would you like to leave a message?
Can I take a message?
Is there any message?
Can I get him to call you back?
I’ll give him / her the message.
Closing the call
Thank you for calling.
Goodbye.
Hello, this* is Mark Smith (speaking).
Good morning. Cindy Flown here.
*Note the difference between this (the
speaker) and that (the hearer). This is Jane H.
Is that V.?
Asking for a connection
Could I speak to Mr/Mrs/Ms Bright, please?
Can I speak to Denis Dekker, please?
Could I have the sales department, please?
I’d like to speak to someone about deliveries,
please.
Could you put me through to Martha Carter,
please?
Hello, is that Mr. Marcini?
Giving more information
It’s about …/ in connection with …
I’m calling to tell you/confirm that/enquire
about ….
The reason I’m calling is ...
(there’s a piece missing.)
He/she left me a message to call him/her.
Leaving a message
answering: Yes, please. Tell him/her …
Could you tell him/her that I called? Could you
ask him to call me back?
Thanking and closing the call
Thanks for your help.
Thanks a lot.
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 Bye.

Other phrases you can hear or say on the phone

Hold on, please. Hold the line, please.
Sorry/I’m sorry, I didn’t catch your name /that.
Could you repeat that, please?
Could I just read that back to you?
It’s a bad line. I’ll call you back.
Could you speak a bit louder, please? It’s a bad line.
I’m afraid you’ve got the wrong number.
I’m sorry. I’ve got the wrong number.
Sorry to have troubled/bothered you. - That’s quite all right.

Ex.12. Fill in the forms with the information about who called your boss or colleague while
they were out.

GRAMMAR

DETERMINERS

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 Ex.1. The first determiner in the following text is underlined. Find more
determiners.
The main advantage of living in a city is that there are so many things to do in your
free time. There are cinemas, theatres, sports centres and stadiums. But most
people who prefer the country say that it is much more relaxing than the city. They
say that they do not worry about any crime, and that they enjoy breathing clean air
every day. I am sure that all these advantages are true, but I think I would get bored
after only a few days. I hate both the traffic noise and air pollution of the city, but I
can tolerate with it if it means I can spend all day shopping, then go to the cinema
and a night club in the evening. What is there to do in the country? Going for long
walks in the fields, surrounded by trees and cows is not my idea of a good time!

How many have you found? Which of them are the most frequent?

Ex.2. Choose the correct form of the pronouns in brackets.

1. (Their, theirs) knowledge of the subject is not much better than (our,
ours).
2. I'm afraid they will follow (her, hers) advice not (your, yours).
3. This is (your, yours) note-book. But where is (my, mine)?
4. Mind (yours, your) own business and I'll mind (my, mine).
5. Mr Smith gave his wife a leather bag for (her, hers) birthday.
6. After all, this is (mine, my) home just as much as (your, yours).
7. My sister likes so much sugar in (her, hers) tea, but I like little in (my, mine).

Ex.3. Fill in the blanks with missing possessives, either adjectives or pronouns
(my-mine, your-yours, etc).
1. This doesn't look like ________ suitcase, it must be ________ .
2. Tell him not to forget ________ ticket, she mustn't forget ________ either.
3. Tell me, isn't that_________ mother over there?

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4. I see that he has lost ________ pen, perhaps you can lend him ________ .
5. Jane has come from Manchester to see me, ________ family and ________
school friends.
6. Sorry, it’s ________ task, and I’m not going to help you.
7. Why do you want to use ________ car? Where is ________ ?
8. Michael and me can’t go to the seaside together because ________ holiday starts
two weeks after ________ .
9. I wish ________ English was as good as ________ .
10. Unfortunately, _______ team played better than ______, so we lost the game.

Ex.4. Paraphrase the following sentences according to the model.

Model:
They are our friends. → They are friends of ours.
I’ve recently seen your cousin. → I’ve recently seen that cousin of yours.

1. She is their relative.

2. That policeman is my friend.
3. We are your former students.
4. How’s your niece?
5. My work isn’t your business.
6. I met her boyfriend yesterday.
7. She is our new neighbour.
8. He was listening to her every word very attentively.
9. Is that their house? I can’t believe!
10. I’ve suggested that idea! Don’t lie that it’s your idea.

Ex.5. Complete the conversations. Use this, that, these and those.
1. Are we going out _________ evening? – I can't really. I'll be working late at the
office.

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2. I hear you've found a new job. – _________'s right. I've just been hired by a
German advertising agency.
3. What's the matter? – It's _________ shoes. They are too small and are hurting
my feet.
4. It's so boring here. – I know. Nothing ever happens in _________ place.
5. What's happened? You look so happy. – You won't believe _________ , but I've
just learnt that I’ve been enrolled on _________ courses I told you about.
6. What make of a car is _________? – I don't know. It’s too far away to say
exactly.
7. The conference is two weeks from today. – Sorry, I won't be able to participate.
I'll be away all _________ week.
8. Best Solutions Ltd. Can I help you? – Hello, _________ is Alan. Can I speak to
Fiona, please?
9. I've had _________ awful feeling since Michael blamed me for the failure. –
Did he? _________ wasn't honest of him.
10. _________ flat isn’t very comfortable, is it? – No, it isn’t. I don't think I'll
want to live here.

Ex.6. Fill in each gap with some or any.

1. Are there _________ high mountains in the Netherlands? – No, there aren’t. The
highest point is 321 metres above sea level.
2. We haven’t got _________ bread. – You should go to the shop then. We need
_________ vegetables too.
3. Were there _________ people at the conference that you knew? – There were
_________ colleagues from my previous work.
4. He is lazy. He never does _________ work.
5. She is living in _________ village in Sweden.
6. Excuse me, could you give me _________ information about trains to Berlin?
7. Would you like _________ milk with your coffee?

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8. Can you lend me _________ money for the parking machine? – Certainly. I’ve
got _________ coins. How much do you need?
9. You can exchange your money at _________ bank.
10. It is no use asking him about it. He has hardly _________ knowledge of the
subject.

Ex.7. Complete the following sentences choosing the correct variant from A,
B, C or D. There may be several variants.
1. I tried to phone Jenny but there was _________ answer.
A some B no C not any D any
2. We could not understand what was happening. _________ reason was given for
the change of plan.
A No B Any C Some D Not any
3. We need some more paint; there is _________ left.
A some B any C not any D no
4. Haven’t you taken _________ books of mine? I can’t find them.
A any B some C no D not any
5. Come _________ time you like – I’ll be the whole day in.
A not any B some C any D no
6. I read ______ wonderful novels by Rosamunde Pilcher when I was on holiday.
A some B no C not any D any
7. My husband entirely relies on me when we are travelling because he speaks
_________ foreign languages.
A not any B some C any D no
8. I’ve got three umbrellas but I can’t find _________ of them now when I need to
go out in the rain.
A some B not any C no D any
9. I’ve done _________ revision for the exam and feel more or less confident.
A any B no C not any D some
10. What noise are you speaking about? I can’t hear _________ voices.

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 A some B any C not any D no

Ex.8. Translate into English.

Багато друзів, декілька друзів, мало друзів;
багато роботи, небагато роботи, мало роботи;
декілька листів, мало можливостей, багато вправ, небагато грошей;
декілька книжок, мало студентів, багато часу, декілька уроків, багато
відряджень, небагато завдань, мало прибутку, багато проектів.

Ex.9. Make up sentences about yourself. In your answers, use many, much, a
lot/lots of, (a) little), (a) few, not any, no with some of the suggested words.
Model:
friends abroad → I’ve got few friends abroad;
money with you at the moment → I haven’t got much money with me at the
moment.

Ambitions, work to do, patience, interest in foreign languages, plans for future,
cash at the moment, relatives, books in English, problems with maths, free time,
hobbies, confidence, energy.

Ex.10. How much? Use the appropriate quantifier (many, much, a lot of, a
few, a little, etc.) in the following sentences.
1. Last week there was so _________ rain that I was not able to go out.
2. He is a man of _________ words.
3. I'm afraid I haven’t got _________ news to share with you but still there are
_________ things I would like to say.
4. Nick has very _________ knowledge of the matter. How can you trust him?
5. Do you have _________ problems with English? – Actually, I feel _________
problems with speaking but _________ problems with reading and
understanding.

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6. Don’t water those cactuses so often – they need _________ water.
7. In my first university year I missed my home very much because I had
_________ friends.
8. Don’t worry, I’ll need only _________ minutes to get ready.
9. I felt very nervous when I saw that there were _________ people in the hall to
listen to my presentation.
10. She is very stubborn and it is _________ use trying to change her mind.

Ex.11. Little or a little? Few or a few?

1. We spent only _________ money on our holiday last year.
2. It’s not the best period in his life. He has _________ problems both at work and
at home.
3. Can you lend me _________ dollars, please? I promise to pay you back
tomorrow.
4. The winter is very warm. We have had _________ snow this year.
5. I can’t give you a definite answer right away. I need _________ time to think.
6. While translating that difficult text, I had to look up _________ words in the
dictionary.
7. I think _________ more spices will make the meat taste better.
8. She never uses sugar, she only puts _________ honey in her tea.
9. I have to go to the post office because I need to send _________ letters.
10. May I give you _________ advice? Don’t rush off. Haste makes waste.

Ex.12. What is the difference? Put in most + noun or most of the + noun.
1. _________ like speaking about themselves. (people)
2. I know _________ in our street. (people)
3. _________ we just stay in and watch TV. (evenings)
4. During our holiday in France, we just wandered along Parisian streets
_________ . (evenings)
5. At the concert, _________ was performed by a quartet from Boston. (music)

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6. _________ sends me to sleep. (classical music)
7. _________ in Ukraine are sponsored by the government. (universities)
8. _________ offer a wide range of courses. (universities)
9. _________ who came to Kyiv were charmed by this beautiful city. (tourists)
10. _________ prefer to travel light. (tourists)

Ex.13. Complete the text with most (of), all (of), or none (of).
(1) ________ the world’s large cities suffer from traffic problems. (2) ________
cities were not planned to cope with so many vehicles, so the streets are narrow,
and there is not enough space for parking. A number of different ways out have
been suggested, but (3) ________ the solutions have been completely successful.
For example, many cities try to discourage the use of private cars in the centre, but
even so it is impossible to keep (4) ________ the traffic away.
As (5) ________ large shops, offices, hotels, railway stations, etc. are in the centre
of the city, there will always be a need for buses and taxis and some private cars.
An obvious answer is to move (6) ________ the hotels, offices and large stations
out of the city centre. It would be impossible to move (7) ________ these things,
but it would still make the situation better. The new areas would have plenty of
parking and public transport, so they would have (8) ________ the problems of the
old city centre.

Ex.14. All or both? Each or every? There may be more than one variant.
1. _________ the windows in the house are open.
2. _________ her parents are from Glasgow.
3. _________ room in the house was painted white.
4. I tried twice to invite Jane to the cinema, but _________ times she refused.
5. He had spent _________ his life working in a factory.
6. The calendar has a different picture for _________ month of the year.
7. When two cars crashed, _________ drivers were injured but not seriously.
8. She bought presents for _________ member of her family.

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9. I invited _________ my friends to the party.
10. Michael spends _________ his money on books on astrology.

Ex.15. Explain the difference in the use of other, another and the other.
1. I don’t like this colour. Can you show me some other shoes?
2. There must be another road that leads to the centre of the city.
3. My brother has another two years to finish his university course.
4. Jane, you’ve come at last! And where are the other students?
5. I’ll take this topic for the presentation, and you take the other one.
6. Now that Pete is working in Boston we don’t see each other very often.
7. Mary came to see me the other day. I think it was Wednesday.
8. We have business meetings every other Monday.
9. I didn't leave you. It was the other way round.
10. I like what you are suggesting. On the other hand, it will cost us much.

Ex.16. Complete the sentences using other, another and the other.
1. Only three students in our group like the new subject. _________ students say
it’s boring.
2. Some people like jazz, _________ people like pop music, still _________
people like rock.
3. We’ve made a very good team at out department. We work well with each
_________ .
4. He is waiting for us on _________ side of the street.
5. Here is only one shoe. Where is _________ one?
6. I haven’t got time to go to the fitness centre every day. I go there every
_________ day.
7. Do you know that Jane’s got married? I heard some rumours _________day.
8. I’ll finish the translation soon. Give me _________ twenty minutes and you’ll
get the translated text.

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9. I read The Financial Times more or less regularly. I don’t read any _________
British newspapers.
10. Do you like the biscuits? Take _________ one!

Ex. 17. Choose the correct variant.

1. Nick has lived in Glasgow and Dublin but he doesn’t like either/neither city.
2. I can get to Edinburg by plane or train but either/neither way is very expensive.
3. You can keep one of the photos. Either/Neither of them – whichever you like.
4. Either/neither of the examples is wrong. You cannot use any in your report.
5. They offered a couple of variants but we accepted either/neither offer because
they didn’t meet our requirements.
6. I haven’t met either/neither of the twins – how could I recognise them?
7. Luckily, neither/either passenger was hurt in the crash.
8. If you see either/neither of these men, contact the police immediately.
9. You can use either/neither method in your research. Both have proved
effective.
10. The game wasn’t exciting and either/neither team played well.

Ex.18. Join the sentences with both … and; either … or: neither nor, as in the
model.
1. John repairs cars. He repairs motorbikes. → John repairs both cars and
motorbikes.
2. I don’t know Ann. I don’t know her husband.
3. We can do it today. We can do it tomorrow.
4. My uncle collects paintings. He collects rarities.
5. His wife doesn’t speak English. She doesn’t speak German.
6. The film was funny. It was very moving.
7. She didn’t call me. She didn’t write to me.
8. You can stay with me. You can stay with Janet.
9. I can drive to the airport. I can take a taxi.

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10.We had no umbrella. We had no raincoats. So we got wet.
11.When she was a student, she played basketball. She played tennis.

Ex.19. Choose the correct variant: A, B, C or D.

1. _________ student in the group is required to take the final examination.
A Every B Either C Neither D All
2. I had to go to the post office because I had _________ letters to send.
A few B a few C little D a little
3. For breakfast, I usually drink _________ coffee or green tea.
A both B either C no D neither
4. If there’s _________ soup left, put it in the fridge, please.
A no B some C all D none
5. She’d got ___________ money at the moment but tomorrow she’ll be paid for
her project.
A many B little C much D few
6. I had never seen so _________ stars in the sky!
A much B a lot C many D lots
7. Gerald Durrell wrote a book called “My Family and _________ Animals”.
A Another B The other C Other D Others
8. Take your feet off the table. _________ legs aren’t very strong.
A Yours B Its C It’s D Your
9. Who are _________ people over there? Can anybody tell me?
A that B these C this D those
10.There is at least one window in _________ rooms in our apartment.
A most of the B each C every D most

Ex.20. Can you spot mistakes in the following sentences? Be attentive: some
sentences are correct.
1. Give me few minutes and I’ll be ready.
2. Sorry, I can’t come to your party because I’m meeting a friend of me tonight.

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3. I was too tired to do any work.
4. John’s got a pain in his stomach. I’m taking him to the doctor.
5. I didn’t say nothing. I just left.
6. Garry is very busy with his job. He has little time for anything else.
7. Did it cost much to rent a cottage for summer?
8. I can neither accept nor reject your proposal yet. I need little time to consider it.
9. Not many people live in the countryside. Most of people live in large cities and
towns.
10. Jane said she would be in touch. But she neither phoned nor wrote to me.
11. How often do you drive your car? – Each day.
12. These cakes are so delicious! Could I have other one?
13. She is unhappy because she doesn’t have some friends.
14. His speech was so confusing. We understood no of his arguments.
15. For this job you must speak both English or German fluently.

Ex. 21. Translate into English.

1. Тут так багато людей. Нам потрібен ще один стілець.
2. Ніхто з нас не знав, що трапилося.
3. Вибач, я не можу тобі допомогти. У мене немає часу.
4. У мене є декілька книжок з цієї проблеми. Можу дати тобі будь-яку.
5. Більшість студентів у нашій групі здали свої курсові роботи. Решта
здадуть роботи завтра.
6. Обидві мої сестри закінчили економічний університет, але жодна з них
поки що не працює.
7. Мені не сподобався цей фільм. Взагалі-то мені не подобається жоден
фільм цього режисера.
8. На днях я зустріла Ліз. Ні я, ні вона не знали про подію.
9. Ми всі прийшли о 8 ранку, і кожний приніс квіти.
10. Пан Міллер прийде за декілька хвилин. У Вас є небагато часу, щоб
зачекати?

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11. В екзаменаційному білеті було багато питань, і я встиг відповісти лише на
декілька.
12. Допоможіть один одному в цьому проекті. Вам багато потрібно зробити,
щоб вчасно його закінчити.
13. Хочеш чаю? Я тільки-но заварила свіжий (to make/brew fresh tea).

14. Дзвоніть мені у будь-який час. Я буду вдома чи за містом, але зможу

відповісти на всі ваші запитання.

NUMERALS

Ex.1. Write the numbers and practise saying them.

1. seven hundred and fifty (BrE) = seven hundred fifty (AmE)
2. nine hundred and ninety-nine
3. one thousand four hundred and forty six
4. nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine
5. seven hundred and fifty thousand
6. two hundred and sixty thousand, one hundred and twenty-seven
7. ten thousand and one
8. seven and a half million
9. one million, two hundred and twenty-five thousand
10. three hundred and three million
11. three point nine per cent
12. twelve point five per cent

Ex.2. Write the figures in words, then practise saying them.

1. 100; 101; 175; 210; 777
2. 1,000; 1,040; 1,100; 2,400
3. 100,000; 260,127; 500,000; 999, 900
4. 1,000,000; 1,225,375; 2,666,300; 4,385,567

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Ex.3. Read aloud the following information about the total area of some
countries.
1. With the third-largest population in the world after China and India, the USA is
the fourth largest country in the world. The total area of the country is
9,629,091square kilometres.
2. In comparison, the total area of the United Kingdom is 242,900 square
kilometers.
3. The total area of the largest country in the world, Russia, is 17,098,242 square
kilometres.
4. The world’s second largest country, Canada occupies the whole of the northern
part of the North American Continent. The total area of Canada is 9,984,670 sq.
km.

Do you know the total area of your country?

Ex.4. How would you say these sums of money in English?

$1 or $1.00 – one dollar; $25.01 – twenty-five dollars and one cent

1. $8.75; $34.10; $432; $5,642; $3,350.55; $26,836,000;

2. €10.50; €1,280; €150, 263; €1,786,000;
3. ₤150.99; ₤255,000; ₤805,600; ₤1,490,000

Ex. 5. Write these numbers in a decimal form.

1. three hundred twenty-one point seven - 321.7

2. one hundred twenty seven point five
3. eight hundred seventy-three point four
4. twenty-five point nine eight seven
5. nought point five four eight
6. nought point five five

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7. nought point oh one
8. nought point oh oh one

Ex.6. Compare and read the following numbers out.

1. 3,141 and 3.141
2. 15.001 and 15,001
3. 26.012 and 26,012
4. 1.125 and 1,125
5. 7,010 and 7.010
6. 2.012; 2,212; the year 2012
7. 1.917; 1,917; the year 1917
8. 21.019 and 21,019

Ex.7. Read the sentences aloud.

1. The most common item of lost property on London transport is the umbrella.
23,250 umbrellas were handed in to London transport lost property offices last
year.
2. The country with the most telephones in the world is Monaco. It has 733
telephones per 1 000 population.
3. The smallest country in the world is the Vatican City with an area of 1.14
square kilometres and a population of 826.
4. We opened our new office on 5 April, 2000.
5. Visits to our website have increased to 82,000 daily. We now have over
400,000 regular users.
6. Sales increased from €5m to €5.8m. And we expect to increase our sales target
by at least 50% and become the leading on-line designer clothing company.
7. We can usually offer a discount of 1/3 off the list price.
8. $1,000,000? But that’s over €1,090,000!
9. For more information, call free phone 0800 521 382.
10.You can also fax on 1569 242 677.

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11.Call me at the office. You can usually catch me there after 8.30.
12.It takes me 3/4 of an hour to walk to the office.
13.14% of land is privately owned, which is a small percentage.
14.It’s either 0.431 or 4.031, I can’t remember.
15.No, it’s 14,236, not 14.236!

Ex.8. A hundred, one hundred, or hundreds of?

Complete the sentences, using the words in brackets in the correct form. The
first two sentences have been done for you.
1. I’ve told you __________ times. (hundred) - I’ve told you a hundred times.
(which means ‘many times’)
2. I still have ______things to do. (thousand) – I still have a thousand things to do.
3. __________ refugees are flooding into the neighbouring country. (thousand)
4. We’re prepared to sell the item for a sum of __________ pounds. (hundred)
5. He wants __________ dollars for his car. (thousand)
6. I’ve heard that excuse __________ times. (million)
7. There were only half __________ people at the party. (dozen)
8. We received __________ of applications for the job. (hundred)
9. Wow! You look like __________ dollars tonight! (million)
10.Los Angeles has a population of over three __________ . (million)

Ex.9. Use the numbers as adjectives. Be attentive with all the necessary
changes.
1. forty five minutes, a lesson – a forty-five-minute lesson
2. two hours, a trip – a two-hour trip
3. twenty minutes, a walk – _________________________
4. seventy-five dollars, a price cut – ___________________
5. twelve weeks, a semester – ________________________
6. twenty degrees, a fall in temperature – _______________
7. twenty thousand pounds, a car – ____________________

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8. forty thousands, a loan – __________________________
9. fifteen percent, a discount – ________________________
10. ten tons, a truck – ______________________________

Ex.10. Samantha Baretti has just returned to the office after her marketing
trip to Malaysia. She turns on the answer phone and hears the following
messages. Complete her notes in a numerical form.
Marketing meeting scheduled for the tenth of April at two o’clock in room three.
Expected to last two hours. Please confirm you can attend by phoning extension
sixty-five, double six.
Marketing meeting on ______ at ______. in ______ . Call ext. ______ .

New shelving for your office to be delivered on the eleventh of March after ten
o’clock. Dimensions are four point five metres wide, two point eight metres in
length and forty centimetres deep. Please ring two six two seven three one if this
time is not convenient.
Delivery on ______ after ______ . Dimensions: ______ . Ring ______ .

Don’t understand your marketing expenses. Your receipts are for one hundred and
fifty pounds, five hundred euros, one thousand fifty Indonesian rupiahs, and seven
thousand four hundred and sixty Malaysian ringgits. This does not convert to eight
hundred sixteen pounds. Please ring accounts.
Marketing receipts: _____________________________________________

Ex.11. List your three biggest monthly expenses. Say how much you spend
each month on rent, food, shopping, transportation, and/or entertainment.

Ex.12. Ask each member of your mini-group about their expenses. Compare
group averages. You can start your questions in the following way:

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A: Susan, how much do you spend on __________ (telephone, electricity, room
payment, food, entertainment)?
B: Oh, I spend about __________ . What about you?
C: Nothing, I live with my parents but every month I spend _______ on _______.

Ex.13. Someone is querying some invoices. Give them the information using
the data below.
e.g. Invoice number fifteen, dated December the seventeenth two thousand and
eleven, is for five hundred and twenty six pounds, seventeen pence.
Invoice No. Date Amount
015 December 17th 2012 ₤526.17
107 12th January 2013 ₤214.95
119 Aug. 30th 2012 $1,387.86
286 16.11.12 €2,545
257 21st Feb.2012 €10,275

Ex.14. Make a brief presentation of the company.

Nike, Inc.
(founded in 1964 as Blue Ribbon Sports, officially became Nike, Inc. in 1978)
Main business Head office Revenue Net income Number of
activities employees
Manufacture of Washington $19,2 billion $1,49 bln 30,200
sportswear and County, (Fiscal Year) (FY 2009) worldwide
sports Oregon, US 2009)
equipment

Ex.15. Find the required information on the economy of the United Kingdom.
Then, using the data, make a brief report.
GNP:
Labour force:

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Unemployment rate:
Budget:
Industries:
Agriculture:
Exports:
Imports:
External debt:

Ex.16. Correct the mistakes if there are any.

1. There were hundreds of people in the square.
2. Kenya is still paying off a multimillion-dollars loan to the IMF.
3. Two third of the field was under water.
4. Six hundred thousands people were left homeless after the earthquake.
5. Richard is on the top floor, in room eight hundred and two.
6. May I take your telephone number? – Certainly. It’s two hundred and forty-
five, sixty-five, double seven.
7. We expect a five and a half per cent wage increase.
8. This watch normally retails at sixty hundred pounds, but I got it for only three
hundreds fifty-five.
9. They are firing almost quarter of the workforce.
10. The phone rang at half past four o’clock in the morning.
11. In the early thirty of the last century this hotel was very popular with tourists.
12. The city spent one million and two hundreds dollars for snow removal last
year.
13. The company’s profits rose by eleven per cents in the first quarter of the year.
14. A centimeter is about two-fives of an inch, or nought point three nine four
inches to be exact.
15. Two per cents of the British population owned ninety per cent of the country’s
wealth in nineteen and ninety-two.

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Ex.17. Translate the following word combinations into English.
А. 20 кілограмів, 350 грамів, півтори тонни, 3/5тонни;
33 сантиметри, 2 ½ дюйма, сто метрів, 1/4 кілометра, 60 кілометрів;
500 доларів, 501фунт, 47 процентів, 2,65 процентів, 0,65 проценту;
B. півгодини, півкілограма, півкілометра, півмільйона євро;
півтори години, півтора століття, півтори тонни, півтора метра;
десяток ящиків - десятки ящиків, дюжина яєць – дюжини червоних троянд,
сто років – сотні туристів, тисяча вибачень – тисячі туристів;
C. 60 км за годину, 2 дні на тиждень, 4 рази на рік, 500 доларів на тиждень, 5
тонн вугілля за місяць;
D. двогодинна подорож, десятивідсоткова знижка, п'ятитонна вантажівка,
тримільйонний доларовый контракт/ контракт на три мільйони доларів

Ex.18. Translate into English. Write the numbers in words.

1. Сотні людей бажають знати іноземні мови.
2. 2\3 студентів одержали на екзамені відмінні оцінки.
3. Кімната 303 на третьому поверсі.
4. Тімоті не вистачило грошей на машину, і він позичив 1,300 у свого
дядька.
5. Я не зрозумів. 2.933 або 2,943?
6. Вони спромоглися продати будинок за €200,000.
7. На цій світлині центр нашого міста, як він виглядав на початку двадцятих
років минулого століття.
8. У 1900 році тільки 15% населення США мешкало у великих містах, у 1970
– 73,5%.
9. У неділю температура в Нью-Йорку впала до -10°С.
10.Не могли б Ви підказати мені номер його телефону? – Безумовно, 3572
637 622.

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11.Мій літак відправляється о 15.30. – Тоді нам краще відправитись в
аеропорт о 12.30 або навіть раніше. Ми доїдемо туди приблизно за
півгодини.
12.“Я заплачу”, - сказала Еліс і витягла 20 фунтову купюру.
13.Учора французький уряд ухвалив проект розвитку східної частини
Парижа на суму €701,266,000.
14.Це утворить додатково 22,000 робочих місць до 2015 року.
15.Порівняно з минулим роком, продажі “The Financial Times” цього місяця
збільшилися на 12,4%.

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 Unit 8. TAXES

TEXT A: Taxes
TEXT B: Taxation in the UK
TEXT C: Taxes are good
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: In company
GRAMMAR: Pronouns. Adjectives. Adverbs. Comparison

People who complain about taxes can be divided into two classes:
men and women.
Author unknown

LEAD-IN
1. What are the main goods and services that any government provides to its
citizens? If these things were owned by private companies, we would be
charged a fee for using them. What could happen if someone could not afford
fire protection, or trash collection, or national defence?
2. Where do governments get the money to pay for all these goods and services?
3. Make a list of different types of taxes you can think of. If you do not know their
actual names, try to describe what they are paid for.
4. What do you think a “good tax” may mean?

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 PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills
Ex.1. Read the words with the following letter combinations.
are [ɛə] welfare, care, dare, spare, rare, compare

ire [ɑiə] retire, require, fire, acquire, tire, expire

air [ɛə] fair, stair, pair, hair, air, lair

aw [ɔ:] law, lawn, awe, awful, awkward, paw

Ex.2. Read the following words with the letter g in different positions.
[g] degree, regulation, government, slogan, great, regardless
[dʒ] energy, engineering, generate, average, suggest, percentage, marginal
[ŋ] among, nothing, seeing, paying

Ex.3. Read the words in the groups bellow. Pay attention to the word stress.
a) words with the stress on the first syllable:
certain, operate, elderly, benefit, common, public, vary, burden, taxable, influence,
social, fiscal, modify, pattern, purpose, legal, levy, advocate, generate, governance,
equity, equitable, argue, loophole, standard, manner, principle, measure, recognise,
average, marginal, total;
b) words with the stress on the second syllable:
except, society, accept, include, utilities, activity, distribute, security, performance,
transaction, transfer (v), discourage, taxation, degree, complain, criteria, efficient,
intelligible, allow, withhold, afford, discomfort, impose, proportional, progressive,
regressive, percentage;
c) polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:
economic, engineering, infrastructure, education, unemployment, regulation,
externalities, representation, accountability.

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Ex.4. Practice reading the following words.
Except, accept, throughout, vary, redistribute, social, society, disabled, transaction,
purpose, consequential, representation, externalities, accountability, governance,
government, criterion, criteria, equitable, argue, simplicity, intelligible, efficiency,
withhold, measure, assume, percentage, average.

B. Word formation
Ex.5. Form verbs adding prefix re- as in the model. Explain what new
meaning the prefix adds to the words.
Model: write → rewrite
Distribute, price, do, apply, appoint, organise, appraise, make, build, construct,
count, examine.

Ex.6. Identify each of the following words as a noun-thing, a noun-person, an

adjective, or an adverb. Translate the words into Ukrainian.
Taxation, physical, governance, accountability, recognise, theoretic, dangerous,
manageable, protection, difference, homeless, really, idealist, excellence, possible,
leadership, society, shorten, generate, specify, taxpayer, hopeful.

Ex.7. Choose the variant, A, B, or C, that correctly completes each sentence.

1. The __________ of the news was clear for everybody.
A importance B important C importantly
2. The company was unable to __________ enough profit to stay in business.
A generator B generate C generation
3. As your medical problem is so serious, you should see a __________ .
A specialize B special C specialist
4. The manager was able to __________ his team to perform better.
A motivate B motivator C motivation
5. It is __________ that they live so close to the university.
A conveniently B convenience C convenient

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6. He gave an __________ incorrect answer to the question.
A obvious B obviously C obviate
7. It was necessary for the speaker to __________ her message.
A clarify B clarity C clarification
8. He was not concerned about the __________ of his actions.
A careless B carelessness C carelessly
9. The children ran __________ to the entrance of the park.
A excitedly B excited C excitement
10. I think this book is one of the most __________ novels of recent years.
A impression B impressionist C impressive

TEXT A: TAXES

Active Vocabulary
Key terms: tax, taxation, legal tender, welfare, unemployment benefits, tax rate,
fiscal policy, transaction, externalities, flat tax, tax loophole, marginal.
Other words and expressions: to accept, to recognise, to provide, to carry out
functions, protection, enforcement, to fund, to vary, to distribute, to influence, to
support, to advocate, to imply, accountability, governance, to complain, to tend,
certain, criterion/criteria, efficient, impartial, fair, to argue, dispute, amount, to
allow, intelligible, to gain, to withhold, to benefit, to measure, average.
Linking words and phrases: on behalf of, in addition (to), while, yet, in order (for
smth /smb) to do smth, so that, both ... and, (al)though, first(ly)/second(ly),
according to, regardless of smth.

Benjamin Franklin once wrote, “In this world nothing can be said to be
certain except death and taxes”. Yet, we as a society have come to accept the
inevitability of taxes. Everyone dislikes them, but we recognize their need.

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 Taxes are any payment on behalf of the individual to the government. Taxes
are used to pay for all government services. Without taxes, the government would
have no money to operate.
Purposes of Taxation
Funds provided by taxation have been used by governments throughout
history to carry out many functions. Some of these include the enforcement of law
and public order, protection of property, economic infrastructure (roads, legal
tender, enforcement of contracts, etc.), public works, social engineering, and the
operation of government itself. Governments also use taxes to fund welfare and
public services. These services can include education systems, health care systems,
pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, and public transportation.
Energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities.
Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates. This is done
to distribute the tax burden among individuals or classes of the population involved
in taxable activities, such as business, or to redistribute resources between
individuals or classes in the population. Modern social security systems are
intended to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are
still working. In addition, taxes are applied to influence the macroeconomic
performance of the economy (the government's strategy for doing this is called its
fiscal policy), or to modify patterns of consumption or employment within an
economy by making some classes of transaction more or less attractive.
Four R’s
Taxation has four main purposes or effects: Revenue, Redistribution,
Repricing, and Representation.
The main purpose is revenue: taxes raise money to spend on armies, roads,
schools and hospitals, and on more indirect government functions like market
regulation or legal systems. This is the most widely known function.
The second purpose is redistribution. Normally, this means transferring
wealth from the richer sections of society to poorer sections.

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 The third purpose of taxation is repricing. Taxes are levied to deal with
externalities: tobacco is taxed, for example, to discourage smoking, and many
people advocate such policies as implementing a carbon tax.
The fourth, consequential effect of taxation in its historical setting has been
representation. The American revolutionary slogan "no taxation without
representation" implied this: rulers tax citizens, and citizens demand accountability
from their rulers as the other part of this bargain. Several studies have shown that
direct taxation (such as the income tax) generates the greatest degree of
accountability and better governance, while indirect taxation tends to have smaller
effects.
What Makes a "Good Tax"
Just about every taxpayer complains about the high rate of taxes, yet if one
were asked whether they would trade the tax for the removal of service, they would
rather pay the tax. In order for taxes to be acceptable, however, they must meet
certain criteria. In order for a tax to be successful, it must be equitable, simple, and
efficient.
For most people, it is believed that taxes should be impartial and fair.
However, there is dispute over the level of equity of a tax. Some believe that a tax
is fair only if everyone pays the same amount − a flat tax. Others argue that a tax
is only fair if wealthier people pay more than those with lower incomes – a
progressive tax. Many also argue over the equity of tax loopholes seeing that they
allow some people to get out of paying certain taxes.
Another standard for taxes is simplicity. Tax laws should be written in an
intelligible manner so that both the taxpayer and the tax collector can understand
them. Though it is not an easy task, people are more willing to pay their taxes if
they understand them.
Efficiency is the final principle of taxation. A tax should be easy to
administer and to gain money from. The income tax fits into this category. An
employer withholds a portion of each employee's pay and then sends a single

317
check to the government on a regular basis. At the end of the year the employer
notifies each employee of the amount of tax withheld.
Principles of Taxation
The benefit principle of taxation is based on two ideas. The first and
foremost is that those who benefit from services should be the ones who pay for
them. Secondly, people should pay taxes in proportion to the amount of services or
benefits they receive. But there are two limitations to this type of taxation. First,
many government services provide the greatest benefit to those who can least
afford to pay for them (i.e. welfare). The second limitation is that the benefits often
are hard to measure.
The second principle of taxation is the ability-to-pay principle, which is
based on the idea that people should be taxed according to their ability to pay,
regardless of the benefits they receive. This type of tax recognizes that societies are
not always able to measure the benefits derived from government spending. It also
assumes that people with higher incomes suffer less discomfort paying taxes than
people just getting by on their income.
The Three Types of Taxes
The three types of taxes are the proportional tax, the progressive tax, and the
regressive tax.
A proportional tax imposes the same percentage of taxation on everyone,
regardless of income. If the percentage tax rate is constant, the average tax rate is
constant, regardless of income. This means that if a person's income goes up, the
percentage of total income paid in taxes does not change.
The second tax, the progressive tax, imposes a higher percentage rate of
taxation on people with higher incomes. Progressive taxes use a marginal tax rate
that increases as the amount of taxable income increases. Therefore, the percentage
of income paid in taxes increases as income goes up.
The final tax is the regressive tax, which imposes a higher percentage rate
of taxation on low incomes than on high incomes. For example, if the state sales

318
tax were 5%, the person with the lower income would pay a greater percentage of
their total income in sales tax.

Language notes:
We... have come to accept... – ми … (поступово) порозумілися…;
enforcement of law and public order – забезпечення дотримання закону і
громадського порядку;
social engineering – соціальна інженерія: наука, що вивчає методи перебудови
суспільства;
social welfare – (амер.) соціальне забезпечення, соціальна допомога;
water and waste management system – система управління водопостачанням і
утилізацією відходів;
carbon tax – податок на викиди вуглекислого газу;
direct tax – прямий податок, тобто податок, що стягується державою
безпосередньо з доходів чи майна платника податку (прибутковий податок –
income tax, податок на прибуток підприємств – corporation income tax,
податок зі спадку і дарунку – inheritance/gift tax, податок на майно фізичних
осіб – personal wealth/property tax, податок на видобування корисних копалин
– severance tax под.);
indirect tax – непрямий податок, тобто податок на товари та послуги,
встановлений у вигляді надбавки до ціни або тарифом (акциз – excise tax,
податок на додану вартість – value-added tax, мито – customs duty, екологічні
податки – environmentally related taxes/charges/fees/duties);
tax loophole – "шпарина" в податковому законодавстві;
if one were asked whether they would trade the tax for the removal of service, they
would rather ... – якщо б кого-небудь запитали, що б він вибрав: платити
податок або обійтися без якоїсь послуги, він скоріше б...
if the state sales tax were 5%, the person with the lower income would pay… –
якби податок на купівлю (продаж) був 5%, людина з більш низьким доходом
платила би...

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 VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Податок; оподаткування; неминучість податків; від імені особи; виконувати
багато функцій; охорона власності; забезпечення дотримання контрактів;
фінансувати соціальне забезпечення; система охорони здоров'я; допомога з
безробіття; комунальні послуги; ставка податкового обкладання; податковий
тягар; розподіляти між; діяльність, що підлягає оподаткуванню; фіскальна
політика; модель споживання або зайнятості; передача багатства від більш
заможних верств населення до більш бідних; зовнішній ефект економічної
діяльності; підтримувати політику; вимагати звітність; висока податкова
ставка; щоб податки були прийнятними; відповідати певним критеріям;
справедливість податків; уникнути сплати визначених податків; утримувати
частину зарплати; на регулярній основі; до відома кожного працівника;
першочерговий принцип; мати можливість (дозволити собі платити за
послуги; незалежно від отриманих пільг; відчувати менше незручностей;
жити (виживати) тільки на дохід.

Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following words and phrases.
Payment on behalf of the individual to the government; to carry out many
functions; to use different kinds of taxes; to vary tax rates; to fund welfare and
public services; to distribute the tax burden; to redistribute resources; to support
the poor, the disabled and the retired; to influence the microeconomic
performance; patterns of consumption or employment; to raise money; a
consequential effect of taxes; “no taxation without representation”; to generate a
high degree of accountability and governance; to dispute over the level of equity;
tax loopholes; the amount of the withheld tax; to impose the same percentage of
taxation on everyone.

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Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these
verbs in the text.
Write, say, pay, operate, provide, carry out, vary, do, spend, show, meet, see,
understand, withhold, impose, mean, go up.

Ex.4. Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
1 externality a money that you have to pay to the government so
that it can pay for public services
2 fiscal policy b a rate of tax that is paid on your next unit of
income; the highest rate of tax that smb pays
3 transaction c the percentage of an amount of money or of the
value of smth that has to be paid as tax
4 tax d responsibility for your decisions and actions and
readiness to explain them when you are asked
5 legal tender e practical or financial help that is provided, often
by the government, for people that need it
6 tax loophole f the activity of controlling a company, an
organization, or a country; the way in which this is
done
7 tax rate g a standard that you use when you make a decision
or form an opinion about smb/smth
8 welfare h the way in which the government charges taxes or
spends money in order to manage the economy
9 taxation i = fixed tax; a system in which tax is paid at the
same rate, however much you earn or spend
1 benefit(s) j third party (or spill-over) effects arising from the
0 production and/or consumption of goods and
services for which no appropriate compensation is
paid
1 marginal tax rate k money that can legally be used to pay for things in

321
 1 a particular country
1 accountability l money that is paid to people who are unemployed,
2 ill, etc. by the government or through a system of
insurance
1 governance m a piece of business that is done between people,
3 especially an act of buying and selling
1 criterion n a small mistake in the way a law has been written
4 that allows people to legally avoid smth the law
intended them to do
1 flat tax o the system or the act of collecting money by taxes
5

Ex. 5. Make up verb+noun collocations (there may be several variants).

to levy funds
to carry out harmful activities
to use taxes
to raise the poor
to distribute functions
to support criteria
to influence benefits
to discourage tax burden
to meet money
to provide economic performance
to pay
to collect
to impose
to receive

Ex.6. Fill in the gaps in the following verb collocations with appropriate
prepositions or adverbs.

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Payment ___ behalf ___ the individual ___ the government; to carry ___ many
functions; to distribute the tax burden ___ individuals or classes; population
involved ___ taxable activities; to spend money ___ public services; to transfer
wealth ___ richer sections of society ___ poorer sections; to complain ___ the high
rate ___ taxes; to demand accountability ___ the authorities; to argue ___ the level
of equity; to get ___ ___ paying certain taxes; to gain money ___ taxation; to
notify workers ___ the withheld taxes; to be based ___ two ideas; to provide
benefits ___ those who need them; to get ___ ___ one’s income; to impose the
same percentage of taxation ___ everyone regardless ___ income.

Ex.7. Choose the appropriate word or phrase to complete the following

sentences.
Energy, water and waste management systems; impartial and fair; proportional
tax; raise money; distribute the tax burden; certain criteria; welfare and public
services; redistribution; on behalf of the individual; the poor, the disabled, or the
retired; in an intelligible manner.

1. Taxes are any payment ____________ to the government.

2. Governments also use taxes to fund ____________ .
3. ____________ are common public utilities.
4. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates in order to
____________ among individuals or classes of the population.
5. Modern social security systems are intended to support ____________ by taxes
on those who are still working.
6. Taxes ____________ to spend on armies, roads, schools and hospitals, and on
more indirect government functions like market regulation or legal systems.
7. ____________ means transferring wealth from the richer sections of society to
poorer sections.
8. In order for taxes to be acceptable, they must meet ____________ .
9. To be equitable means to be ____________ .

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10. Tax laws should be written ____________ so that both the taxpayer and the
tax collector can understand them.
11. A ____________ imposes the same percentage of taxation on everyone,
regardless of income.

Ex.8. Look through the text again and replace the words in bold with the
linking words and phrases given below.
On behalf of, in addition, while, yet, in order for smth/smb to do smth, so that, both
... and, (al)though, according to, regardless of, as

1. Taxpayers complain about high tax rates. However, they would prefer to pay
taxes for using certain services rather than do without them.
2. Taxes are paid on the part of the individual to the government.
3. If taxes are to be acceptable, they must meet certain criteria.
4. People should be taxed on the basis on their ability to pay.
5. A proportional tax means the same percentage of taxation on all taxpayers no
matter what their income is.
6. In the progressive tax, the percentage of income paid in taxes increases when
income goes up.
7. Taxes are used to pay for public goods and services. Besides, they are applied
to influence the macroeconomic performance of the economy.
8. Direct taxation provides greater accountability and better governance, whereas
indirect taxation may have smaller effects.
9. Tax laws should be written in an intelligible manner for the taxpayer as well
as the tax collector to understand them. Even if it is not an easy task,
understanding tax laws makes people more willing to pay taxes.

Ex.9. Translate into English.

1. Ніхто не любить податки, але всі визнають їх необхідність.

324
2. Податки – це будь-які виплати від індивідуальної особи уряду, які
використовуються для оплати функцій, що здійснюються урядом.
3. Ці функції включають забезпечення дотримання закону та суспільного
порядку, охорону власності, підтримку економічної інфраструктури та
інші сфери діяльності уряду.
4. Податки також використовуються для фінансування соціального
забезпечення, систем суспільної освіти, охорони здоров`я та пенсійного
забезпечення, допомоги по безробіттю, суспільного транспорту та інших
суспільних послуг.
5. Уряд використовує різні види податків, щоб розподілити податковий
тягар серед різних верств населення.
6. Податки застосовуються для впливу на макроекономічну діяльність
країни, що називається фіскальною політикою уряду.
7. Податкова політика має наступні цілі: приносити дохід, забезпечувати
перерозподіл багатства, коригувати ціноутворення та забезпечувати
звітність держави за використані податки.
8. Система оподаткування має бути справедливою, простою та ефективною в
організації управління.
9. Простота оподаткування означає, що податкові закони мають бути
зрозумілими як платникам податків, так і податковим організаціям.
10.Система оподаткування заснована на двох принципах: пільговому
принципі та принципі платоспроможності.
11.Пільговий принцип передбачає, що ті, хто отримує пільги, сплачують на
них податок.
12.Принцип платоспроможності означає, що люди сплачують податки
відповідно до своїх можливостей, незалежно від отриманого доходу.
13.Існує три види податків: пропорційний, прогресивний та регресивний.

LANGUAGE SKILLS

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Ex. 10. Ask questions to which the following statements may be answers.
1. They are used to pay for all government services.
2. These include the enforcement of law and public order, protection of property,
economic infrastructure, public works and operation of the government itself.
3. They are water, energy and waste management systems.
4. This is done to distribute the tax burden among individuals and classes of the
population.
5. They are intended to support the poor, the disabled, the unemployed and the
retired.
6. It is called fiscal policy.
7. This function is aimed at raising money to be spent on direct and indirect
government functions.
8. It means transferring money from richer sections of society to poorer ones.
9. This criterion means that taxes must be impartial and fair.
10.This principle implies that those who get benefits must pay for them.
11. Yes, it is based on everybody’s ability to pay taxes.
12. No, quite the contrary. It imposes a higher percentage rate on people with
lower income rather than on those with higher income.
13. It means that everyone pays the same percentage regardless of income.

Ex.11. Answer the following questions.

1. What are taxes?
2. What functions of the government are paid from taxes?
3. What public services does the government provide?
4. What is fiscal policy?
5. What are four R’s of taxation?
6. What does the slogan “no taxation without representation” mean?
7. Name criteria of a “good tax”.
8. Why do people argue over the level of the equity of taxes?
9. What is a flat tax?

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10.How does the income tax meet the criterion of efficiency?
11. What principles is taxation based on?
12. What is the difference between progressive, regressive and proportional taxes?

Ex.12. Make a presentation of the topic “Taxes”.

WRITING
Ex.13. Write a plan for a summary of Text A. Start with
4. The importance of taxation in the economy.
5. ___________________________________
6. ___________________________________

Ex.14. Write a brief summary (25-30 sentences) of Text A.

Ex.15. Working in pairs, prepare a report giving arguments both for and
against taxation and government spending (100-150 words).

DISCUSSION POINTS

Ex.16. Read the following statements concerning taxation and government

spending. Which do you agree with?
1. The redistributive purpose of taxation is, quite simply, theft.
2. Taxes take away people’s hard-earned private property, and so should be kept as
low as possible.
3. Society creates the conditions under which financial success is possible, and
therefore, it has a rightful claim to a share of that success in the form of taxes.
4. Progressive taxes may discourage people from working extra hours.

Ex.17. Read and discuss the following facts about taxes.

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 The Gettysburg address* is 269 words,
the Declaration of Independence is 1,337
words, and the Holy Bible is only
773,000 words. However, the tax law
has grown from 11,400 words in 1913
to over 7 million words today.
 There are at least 480 different tax
forms, each with many pages of
instructions.
 The IRS** sends out 8 billion pages of
forms and instructions each year. Laid end to end, they would stretch 28 times
around the earth.
 American taxpayers spend $200 billion and 5.4 billion hours of their time to
comply with the federal tax laws each year. That’s more than it takes to produce
every car, truck, and van in the United States.
 The IRS employs 114,000 people; that’s twice as many as the CIA and five
times more than the FBI.
 60% of taxpayers must hire a professional to get through their own return.
 Taxes eat up 38.2% of the average family's income; that's more than for food,
clothing and shelter combined.

*The Gettysburg Address is the speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and is
one of the most well-known speeches in the US history. It was delivered by
Lincoln on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National
Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
**The IRS - The Internal Revenue Service – Податкове Управління США

TEXT B: TAXATION IN THE UK

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Ex.18. Scan the text bellow and give headlines to each paragraph.
The UK economy changes year after year. The UK government seeks to
achieve many policies including economic growth, improving the standard of
living of people within the country, controlling inflation and reducing
unemployment. Its policies will determine the nature and type of decisions that it
makes. The government controls the economy in a number of different ways. (0)
__________ . Another way is through the provision of subsidies that make goods
or services available for people. A third way is through taxation. Taxes collected
by HMRC* for the government fall under two headings: direct and indirect
taxation.
(1) __________ . Income tax is paid upon a person's income or, for
partnership businesses, upon the partners' incomes. Corporation tax is levied upon
the profits of UK companies. HMRC also collects National Insurance
contributions. Although these are not really a tax, they are often portrayed as one.
National Insurance is the major source of funds used by the government to provide
state benefits such as pensions and jobseekers' allowances.
Indirect taxation is not as noticeable as direct taxation. (2) __________ that
consumers purchase. Value Added Tax (VAT) at a rate of 17.5% is added to the
price of most goods that a consumer purchases. For example, the price of a DVD
includes 17.5% VAT. There are, however, certain goods that are zero-rated. (3)
__________ . Governments have continually reviewed the main issues behind
taxation. This especially involves deciding who pays the taxes. This process aims
to develop a fair system that applies not just for individuals but also for companies.

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 A good communication system involves effectively transferring information
between a sender and a receiver. HMRC has developed effective communication
systems to ensure that the collection of tax revenues is efficient. (4) __________ .
They use the latest technology to simplify the systems, provide an electronic form
in an online version for self-employed people. On this electronic form the
calculations are done for them. They also provide opportunities (5) __________ .
HMRC uses a variety of different media in order to publicise and inform self
-employed people about their tax obligations. (6) __________ . These campaigns
emphasise the need for self-employed people to comply with the law and give
deadlines for completing the forms. A hotline has been set up for people to report
anyone not registering as self-employed and evading paying tax.

*HMRS – Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs – Британська Податкова Служба

Ex. 19. Read the text. Choose the best sentence A-F to fill each of the gaps 1-6.
Do not use any letter more than once. There is an example at the beginning.
0 One way is through legal statute or legislation using an Act of Parliament that
creates new laws.

A For example, VAT does not apply to food, baby clothes or prescription
products.
B Indirect taxes are added to the price of the goods and services
C for feedback to clarify any queries.
D Direct taxation is levied upon incomes or the resources of individuals and
organisations.
E These include television, radio, newspapers and direct mail.
F They are quick, secure and convenient.

Ex.20. Read the text again and decide whether the following statements are
true (T) or false (F). Correct the false statements.

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1. Government can control the economy in a number of ways.
2. Income tax is an example of indirect taxation.
3. Taxes are not levied on partnerships and personal incomes.
4. National Insurance is the major source of funds used by the government to
provide pensions and jobseekers' allowances.
5. VAT is added to absolutely all goods.
6. HMRC has developed effective communication systems for efficient tax
collection.
7. Self-employed people choose a date for paying tax themselves.
8. Citizens can use a hotline to report anyone evading paying tax.

Ex.21. Answer the following questions. Refer to the text if needed.

1. What ways does the British government use to control the economy?
2. What is the difference between direct and indirect taxation?
3. What funds apart from tax revenues does the government use to provide social
benefits?
4. What goods are zero-rated? What does it mean?
5. What communication systems does HMRC use to provide the efficient
collection of taxes?
6. Are there any deadlines for paying taxes?

TEXT C: TAXES ARE GOOD

Before reading
Can you anticipate what arguments the author will use in favour of paying
taxes?
Reading

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 Read an extract from governmentisgood.com – a web project of Douglas J.
Amy, Professor of Politics at Mount Holyoke College, and do the tasks following
the text.

(1) Oliver Wendell Holmes, an American physician, poet, professor,

lecturer, and author (1809 – 1894), once said: 'I like to pay taxes. With them I
buy civilization.'
(2) Most conservative criticisms about the ill-effects of taxes are
exaggerated or untrue. Taxes are in fact good – they are dues we pay to enjoy the
numerous vital benefits that government provides for our society.
(3) One of the reasons that some Americans do not have this more positive
view of taxes is that they seem to ignore the basic connection between taxes and
the beneficial programs they fund. What else could explain the fact that polls
repeatedly reveal that many people support tax cuts while at the same time they
support increasing government spending in many areas? Naturally, anti-
government and anti-tax advocates like to encourage this sense of disconnection
between taxes and programs. That is why, for example, when conservatives talk
about tax cuts, they rarely talk about the programs cuts that must necessarily
follow. They focus on how money will be returned to tax payers, not how money
will be taken away from needed government programs. To listen to them, tax cuts
are all gains and no pain.
(4) This sense of disconnection is also helped along greatly by the political
illusion that the benefits of many government programs are elusive and are often
easy to ignore or take for granted. Unlike marketplace transactions, where what we
get for our money is immediate and tangible – what we get for our taxes is often
delayed and less tangible. When we draw clean water from our taps, we rarely stop
to make the connection between this and the taxes we pay to ensure the purity of
this vital resource. Also, many of the benefits that come to us from our taxes take
the form of things that do not happen to us – like not getting mugged or not
breathing dirty air – and these we hardly notice at all.

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 (5) Anti-government conservatives and libertarians are very good at taking
advantage of the fact that while what government does for us often seems elusive,
the taxes we pay to government are all too real to most people. Consider, for
example, the strategy employed by Arnold Schwarzenegger when he was running
for governor of California. In his campaign, he complained loudly about how
overtaxed Californians were: “From the time they get up in the morning and flush
the toilet, they are taxed. When they go get a coffee, they are taxed. When they get
in their car, they are taxed. When they go to the gas station, they are taxed. When
they go to lunch, they are taxed. This goes on all day long. Tax. Tax. Tax. Tax.
Tax.” This is true – and it helped Schwarzenegger get elected – but it is a
misleading half-truth. He leaves out the rest of the story: that we are also
constantly benefiting from government programs throughout our day. He
deliberately ignores the connection between taxes and the programs they fund. We
may be taxed when we flush the toilet, but what we get is the efficient and easy
way to dispose of our waste in a manner that does not poison our water or spread
disease. We may be taxed when we buy a cup of coffee, but our taxes help pay for
inspections of coffee houses and restaurants that ensure that their food and drinks
are fit for human consumption. We may be taxed when we pay for gas, but what
we get is the interstate highway system that many of us so frequently use. So the
reality is really this: Tax. Benefit. Tax. Benefit. Tax. Benefit. Tax. Benefit. While
government may be constantly taking from us in the form of taxes, it is also
constantly giving back to us in the form of the various programs that improve our
daily lives.
(6) Government bashers like Schwarzenegger can only succeed in making
taxes seem onerous and unfair by completely ignoring what we get in return. This
tactic may be bogus, but it has been a raging success. Conservatives have been
winning this ideological fight in the United States in part because they have
convinced most Americans to see themselves primarily as “taxpayers” not
“beneficiaries.” In their rhetoric, they make sure to constantly refer to people as
“taxpayers.” This is another attempt to frame the issue in a way that encourages us

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to think of government as bad – as a burden on us. “Taxpayers” is not a neutral
term at all, but one loaded with powerful political meaning. It unconsciously
reinforces a view of citizen/government relations being one-way – from our wallets
to its coffers. A recent poll revealed that 28% of Americans agreed with the
statement: “I don’t like paying taxes because the government doesn’t do anything
for people like me.” And as long as people continue to see themselves only as
taxpayers and not beneficiaries, as long as they ignore the connection between our
taxes and what they get back from government, they will be ripe for the picking by
those who want to weaken government.

Task 1. Discuss what Oliver Wendell Holmes could mean when he said that with
taxes he bought civilization. (para.1)
Task 2. Explain whether “anti-government and anti-tax advocates” (para.3) speak
in favour of taxes or against taxes.
Task 3. If something is elusive (para.4), is it
a) very complicated and detailed;
b) difficult or impossible to achieve;
c) well-done and of high quality?
Task 4. How does the author argue with politicians who use anti-tax slogans in
their election campaigns? (para.5)
Task 5. What does the author mean by “citizen/government relations being one-
way”? (para.6) What disconnection does he focus on in the above text?

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

IN COMPANY

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A Describing companies

Ex.1. Fill in the tables below with the different word forms.
Verb (describing an Noun (for the company Noun (for the activity or
activity) that is involved in this sector that a company is
activity) involved in)
to manufacture manufacturer manufacture/manufacturing
producer
to export export
designer
to distribute
supply
to provide provision
trader
publication/publishing
importer
to retail retail/retailing
to manage
insurer insurance
to market marketing company,
marketer (less frequent)
to sell by wholesale/by wholesale/wholesaling
the gross/in bulk

Ex.2. Fill in the blanks with the correct noun or verb from the above table.
1. (manufacture) The company is a car ____________ in the USA.
2. (retail) Chopard is in the jewellery ____________ business.
3. (import) Europacific Ltd ____________ European shoes into Asian countries.
4. (export) This company is an ____________ of men’s sportswear.

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5. (design) Our company is a leading website ____________ .
6. (publish) He works for the company that ____________ reference books.
7. (distribute) European __________ is handled from our centre in the
Netherlands.
8. (manage) ____________ consulting is aimed at helping organizations
improve their performance.
9. (market) She works in sales and ____________ .
10. ( insure) Allianz is the world’s number two ____________ .

Ex.3. Match these well-known company names with their activities. Use these
words in sentences to describe what different companies do.
design of computer software IBM
publishing Microsoft
manufacture of consumer electronics Sony
motor car manufacture Toyota
computer hardware manufacture The Economist Group
retailing of foods and consumer products Walmart
advertising Aegis Group
oil production BP Corporation
broadcasting and Internet Ukrtelecom

Ex.4. Read descriptions of different companies. Choose one of the nouns

below to describe each company.
Law firm, retailer, wholesaler, importer, finance company, website designer,
manufacturer, travel company, bank, exporter, transport company

a) Multimedia Solutions Incorporated has been designing and managing state-

of-the-art commercial websites since 1993. The company provides e-
commerce solutions for large and small companies in a number of sectors.
At present, the company employs 200 full-time Internet consultants and web

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 designers on their permanent staff. They provide consultancy and other
services in the following sectors: financial services, insurance brokering and
underwriting, travel services, computer retailing, vehicle leasing. The
company’s head office is in Guilford, near London. They also have offices
in Birmingham, Manchester and Edinburgh, as well as agencies in Dublin,
Paris, Rome and Madrid.
b) Established in 1967, Airbus is a leading aircraft manufacturer with the most
modern and comprehensive family of airliners on the market, ranging in
capacity from 100 to more than 500 seats. Airbus has delivered over 5,000
aircraft to 180 customers world-wide. Airbus is a global company with its
central office in Toulouse and design and manufacturing facilities in France,
Germany, the UK , and Spain as well as subsidiaries in the US, China and
Japan.
c) Raiffeisen Bank International AG (RBI) regards both Austria, where it is a
leading corporate and investment bank, and Central and Eastern Europe
(CEE) as its home market. In CEE, RBI operates an extensive network of
subsidiary banks, leasing companies and a range of other specialised
financial service providers in 17 markets. As of 2013, around 55,000
employees served more than 14 million customers via roughly 3,000 branch
offices, the great majority of which are located in CEE. The headquarters of
the central institution of the Raiffeisen Banking Group, established in 1927,
is in Vienna, Austria.
d) Allen & Overy is a global law firm headquartered in London, United
Kingdom.
A member of the UK's Magic Circle of leading law firms, Allen & Overy is
widely considered to be one of the world's elite law firms, advising national
and multinational corporations, financial institutions, and governments.
Since its founding in 1930, Allen & Overy has grown to become one of the
largest law firms in the world, both by number of lawyers and revenue. With

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 approximately 5,000 staff and 38 offices worldwide, the firm provides legal
advice in Europe, the Americas, Asia, Australia, and the Middle East.
e) Marks and Spencer plc (also known as M&S or Your M&S; colloquially
known as Marks and Sparks) is a British retailer headquartered in the City of
Westminster, London. It has over 700 stores in the United Kingdom and
over 300 stores spread across more than 40 countries with 76,250
employees. It specialises in the selling of clothing and luxury food products.
M&S was founded in 1884 by Michael Marks and Thomas Spencer in
Leeds. In 1998, it became the first British retailer to make a pre-tax profit of
over £1 billion.

Ex.5. Read the above information about the companies again and make up a
company profile chart as shown below.

Company name Multimedia

Solutions Inc
Main area of
business
Products/services
Customers
Location: Head office in
Head office Guilford, near
Subsidiaries London;
offices in
Birmingham,
Manchester and
Edinburgh, as well
as agencies in
Dublin, Paris,
Rome and Madrid

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When did it start
up?
Number of 200 full-time
employees Internet consultants
and web designers
Other information

Ex.6. Ask and answer questions about the following companies.

IBM Corporation – Computer hardware, software, IT services and consulting.
Founded in June 1911. Headquartes – Armonk, New York, U.S. Area served –
worldwide. Employees – 431,212 (2013).

SONY Corporation – Founded 7 May 1946. Headquarters – Minato, Tokyo. Area

served – worldwide. Products – consumer electronics, telecommunications,
communication & information equipment, films, television, music. Services –
financial services, insurance, banking, credit finance and advertising agency.
Employees – 146,300 (2013).

Nestlé – Food processing. Founded in 1866. Headquarters – Vevey, Switzerland.

Operation – 86 countries around the world. Products – Baby food, coffee, dairy
products, breakfast cereals, confectionery, bottled water, ice cream, pet foods.
Employees – 333,000 (2013).

FCB – Advertising agency. Founded in 1873 (as Lord & Thomas). Headquarters –
New York, Chicago. Number of locations – 96 countries. Services – Marketing
communications. Employees – 8,600 (2013).

Ex.7. The following nouns are useful to describe large companies and their
parts.

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Agency, parent company, enterprise, headquarters, plant, subsidiary, group of
companies, branch, department, factory, main office, production facility,
warehouse, chain, business, distribution centre, firm, office, multinational,
conglomerate, franchise, company, division, head office, sister company, section

Group together the words with similar meaning from the above list.
Model: a company - a business, a firm, an enterprise
a factory -
a warehouse -
a subsidiary -
the head office -
a department -
a multinational -

Ex.8. Complete the description of Nokia Corporation, with one word for each
space.
founded partnership employees corporation services headquartered
manufacturing facilities

Nokia Corporation is a Finnish multinational communications (1) __________,

which is (2) __________ in Keilaniemi, Espoo, a city neighbouring Finland's
capital Helsinki. Nokia is engaged in the (3) __________ of mobile devices and in
converging Internet and communications industries. With over 123,000
__________ in 120 countries, sales in more than 150 countries and global annual
revenue of over €42 billion as of 2010, it is the world's largest manufacturer of
mobile phones. Nokia offers Internet (4) __________ such as applications, games,
music, maps, media and messaging through its Ovi platform.
The Nokia Research Center, (5) __________ in 1986, is Nokia's industrial research
unit consisting of about 500 researchers, engineers and scientists. It has sites in
seven countries: Finland, China, India, Kenya, Switzerland, the United Kingdom

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and the United States. Nokia operates a total of 15 (6) __________ located in
Finland, Brazil, Romania, China, Hungary, India, Mexico and South Korea.
On 11 February 2011, Nokia announced a (7) __________ with Microsoft where
all future Nokia smartphones will be powered by the Windows Phone (WP7)
operating system.

Ex.9. Search for information about a few companies. Prepare to give a short
presentation on any of them. The following phrases will help you to order the
information.

Introducing yourself Hello. My name is …, and I’d like to

Informing the audience about the
structure of the presentation
Moving from one point to another
Concluding
welcome you to my presentation. I’m
going to tell you about…
My presentation consists of … parts.
I’ll begin with…
Then, I’ll tell you about …
I’ll also look at …
Finally, I’ll inform you of…
To start with, I’d like to mention …
Now, I’ll move on to …
As I said before, …
In conclusion, I’d like to say …
Thank you for your attention. If you
have any questions, I’ll be glad to
answer them.

B Describing jobs

Remember:

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people work for or at a company
they work in an industry, department or team
they are responsible for other staff and for (doing) their work
they are in charge of (managing) other staff
they are responsible to or accountable to their boss/manager

Ex. 10. Read and memorise the following sentences.

I’m a sales manager.
(I’m the Chief Executive Officer)
I work for ATT.
I’m in marketing/banking/insurance.
I’m responsible for handling all projects.
I’m in public relations. I’m in charge of handling the external face of our company
to the media and community.
I’m accountable to the General Manager.

Ex.11. Complete the following dialogues.

1) A So, who do you work _____?
B WordStar.
A They’re _____ computers, aren’t they?
B That’s right. I’m _____ product manager. What about you?
A I work _____ Bechtel.
B So you’re _____ the construction business?
A Yes, I’m _____ engineer.

2) А So, you're here on business?

В Yeah. I work _____ a consulting company, Santa Partners.
А And what do you do?

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 В I'm _____ leading consultant. I’m responsible _____ providing advice and
training on the development, administration, and technical aspects.And what
company do you work _____ ?
А Inex Chemicals. I'm _____ analyst. My job is to coordinate quality related
data from production, service, or process improvement activities.

Ex.12. Read the text and complete the organizational chart of the company.
I think we have a fairly typical organization for a manufacturing firm. We're
divided into Finance, Production, Marketing and Human Resources departments.
The Human Resources department is the simplest. It consists of two sections. One
is responsible for recruitment and personnel matters, the other is in charge of
training.
The Marketing department is made up of three sections: Sales, Sales Promotion,
and Advertising, whose heads are all accountable to the marketing manager.
The Production department consists of five sections. The first of these is
Production Control, which is in charge of both Scheduling and Materials Control.
Then there's Purchasing, Manufacturing, Quality Control, and Engineering
Support. Manufacturing contains three sections: Tooling, Assembly, and
Fabrication.
Finance is composed of two sections: Financial Management, which is responsible
for capital requirements, fund control, and credit, and Accounting.

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Ex.13. Read the following job descriptions, then choose the best job title from
the list matching each job description.
1. My job is to look after the employees of the company. I am responsible for
recruitment and staff training, and also deal with problems related to pay,
pensions, promotion, and so on.
2. I’m responsible for sales. I’m in charge of a number of salespeople. I also help
to devise the company’s advertising policy, together with the marketing
department.
3. I organize the managing director’s appointments, make the arrangements for his
meetings and business trips, answer the telephone and greet his visitors. I do
some typing – letters, reports, and things like that.
4. I’m on the front desk, greeting visitors, receiving deliveries, and also I answer
the telephone.
5. I keep the company’s books. This means records of sales income, expenditure,
taxes and so on. I’m also in charge of payroll.
6. I do PR for my company, which involves dealing with the press as well as
members of the public. I prepare press releases about things that we are doing,
new products, special deals and so on.

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7. I take overall responsibility for the company’s accounts, and control money
coming in and going out of the company.
8. I am in charge of buying the required items for my company. My aim is to get
the best possible deal, so I constantly look for new suppliers and technologies.
9. I help to develop the IT skills of employees. My job is to teach basic PC skills
and show people how to use different software packages.
10.I work with computers. I am responsible for installing and repairing hardware
and maintaining databases for our company’s applications.

Receptionist; IT Specialist; Sales Manager; PA to the MD*; IT Trainer; External

Relations Director; Finance Director; Accountant; Personnel Manager; Purchasing
Manager.

*Personal Assistant to the Managing Director

Ex.14. Look at these words which are often found in job titles.
Senior Sales Director
Assistant Managing Manager
Vice Personnel Assistant
Deputy Marketing Accountant
Executive Human Resources Officer
Development
Personal Financial Controller
Chief Customer Services Executive
Head of Accounts Secretary
Director of IT Technician
Assistant to Public relations Advisor

These words can be combined in different ways to describe different jobs:

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Personal Assistant to the Managing Director
Senior Sales Executive
Sales Assistant
Customer Services Manager
Personnel Officer
Head of Human Resources Development

Ex.15. Think about a job you would like to have in the future. Practise
explaining your “job” to a visitor or a new colleague. Use the following notes:
I work for __________.
I’m the/a __________.
I’m responsible for __________.
I’m in charge of __________.

GRAMMAR
PRONOUNS

Ex.1. Read the following text and substitute some nouns with
correspondent personal pronouns to make the text sound more natural.
Dear Lucy,
I'm sorry I haven't written to you recently. I'm really busy with my studies at the
moment. My course is going well and I'm enjoying my course a lot. The problem is
that my course takes up a lot of time.
You asked me whether your friend Nick can visit us. Of course, we will be happy
to receive your friend Nick whenever your friend wishes to come.
I'd like Nick to meet my family and my friends. My sister Ann promised to take
Nick sightseeing. My sister takes interest in history, knows a lot about our city and
can present our city in the best possible way.

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Do you think Nick could let us know if he intends to come by train or by plane?
Coming by train or by plane would be no trouble whatsoever to drive Nick home.
I hope to hear from you or Nick soon.
Yours sincerely,
Jack
P.S. Forgot to tell you that I attach some pretty pictures. I took these pictures last
weekend when we took a boat trip along the coast. The trip along the coast was
lovely!

Ex.2. Use the correct personal pronoun for each gap.

1. Please take these papers and give ________ to Mr Jacobson.
2. What’s your cat’s name? – King. ________ is so cute and understands
everything we say!
3. Who’s that on the phone? – ________is your brother.
4. Do you know where Ann is? – No, I haven’t seen ________ today. Maybe,
________ is in the laboratory.
5. My computer’s been giving troubles and I want to change ________.
6. There’s no need to shout. I can hear ________.
7. We had little time left, so we asked our colleagues to help ________ with the
project.
8. I studied German when ________ was in high school. But ________ haven’t
had any practice since then and have forgotten most of ________.
9. I saw a new film about James Bond yesterday. ________ was fantastic!
10. The first person I saw when________ got off the train was my brother. My
father and ________ had come to the railway station to meet ________.

Ex.3. Choose the correct word in each sentence.

1. Was there a voicemail message? – Yes, (it/he) was Jim.
2. Peter is two years older than (I/me) but he is doing the same first year university
course as (I/me) am doing.

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3. Can you see Jill here? I need to talk to (she/her). – Yes, that’s (she/her) in black
over there.
4. Pooh is a small cute bear. (It/He) enjoys eating, singing and visiting his friends.
5. Betty lives in the same street as (I/me).
6. Who is that tall blond woman over there? – (She/It) is our new sales manager,
Julia Benton.
7. It’s (I/me). Can you open the door? I haven’t got my key.
8. I’m feeling thirsty. – (I/Me) too.
9. Who left all this mess? – It was (he/him), not (I/me).
10. I saw their new puppy. (It/He) is so funny.

Ex.4. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pay attention to the
“empty” subject it.
1. It’s very cold today. It’s been snowing all night.
2. It’s a policeman at the door. It seems that our neighbours complained about the
noise we made yesterday when we were having a party.
3. It’s a real pleasure to meet you at last.
4. It was he who helped me when I got into trouble.
5. It’s a pity that he’s leaving so soon.
6. Let’s take a taxi. It’s much too far to walk in such nasty weather.
7. It’s important to practice every day if you want to speak good English.
8. Nothing important happened here while I was ill, did it?
9. It was yesterday that you were supposed to be here.
10. What did you say? – Oh, it doesn’t matter.
11. It’s hard to say what caused the accident.

Ex.5. Change these sentences to emphasize each part in turn as in the model.
1. Last month, our company concluded an important contract with AWI Inc.→
It is our company that concluded an important contract with AWI Inc. last
month.

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It is an important contract that our company concluded with AWI Inc. last
month.
It is AWI Inc. that our company concluded an important contract with last month.
It was last month that our company concluded and important contract with AWI
Inc.
2. John left his keys in the office yesterday.
3. I bought a red woolen sweater for my brother’s birthday.
4. The secretary sent Peter the documents two hours ago.
5. Mark met Cathy in France in 2008.
6. She played a piece by Mozart brilliantly at yesterday’s concert.
7. Flooding causes most of the damage in spring.

Ex.6. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pay attention to the
“empty” subject there.
1. According to the forecast, there will be snow tomorrow.
2. There are some very good films on this week.
3. There may be life on other planets too.
4. There was an article in Travel magazine about Tunisia.
5. I think there’s something wrong because there are a lot of people in the street.
6. Shh! Keep your voice down. I think there’s someone behind the door.
7. Is there any point in talking about it again?
8. There’s a train to Leeds at twelve-thirty, isn’t there? Let’s catch it.
9. We agreed to meet in two hours, so there’s no need to hurry.
10. There have been more problems with this project than we expected.

Ex.7. It or there? Fill in the gaps with the appropriate variant.

1. ________ is a letter for you on the desk. ________ is from your bank.
2. ________ is a new one-way traffic system in the centre of the city. As for me,
________ is very confusing.
3. I’m sure ________ will be someone to help you with your luggage.

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4. In pies and cakes ________ is a lot of sugar and fat.
5. Don’t you like vegetables? – No, I like most of them. ________is onions that I
hate.
6. ________ was Kate’s birthday yesterday, and we had a huge party.
7. ________ is said that the more languages you speak, the easier it is to learn a
new one.
8. Will ________ matter if I miss this meeting? – Actually yes, because ________
will be a lot of serious problems to discuss.
9. ________ was in this park that we first met.
10. What’s the new café like? Is ________ good? Are ________ many visitors
there?
11. ________ is a shame that he hasn’t dropped you a line since he left.
12. Look at the sky. ________ seems to be a storm.

Ex.8. Fill each space in these sentences with it or there and the appropriate
form of the verb in brackets.
1. ________ me half an hour to get home from the university. (take)
2. ________ to be some mistake. I've never met you before in my life. (seem)
3. ________very expensive to buy a new flat these days, and more and more young
people live in rented accommodation. (be)
4. ________ impossible to reach her by phone so I sent a fax. (be)
5. I put my coat on because ________ cold. (get)
6. ________ Jim who caught the ball and saved our team. (be)
7. ________ several fights between football fans outside the stadium but no one
was hurt. (be)
8. ________ nothing you can do about the situation, so ________ no use worrying
about it. (be)
9. ________ used to be an old cinema here, but ________ knocked down. (be)
10. The situation is still the same. ________ to have been no change. (seem)
11. ________ like rain. We’d better take our umbrellas. (look)

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Ex. 9. Translate the following sentences with impersonal pronouns.
1. They mine graphite in Brazil, don’t they? – Yes, Brazil is one of the leading
graphite producers in the world.
2. How can one get from London to Oxford?
3. Don’t burn your bridges behind you.
4. Why are they always digging up the roads during the daytime when traffic is so
heavy?
5. We should take more care of our historic buildings.
6. If one fails, then one must try harder next time.
7. I hate it when one is looking at you and smiling but doesn't tell you what they're
thinking.
8. They say Mr Jones has been fired because one of the customers complained
about his rudeness.
9. Life is what you make it.
10. I’m afraid they’ll put taxes up next year.

Ex. 10. Complete the sentences using reflective pronouns myself, yourself, etc.
1. The iron is very hot. Be careful and don’t burn ________ !
2. Shall I help you? - No, thanks. I’d rather do it ________ .
3. Look! That kitten is washing ________ .
4. Monica always cuts her hair ________ , and it always looks very stylish.
5. His letters are all about ________. He never writes about anybody else.
6. We shouldn’t blame ________ for what has happened.
7. The village ________ is lovely, but the surrounding countryside is boring.
8. If you don’t use the computer, will it turn ________ off?
9. The hostess asked her guests to help ________ to food and drink.
10. Did you see the general manager ________? Only he can help you in this
matter.

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Ex.11. Fill in the pronouns and identify them: reflexive or emphatic.
Model: My little sister decorated the cake for Mum ________ . → My little sister
decorated the cake for Mum herself. (emphatic)
1. I had a swim, dried ________ , and put on my clothes.
2. He managed to repair his car by ________ .
3. The children enjoyed ________when they visited Disneyland.
4. My little brother is very noisy, and Mum always tells him to behave ________
when we go out.
5. Doctors advise us that we have to exercise regularly in order to keep ________
healthy.
6. The weather is affecting me greatly at the moment – I don't feel ________
today.
7. As usual, the singer was brilliant, although the song ________ was not very
good.
8. It’s a pity you didn’t bring a camera with ________. There are a lot of beautiful
places here.
9. “How many times have you been to London?” – “Two. Oh no, three,” she
corrected ________.

Ex.12. Choose the correct variant of pronouns in the following sentences.

1. The children are old enough to look after (them/themselves).
2. The road is closed: (it/there) has been an accident.
3. He’s faster than (I/me) but I’m stronger than (he/him) is.
4. (One is/They are) building a new sport centre not far from my house.
5. (It/There) appears that he has been promoted: he has just moved into a bigger
office.
6. (They/you) say it’s going to be a warmer winter than the one we had last year.
7. Where is Tom? – That’s (he/him) over there. Look, he’s waving at us.
8. Hasn’t Mary come yet? It’s not like (she/her) to be late.
9. I hate horror films. – (I/Me) too. I can’t understand what people find in them.

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10. Stop shouting at (me/myself)! Just do something (you/yourself)!

Ex.13. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences.

1. Do you know who heads the marketing department? – This is Peter Blake.
2. The police arrested the robber and put in prison.
3. If you are not busy, it’s something I want to tell you.
4. Michael looked behind himself when he heard footsteps.
5. The president he has a team of bodyguards to protect him.
6. Tom dressed himself quickly and went down to breakfast.
7. There has been some time since I wrote to you as I’ve been busy lately.
8. Who spilt coffee all over my papers? – Sorry, it was I.
9. Which house is yours? – There is the one at the end of the street.
10. Peter and Kate enjoyed themself at the party.

Ex.14. Translate into English.

1. Якщо ви хочете досягти чого-небудь, ви повинні вірити в себе.
2. Хто підготував презентацію? – Я.
3. Саме Стела розповіла мені все.
4. Ти зробиш все сам? – Ні, вже пізно. Вже не залишилося часу. Ти можеш
мені допомогти?
5. На цьому каналі завжди показують старі фільми.
6. Говорять, клімат стає все теплішим із-за діяльності самої людини.
7. Хто на цьому фото? Це твоя сестра, так?
8. Якраз тут я побачив її вперше.
9. Пригощайтесь! Тут ще багато їжі.
10.Я хочу пізнати вас трохи краще. Розкажіть мені про себе.
11. Будьте обережні, ви можете ударитися.

12. Дивно, що ти про це знаєш. Я сам дізнався про це випадково.

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 ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB

Ex.1. Make positive adjectives from the following words with the help of
suffixes –ic, -ful, -al, -ive, -able/-ible, -y, -ish, -ous, -ent/-ant, -esque, -ate.
Model: base – basic

Beauty, accident, produce, comfort, fun, horror, picture, fun, luck, danger, care,
anger, romance, passion, fool, critic, society, progress, drama, fame.

Ex.2. Make adjectives from the following nouns using suffixes a) –less and –
ful; and from verbs using suffix b) –able/-ible. Translate them into Ukrainian.
a) hope, care, duty, home, sense, sorrow, joy, pity, mercy;
b) eat, love, manage, bear, break, understand, foresee, agree.

Ex.3. Form adjectives with corresponding suffixes and prefixes.

A
1. I am attracted by this plan. I find it very attractive.
2. She is always full of energy. She is tremendously __________ .
3. His sense of humour is well-known. We often laugh at his __________ stories.
4. I was persuaded by the logic of his argument. It seemed to be the most
__________ thing to do in that situation.
5. You behave as a child. Stop doing such __________ things.
6. She is determined to put her new ideas into practice. She wants to check their
__________ application.
7. The building is in danger of collapsing. It’s __________ to stay here.
8. I felt like among friends there: everybody was so __________ towards me.
9. His last book made a great impression on me. Actually, it was one of the most
__________ novels of that time.
10. Moving house put a severe strain on our finances; we were facing certain
__________ difficulties.

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B
1. I don’t think he is honest in this matter. I suspect he’s quite dishonest.
2. Do you think it is possible in this situation? I would say it is next to ________ .
3. The government’s policy is oriented towards integrating with Europe. It is a
__________ policy.
4. What they are doing in business is not quite legal. Some people would regard it
as __________ .
5. The rally was directed against the war in the Middle East. It was an
__________ rally.
6. He has no morals, that man! His behaviour is absolutely __________ .
7. The company is too confident that they will win the case. With such a strong
competitor, they shouldn’t be so __________ .
8. Your plan isn’t very practical. Some aspects seem extremely __________ .
9. This event dates from before the Second World War. It happened in the
__________ years.
10. He doesn’t seem very certain in what he is doing. His replies to most
questions concerning his intentions are very __________ .

Ex.4. Rewrite the following sentences using compound adjectives.

1. The tunnel is one kilometre. It’s a one-kilometre tunnel.
2. The business trip lasted three days. It was a __________ trip.
3. The bag weighs ten kilos. It’s a __________ bag.
4. The document contains six pages. It’s a __________ document.
5. The scientist was seventy years old. The speaker was a __________ scientist.
6. The company’s new office costs three thousand dollars. The company has a
new, __________ office.
7. I gave him a note for fifty pounds. I paid him with a __________ note.
8. I took a holiday for two weeks. I went on a __________ holiday.
9. The road was twenty-five kilometres long. We were driving along a
__________ road.

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10. The conference was planned for three days. We were invited to attend a
__________ conference.

Ex.5. Decide which adjectives are classifying and which are expressing
opinion. Put the adjectives in the correct order.
1. talented / jazz / black / musician
2. old / comfortable / stone-built / small / cottage
3. cotton / summer / stylish / white / new / dress
4. delicious / cheese / fresh / sandwich
5. wooden / rectangular / large / yellow / picture frame
6. rocking / beautiful / antique / chair
7. economic / recent / American / policy
8. elegant / grey / woolen / trendy / coat
9. enormous / glass / German / brown / mug
10. old-fashioned / marble / French / lovely / fireplace
11. shiny / large / expensive / brown / leather / case
12. old / several / English / beautiful / castles

Ex.6. Fill in the gaps with the following adjectives, which are used without
nouns. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
British, deaf, latter, good/bad, unpredictable, unemployed, underprivileged, blind,
rich, injured.

1. The government is cutting back on benefits for the __________ .

2. Sign language is usually taught to __________ to enable them to communicate.
3. After the accident, __________ were taken to the hospital.
4. __________ are famous for their love for traditions.
5. Everybody greeted Mr James and Mrs Brown; __________ was a world-
famous designer.
6. The survey showed that __________ control 90% of the country’s wealth.

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7. In sports, __________ often happens.
8. The purpose of the Lifeline Express is to bring healthcare to __________ who
do not have access to medical care.
9. They are training guide dogs for __________ .
10. __________ in him overweighs __________ .

Ex.7. Form adverbs from the following adjectives.

1. wonderful – wonderfully
2. comfortable –
3. full –
4. regular –
5. near –
6. close –
7. wrong –
8. happy –
9. scarce –
10. rare –

Ex.8. Say how often you do some of the following things. Use the adverbs of
frequency (always, sometimes, often, never, etc.) in the right places.
Drink coffee, go to the concert, cook, do crossword puzzles, chat on the phone
with your friends, visit the university library, go swimming, go shopping, play
computer games, read books in English, go abroad.

Ex.9. Put the adverbs in the right places. In some sentences more than one
variant is possible.
1. Public transport isn’t reliable. (always)
2. My parents don’t worry when I am late. (normally)
3. I can’t afford that. It’s expensive. (very)
4. I heard some noise in the yard. (suddenly)

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5. If I see Jack tonight, I’ll tell him this happy news. (definitely)
6. You don’t need to introduce Mr Smith; I have met him. (already)
7. I like this place and will stay here for a few more weeks. (certainly)
8. The teacher read my essay and changed everything I had written. (nearly;
carefully)
9. Ann is not responsible for what she does. We can’t rely upon her. (sometimes;
unfortunately)
10. I have been busy and bring work home from the office. (often; recently; very)
11. I began to feel better but it was early to go out by myself. (slowly; too; again)
12. We are having a meeting with our partners in Glasgow. We’ll be lucky to sign
a more profitable contract with them. (maybe; tomorrow; enough)
13. She’s been here a week, and she knows all the neighbours. (very well; already;
only)

Ex.10. Put the adverbs into their correct place in the text.
When Michael opened his café, he did not have any experience in business
and found out it was much more difficult than he had expected (three years ago,
absolutely, soon). Although the café was situated in a good place, he had
overlooked an important thing: advertising (conveniently, totally, very). As by that
time he had run out of money, he sent a letter to his uncle asking for a loan (nearly,
urgently, as soon as possible). The money arrived, and Michael put an
advertisement in the local paper (the next day, immediately, on the front page). His
café became popular (within weeks, tremendously).

Ex.11. Supply the right adverb. Some adverbs end in –ly and some not.
1. Be careful. Act carefully.
2. She is a hard worker. She works __________ .
3. The train is early. It has arrived __________ .
4. It was a serious injury. The man was injured __________ .
5. There was a heavy rain in the morning. It was raining __________ .

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6. It is a perfect report. You have prepared it __________ .
7. I get a monthly bill. I pay for the electricity __________ .
8. My name is last. On this list, I come __________ .
9. His bus was late. I had to wait because he came __________ .
10. Everything was very quiet. We were trying to move __________ .
11. You’ve used a bad paint. The door is painted __________ .
12. It was a brief meeting. The chief manager spoke to the employees only ____ .
13. My brother’s got a fast car. He usually drives very __________ .

Ex.12. Choose the right adverb to fill in the gaps.

1. Farm workers have to work very ________ during the harvest. (hard/hardly)
2. Farm workers ________ earn enough money to pay their bills. (hard/hardly)
3. We've been receiving a lot of junk mail ________ . (late/lately)
4. The postman brings my mail so ________ I rarely see it before I go to work.
(late/lately)
5. I'm sure the boss thinks very ________ of you. (high/highly)
6. If you want to succeed, you should aim ________ . (high/highly)
7. I don't think you were treated very ________ . (just/justly)
8. I've ________ been offered a job in Mexico! (just/justly)
9. Please don't go too ________ the edge of the platform. (near/nearly)
10. I ________ fell off the edge of the platform! (near/nearly)
11. When my Mother goes to London, she is ______ at the theatre. (most/mostly)
12. She has the ________ fun of all of us. (most/mostly)
13. The children are ________ to each other in age (close/closely).
14. I was sitting and watching everyone very ________ (close/closely).

Ex.13. Choose the right word.

1. Do you think that’s a (real/really) diamond in her ring?
2. Ann seemed (gentle/gently), but there was something cruel underneath.
3. She looked at me (kind/kindly), but didn’t say anything.

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4. You can eat (free/freely) at my restaurant whenever you like.
5. When I’m in the mountains I am always (good/well).
6. All buses are (late/lately) today. I wonder why.
7. She didn’t say a word and walked away (quick/quickly).
8. You seem very (angry/angrily). What’s up?
9. Joe and Ann have been (happy/happily) married for twenty years.
10. Get away from the road. That bus came very (close/closely).
11. He threw the ball (high/highly) into the crowd.
12. The topic was sensitive, that’s why she was speaking (careful/carefully).
13. I’ve (hard/hardly) seen you this month. Where have you been?
14. This sauce tastes (strange/strangely). What have you put into it?
15. The project was (near/nearly) complete when the customer suggested some
changes.

Ex.14. Put in so, such or such a.

1. It is difficult to compete with him because he is ________ experienced.
2. The trip was a success. We had ________ good time.
3. It was ________ boring lecture that most of the students stopped following it.
4. I didn’t know you lived ________ far from the university.
5. The prices are growing ________ fast these days, aren’t they?
6. It was ________ beautiful day, and we decided to go to the beach.
7. How can you say ________ thing! It’s unfair!

8. I was ________ tired that I fell asleep in front of the TV.

9. I couldn’t believe what she was saying. It was ________ shock.

10. We have to go. We didn’t realize it was ________ late.

Ex.15. Complete the following sentences using enough or too in the correct
place.
1. Are you going to get married soon? – No, I’m not. I’m ________ (young).

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2. Do you watch films in English? – No. I’m afraid my English is not ________

(good) to watch films in the original language.

3. Did you hear what he was saying? – Yes, he was speaking ________ (loud).

4. Shall we invite more people to the conference? – I’m afraid we won’t have

________ (room) for more people.

5. I can’t suggest anything new for the project. I haven’t got ________ creative

(ideas).
6. The situation was ________ (complicated) to explain to everybody.

7. She was ________ (shy) to become an actress.

8. We’d love to move to a bigger house but we don’t have ________ (money) at

the moment.
9. Let’s stay at home. It’s ________ (late) to go anywhere.

10. Don’t ask me to do it. I’ve got ________ (problems) of my own.

Ex 16. Write the comparative and superlative of the following adjectives and
adverbs.
Cheap, full, good, fast, easily, lazy, uncomfortable, nervous, useful, far, safe,
happy, fluently, much, narrow, little, intelligent, bad.

Ex.17. Complete the sentences using the comparative form of suitable

adjectives/adverbs.
1. The restaurant was surprisingly cheap. We expected it to be ________ .
2. You’re standing too near the camera. Can you move a bit ________ ?
3. The teacher was speaking too fast. The students asked him to speak ________ .
4. My present job is boring, so I hope to find something ________ .
5. If you want to successfully pass your exam, you should study ________ .
6. It’s a short walk from here to the park. I expected the park to be ________ .
7. We all hoped that he would recover fast but it took him much ________ .
8. You were quite upset yesterday. I’m glad you look much ________ today.
9. It’s a pity you live so far away. I wish you lived ________ .

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10. The instructions are very complicated. They could have been ________ .
11. Nine o’clock is late. Could you come any ________ ?
12. You don’t understand. You could understand me, if you were ________ .
13. Usually he is so absent-minded at lectures but because of the topic he is
listening to the speaker ________ today.
14. The centre of the city is usually so noisy. I’d like to stay at a hotel in a
________ place.

Ex.18. Complete the sentences using the superlative form of suitable

adjectives/adverbs.
1. It is a very valuable painting. Actually, it is ________ in the gallery.
2. We had a great holiday. It was one of ________ holidays we’ve ever had.
3. In order to save money we stayed at ________ hotel in the city.
4. Steve usually makes ________ mistakes in his group, or no at all.
5. February is ________ month of the year.
6. In the theatre, ________ seats are at the back.
7. The Taj Mahal is ________ building in the world.
8. Our new car is very economical. Actually, it uses ________ petrol of all the
cars we looked at.
9. I’m so tired after the trip! ________ thing for me would be to get home as soon
as I can.
10.Jane has done so much for the project. She has worked on it ______ of all of us.

Ex.19. Use the following intensifying words to complete the sentences:

very, too, far, much, a lot, rather, a bit, a little, any, by far, quite, nearly, almost

1. Go slower. You’re driving ________ fast for me.

2. I didn’t enjoy the meal _______ much.
3. I’m afraid the problem is ________ more complicated than it seems.
4. I thought she was younger than me, but in fact she is ________ older.

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5. She is ________ intelligent to believe it!
6. It was ________ the most stressful day in my life.
7. I’m sorry I’m a bit late but I couldn’t get here ________ sooner.
8. She fell and hurt her arm ________ badly.
9. The last of these reasons is ________ the most important.
10.How do you feel today? Are you ________ better?

Ex.20. Complete the sentences using the comparative constructions as ... as or

not so ... as/not as ... as. For comparison use the following adjectives:
much (x2), expensive, heavy, easy, interesting, fast, cold (x2), soon

1. Why don't you buy a motorbike? Motorbikes are ________ cars.

2. Her hands were ________ ice.
3. There's enough food for everybody. You can take ________ you want.
4. His last book didn't sell successfully because it was ________the previous one.
5. I'm sorry I'm late. I got here ________ I could.
6. It isn't warm today, but it is ________ yesterday.
7. The task was ________ I had expected but finally I managed to understand the
problem.
8. Can you give me the reply ________ possible, please?
9. It's the holiday season, so the traffic is ________ usual.
10. You can't expect the same profit because you have invested ________ me.

Ex.21. Translate into English.

Вдвічі більше, втричі менше, вп'ятеро важче, вдвічі старше, вчетверо довше,
вполовину коротше.

Ex.22. Complete the sentences using the comparative constructions -er and -
er/more and more... and the + comparative … , the + comparative … .
1. As I was waiting for my interview, I was getting ________ (nervous).

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2. Do you want a big house? - Yes, ________ (big), ________ (good).
3. It's ________ (hard) to find time for everything you'd like to do.
4. ________ (far) he was telling the story, ________ (much) we laughed.
5. ________ (dangerous) it is, ________ (much) I like it.
6. The grammatical topics are ________ (hard). I'm afraid I'll fail in the test.
7. ________ (much) I get to know you, ________ (little) I understand you.
8. We were getting tired and were walking ________ (slowly).
9. ________ (old) he gets, ________ (forgetful) he becomes.
10.My list of things to do gets________ (long).

Ex.23. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences.

1. Chinese food is the nicer than Indian I think.
2. It's a school for the deaf people.
3. Everyone seemed very nervously.
4. You aren't enough tall to play basketball.
5. Our house is so big as yours.
6. She spoke to us friendly.
7. I like your leather new nice jacket.
8. The trip was far much longer than we had expected.
9. I felt happyer in my previous job.
10. I tried hardly but I didn't succeed.
11. The afraid child was crying for his mother.
12. Let me know if you need any farther help.
13. It’s the more delicious dish I’ve ever tasted.
14. A new car is twice expensive as a second-hand one.
15. It was enough late to start a new project.

Ex.24. Translate into English.

1. Чим більше він читає англійською, тим менше користується словником.
2. Джейн виглядає вдвічі молодшою своєї сестри, хоча вона такого ж віку.

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3. Ти говориш занадто швидко. Вони тебе не розуміють.
4. Хоча у нас були дуже погані місця, нам дуже сподобалась вистава.
5. Він сердито подивився на мене. «Чому ти такий сердитий сьогодні?»-
запитав я.
6. Він недостатньо досвідчений, щоб очолити відділ.
7. Ти часто ходиш до бібліотеки? - Зазвичай я працюю в бібліотеці один раз
на тиждень, але зараз ходжу туди частіше, тому що скоро у нас дуже
важкий семінар.
8. Дводенна конференція була найцікавішою за останні три роки.
9. Ставало все темніше, і ми вирішили йти додому.
10.Молодим більше подобаються фільми-бойовики і фентезі.
11.Мені подобаються наші нові сусіди. Вони такі приємні люди і такі
доброзичливі до всіх.
12.Я бачив Джона тільки раз. Я мало знаю його.
13. Наш готель менш дорогий, ніж минулого разу, а розташований набагато

ближче до центру міста.

14. На іспиті я легко відповів на два питання, але останнє завдання було

набагато важчим.

365
 TEST YOURSELF

Test 1

Directions: Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. Wages and salaries account for nearly three fourth of the total national
A B C
income generated in the United States annually.
D
2. Farmers use chemicals on fruits and vegetables, and some of these
A B C
chemicals are very poisonous.
D
3. Mumps are a very common disease which usually affects children.
A B C D
4. The Lake Erie is one of the five Great Lakes in North America.
A B C D
5. Comets are apparently the more numerous bodies in the solar system
A B C
except for small meteor fragments.
D
6. Vitamin E, which is found in nutritious foods such as green vegetables
A B
and whole grains, action as an antioxidant in cell membranes.
C D
7. Fast-food restaurants have become popular because many working people
A B C
want to eat quick and cheap.
D
8. Staying in a hotel costs twice more than renting a room in a dormitory for
A B C
a week.
D
9. By the time the police located the stolen car, the thieves have already
A B C
escaped to Portugal.
D
10. Paul says they will get their exam results in two weeks time.
A B C D

366
11. The next important question we have to decide is when do we have to
A B C D
submit the proposal.
12. On a salary like his, it’s not surprised that he finds it hard to make ends
A B C D
meet.
13. Some of these people are friends of my and the rest of them are people
A B C D
from the office.
14. The food that Martha is cooking in the kitchen is smelling delicious.
A B C D
15. When I opened the fridge there were only a bottle of milk, a packet of
A B C
butter, and some eggs.
D
16. The company has so few money that it can hardly operate anymore.
A B C D
17. I don’t know if the manager will get back to the office today. But if he
A B C
does, I’ll tell him to call to you.
D
18. Did you know that sailors were not allowed to whistle on ships at sea?
A B
People use to believe that whistling would bring high winds and cause
C
danger to the ship.
D
19. Margaret Thatcher, who was Prime Minister of Great Britain for 12 years,
A B
is now known as Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven.
C D
20. Stephen Leacock, one of Canada’s great writers of humorous fiction, once
A
said about himself, “I’m a great believer in luck, and I find that the harder
B C
I work, the much I have of it.”
D

Test 2

367
Directions: Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases
marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. The doctor answered all our questions and gave us some advices on health
A B C D
issues.

2. The technician mends the photocopier so you can’t use it at the moment.
A B C D
3. A great number of reporters was at his press conference about minority
A B C D
rights.

4. Our journey to Niagara Falls was far long than we all thought it would be.
A B C D
5. I wanted to set up my own business, but because I didn’t have some capital,
A B C
I had to give up the idea.
D
6. According to official statistics, every day there is more than a dozen traffic
A B C D
accidents in the city.

7 Although both of them are trying to get the scholarship, she has the
A B C
highest grades.
D
8. The Vatican City or the Vatican, officially called the Holy See, is the world’s
A B
smallest independent state with a population of about 800, neither of whom
C D
are national permanent residents.

9. The more electricity you use, the high your bill will be.
A B C D
10. My brother doesn’t care how much does the car cost because he is going to
A B C D
buy it anyway.
11. The car is nice to drive, but I don’t like it’s colour.
A B C D
12. Mel’s grandmother is in the hospital, so we went to visit her last night.
A B C D

368
 13. Arthur was the youngest in the family, his twin sisters Melanie and Rosie
A B
were four years elder than him.
C D
14.Ten minutes are too little time to finish this report.
A B C D
15.Nuclear power does not use much fuel, one ton of uranium produces as
A B
many electricity as twenty thousand tons of coal.
C D
16.The price of crude oil was used to be a great deal lower than now.
A B C D
17.By the time you finish getting ready, we’ll miss the train.
A B C D
18.Alexander the Great became King when he was twenty and continued the
A B C
work that his father has begun.
D
19.You say that Notre Dame is half as higher as the Eifel Tower? – Exactly. It
A B
is one hundred fifty metres higher than Notre Dame.
C D
20.He says that neither the director nor the secretary want to leave yet.
A B C D

Test 3
Directions: Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases
marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. Many people in the west think that Brunei is in the Middle East but it isn’t;
A B
it’s in the East Asia, on the north coast of the island of Borneo.
C D
2. We had a very good weather while we were on holiday.
A B C D
3. A lot of dead fish has been found in the river next to the chemical plant.
A B C D
4. It has been raining for two days when suddenly the sun came out.
A B C D
5. AStatue of Liberty was a gift of friendship from France to the United States.
A B C D
6. In London there are a lot of streets with the same name and it’s very confused
A B C D

369
if you are a tourist.
7. Two years are a long time to be unemployed.
A B C D
8. I’m making breakfast. How many toasts do you want?
A B C D
9. Only about twenty per cents of the people voted in the local government
A B C
elections.
D
10. The average lead pencil can draw a line thirty-five mile long or write
A B
about thousand words.
C D
11. The problem of unemployment has became worse in recent months, and
A B
yesterday the president announced the introduction of a new set of measures to
C D
deal with it.
12. I remember she used to wear her hair shortly.
A B C D
13. Oxford is ninety kilometers from London – about an hour by car, bus or
A B C
train and only sixty-four kilometers from the Heathrow Airport.
D
14. According to research reports, people are usually turning in their sleep 25 to
A B C
30 times each night.
D
15. There is a new luxury five-star hotel in town, isn’t it?
A B C D
16. Tornadoes can pick up objects as heavy as automobiles and carry them for
A B
hundreds of foot.
C D
17. By Christmas, she will be working for our company for five years.
A B C D
18. Nick does not care how much does the car cost because he is going to buy it
A B C
anyway.
D
19. The steam engine is usually thought of as a relatively modern invention,
A B
but the Greeks had built a kind of steam engine in ancient times.
C D
20. Arthritis, a painful swelling of the joints, is often associated with elderly
370
 A B C
people, but it afflicts young as well.
D

Test 4
Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases
marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. The teacher’s comments are designed to help improve your knowledges and
A B C
understanding.
D
2. Three-quarter of the people interviewed said that they supported the
A B C
president.
D
3. Charlie Chaplin was a English film actor and a director, who did most of his
A B C
work in the USA.
D
4. There is a few chance that population growth will level off before 2050 at the
A B
earliest, but there are a few indications that the growth rate will probably keep
C D
declining.
5. This film is least exciting than the other one we saw.
A B C D
6. He has two watches, but neither of them doesn’t work properly.
A B C D
7. The colonists who first settled in New England did so because they felt there
A B C
was none social justice in their homeland England.
D
8. Stress on the job costs American companies as many as one hundred fifty
A B
billion dollars a year in lower productivity, unnecessary employee sick leave,
C D
and higher medical costs.
9. Have you seen some good films recently? – No, I haven’t been to the cinema
A B C D
for ages.
10. I don’t think he will have time to accept you and discuss the matter. He is

371
 A
leaving for the airport at 4 o’clock sharply.
B C D
11. Are bacon and eggs what he usually eats for breakfast?
A B C D
12. I found it difficult to convince the ticket inspector that I lost my ticket, but
A B C
he believed me in the end.
D
13. Although New Zealand is a very small country, the beauty of its nature
A B
including mountains, beaches, glaciers, and hot springs, attracts hundred of
C D
tourists every year.
14. It was only when I got home that I realised I forgot my keys in the office.
A B C D
15. The news he told his wife were a shock to her.
A B C D
16. Hopefully, he will have learn everything by the time he sits the exam.
A B C D
17. All the roads were blocked: it has been snowing all night long.
A B C D
18. London has twice as many banks as the rest of the south-eastern England.
A B C D
19. The worse earthquake in one hundred-forty years left Japan struggling for
A C B
survival on Friday, March 11, 2011.
D
20. I talked to the students and all think that both Mike and I have lots of money,
A B C
but we really don’t have very much.
D

Test 5

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. The world’s largest islands are Greenland and New Guinea, the largest
A B
lakes are Lake Superior, Lake Victoria and Lake Huron, the largest deserts are
372
 C
Sahara Desert and Australian Desert.
D
2. If you give us a five percents discount, we’ll make a firm order of five
A B C
thousand units.
D
3. The number of people who drink Coke for a breakfast in the United States is
A B C
nine hundred sixty-five thousand.
D
4. Last year Americans spent six times as much money for pet food than they
A B C
did for baby food.
D
5. Farther evidence is needed to support recent research which suggests that
A B C
certain chemicals found in broccoli may act as cancer preventatives.
D
6. She isn’t at home because she’s gone to hospital to visit her grandmother
A B C
who is ill with pneumonia.
D
7. The police thinks that more than one person was in the stolen car.
A B C D
8. The road was wet and slippery: it has been raining heavily all night.
A B C D
9. Your perfume is smelling so nice. What is it? – It is a new perfume called ‘In
A B C D
Love’.
10. A man is as old as he feels, and a woman is as old like she looks.
A B C D
11. The news on the radio and TV stations confirm that a serious storm is
A B C
approaching the city.
D
12. What’s the use of talking about diets if you are always nibbling chocolate
A B
biscuits or something between having meals?
C D
13. Phyllis had written two-third of the report when she was told they didn’t
A B C D
need it.
14. According to the economic laws, the greater the demand, the high the price.
A B C D
373
15. Both his parents are very proud of him for getting a good education, but
A B
none of them can understand why he can’t find a suitable job.
C D
16. We had hardly took our seats when the lights went out and the film started.
A B C D
17. America has cut its oil imports from the Middle East by seventy-three per
A B C
cents.
D
18. London has twice as more banks as the rest of south-eastern England.
A B C D
19. I’m not going to the lecture tonight because I’m not very interesting in the
A B C D
subject.
20. Immediately after the quake, powerful tsunami waves ten-foot high washed
A B C
up the coastal areas of Japan, causing complete destruction of the areas.
D

Test 6

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. Nobody love is as constant and unselfish as a mother’s.

A B C D
2. Only a month now remained and no a moment must be lost.
A B C D
3. The party was held in the house of the Johnson.
A B C D
4. The only thing that stood out clearly was his parentes house.
A B C D
5. The boy drove many sheeps in the direction of the village.
A B C D
6. I was presented with a dozens of handkerchiefs.
A B C D
7. I must have two tooths pulled out.
A B C D
8. The child were bitterly crying over the broken toy.
A B C D
374
9. The scout brought several valuable information.
A B C D
10. A very strange phenomena was observed by astronomers yesterday.
A B C D
11.What more books by Kipling besides “Mowgli” did you read in your
A B C D
childhood?
12.The book gives many food for thought.
A B C D
13.When I think of this, my heart turns for stone.
A B C D
14. No one had seen him since and the police was searching for him.
A B C D
15.A tiger is a big catlike animal ranging in several races from India to
A B C D
Siberia.
16. Jarie understood why Lanny didn’t come the previous evening.
A B C D
17. Everybody was at the bus station but the guide hadn’t come already.
A B C D
18. The librarian will registered all the books that come into the library by the end
A B C D
of the week.
1. I suppose that when my letter will reache you, you will return from your
A B C D
village.
20. We call Renaissance the time of the great revival of art and learning which has
A B C D
th th
covered the 15 and 16 centuries.

Test 7

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. The clouds were lieing so closely below the plane that nothing could be seen
A B C D
of the earth.
2. Soon he saw light in the distance and understood that he was on the right
A B C D
track.
375
3. The performance of the play proved to be a much deal better than I could
A B C
ever expect.
D
4. Many thousands of years ago Cyprus had been famous for its copper.
A B C D
5. The delegation will start for London as soon as they will receive their visas.
A B C D
6. During dinner while Andrew was chewing his piece of old meat, Mrs Page
A B
helped herself to wine and hot beefsteak.
C D
7. They completed all preparations for the fancy dress ball by 5 o’clock.
A B C D
8. No sooner she had opened the drawer when she found the photo which she
A B
thought she had lost.
C D
9. Our pilot had asking for permission to take off for ten minutes already, but
A B
he got no answer yet.
C D
10. Approximately 30 percent of all parents in the world let their children to
A B C
attend school.
D
11. Thomas hided the money somewhere close to his home.
A B C D
12. She drawed the curtain back and the room was flooded with gold.
A B C D
13. The girl written the address down on the card, which she gave to the servant
A B C
to post.
D
14. By the time the clock on the tower struck midnight the streets of a city were
A B C
almost deserted.
D
15. Will you have any more tea, Charles? I think you’ve had more than is good
A B C D
for you.
16. Latin is a dead language now, but it has been the international language
A B C
some four centuries ago.

376
 D
17. Americans share a number of values, among them achievement, practical,
A B C
material comfort and democracy.
D
18. Some individuals see the issue of smoking as a matter of personal freedom
A B C
of choices.
D
19. Society uses such human emotions as proud, shame, guilt.
A B C D
20.A competitive company can increase its profit by cutting its costs or
A B C
increase its sales.
D

Test 8

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. The boxis made with iron and has a tricky lock.

A B C D
2. Eskimos were the first people to live, hunt and traveling in the Siberian
A B C D
tundra.
3. Stores can bring in more customers when they staying open longer hours or
A B C
stock more things.
D
4. Playing jokes on April Fools Day is common in many regions, although
A B
none knows how the tradition began.
C D
5. An interest in architecture often involves preserving old buildings and
A B
modifying it for new uses.
C D
6. Plants with short roots system are best suited for areas where they do not
A B C
receive much rainfall.
D

377
7. By the time babies are seven months old their able to sit up without support.
A B C D
8. It is probably that a well- developed memory is crucial in learning a foreign
A B C D
language.
9. The Saudi Arabian economy depends large on the petroleum industry and oil
A B C D
production.
10. Veterinary medicine is the branch of medical science where deals with the
A B C
diseases of animals.
D
11. Research indicates that genetic inputs influence who we react to alcohol.
A B C D
12. What the violin-maker glues the violin parts together, he uses no nails or
A B C D
screws.
13. Not everyone wish to or can afford to purchase a home.
A B C D
14. Left to themselves, rain forests sustains their ecological systems indefinitely.
A B C D
15. During the day the sun warm the air near the earth’s surface and the heated air
A B C D
rises.
16. Cyclical unemployment figures include workers who lose their jobs because a
A B C D
recession.
17. Of all the paved roads in the nation 93 percent are covered by asphalt.
A B C D
18. Each of the musicians in the orchestra were rehearsing daily before the concert
A B C
tour began.
D
19. Side photographic light it dose not show surface detail as well as front light.
A B C D
20. Television news give you more information than radio news.
A B C D

Test 9

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

378
1. Although Japan is crowded, the Japanese has a high standard of living.
A B C D
2. Balm which grown in damp and shady woodlands is a tall, fragrant herb of the
A B C
mint species.
D

3. Cabbage and lettuce have such a short stems and broad leaves that they appear
A B C
to have no stems at all.
D
4. It is not known why many seeds undergo a period of dormancy even during the
A B C
times when conditions for them growth is favorable.
D
5. The price theory that represents the core of microeconomics explained how the
A B
variability of supply and demand in competitive markets creates the interplay of
C D
goods and services.
6. When wine grapes contain the proper amounts of acid and sugar required to
A B C D
produce wine.
7. Beef and dairy cattle is major sources of income in Louisiana, which has a mild
A B C D
climate.
8. The metric system is a system of measures and weights which is first adopted in
A B C D
France.
9. In ancient Rome people are used sticks made of metal with a pointed end for
A B C
writing on waxed tablets.
D
10. Stratford-on-Avon is a small town in central England where Shakespeare has
A B C D
been born.

11. Some two centuries ago when there were no trains, cars and trams, people used
A B C D
to travelling in carriages.
12. From the door he shouted that he will be back in two hours.
A B C D
13. The British labour movement developed as a means of improve working
A B C
379
 conditions through
group efforts.
D
14. Poverty in the United States is noticeably different from that in other
A B C
country.
D
15. Five-credits-hour courses are approved for the student’s work in the
A B C
major field of interest.
D
16. A small antelope similar to the chamois lives in rocky places from southern
A B C
African to the Sahara.
D
17. Emily Dickinson, whose poems were published after her dead, wrote about
A B C
love, nature, and eternity.
D
18. The article provides general informations about animals and tells why
A B C
animals are important to human beings.
D
19. William Harvey, the English doctor who discovered the circulate of the
A B C
blood, was born in 1578.

20. Roman numericals are written from left to right using the principle of
A B C
addition.
D

Test 10

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. Thousands of settlers gone west after the Civil War ended in 1865.
A B C D
2. The female turtle often walks away after covering her eggs and not return.
380
 A B C D
3. People can reduce stress by accepting events as they are, rather than as they
A B C
would likes them to be.
D
4. When a bee stings an animal, the insect's stinger remaining in the wound.
A B C D
5. Norman Rockwell illustrating covers of magazines, books for children, and
A B C
advertisements.
D
6. Each climate zone has its specifically features , which this research describes in
A B C
detail.
D
7. During the 1960's , the state of Alaska improved it's transportation facilities and
A B C
put together a statewide ferry fleet.
D
8. Some people weigh them every time they pass a weighing machine.
A B C D
9. London receives 23 millions of visitors a year from all over the world.
A B C D
10. Daniel Boone was born in Pennsylvania but lived in several states and die in
A B C D
Missouri.
11. In long-term memory, the stronger the connection between events, the likely
A B C
they are to be retrieved.
D
12. Studies of the sun may leads to the discovery of how the core of the sun heats
A B C
its outer atmosphere.
D
13. A little drivers can realize how many individual parts are necessary to
A B C D
assemble a car.
14. Much species of cacti live in places that have warm temperatures at least part
A B C D
of the year.
15. According to experts, few regions have as little plant life than deserts do.
A B C D
16. Computer graphics software has infinite applications in a widely array of
A B C D
fields.
381
17. Van Cliburn he studied piano from 1951 to 1954 and won multiple awards
A B C D
between 1958 and 1960.
18. Diagrams display informations in a conspicuous way and vividly show
A B C
differences and similarities.
D
19.The Great Depression serves as an example of drama fluctuation in the
A B
balanced wage rate.
C D
20. Although Connecticut occupies a small area, its weather can vary from one
A B C
area to others.
D

Test 11

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. What was you doing when I called you last night?

A B C D
2. Can't you fix that dripping tap? It's getting on my nerves - it's really irritated.
A B C D
3. If the general price level has be changing during the period under
A B
consideration, the figures recorded for the different years will have to be
C D
adjusted to take account of the price changes.
4. The trousers you bought for me doesn't fit me.
A B C D
5. He does not go to bed late and he always get up early.
A B C D
6. Peter is most cheerful of the three children.
A B C D
7. I never heard Ken criticise anyone since I have known him.
A B C D
8. Independence Day, commonly known as the Four of July, is a federal holiday
A B C
382
 in the United States.
D
9. The soldiers had to carry their equipments on their backs for miles.
A B C D
10. The storm area grew and drifted southwards during afternoon, while other
A B C D
storms developed over the north.
11. When he returns I give him the key.
A B C D
12. The instructions in the exam were very complicated and left the students
A B C
feeling totally confusing.
D
13. I met European yesterday who seemed to be very amiable and charming in
A B C D
outlook.
14. Your car is old! It is much dangerous than mine.
A B C D
15. Although he had asked everyone to bring their books, some boys didn't had
A B C D
any with them.
16. This box is very heavy. Don't worry I carry it for you.
A B C D
17. You'd better get up more earlier tomorrow, or you'll be late again.
A B C D
18. I'm getting a little worried because the baby has been crying since over half an
A B C D
hour.
19. By the time I got to their house, they have already left home.
A B C D
20. Tomorrow afternoon we're going to play tennis from 3 o'clock until 4.30. So at
A B C
4 o'clock, we will play tennis.
D

Test 12

383
Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases
marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. I wasn't listen when he started talking about the project.

A B C D
2. Can I borrow your scissors? Mine isn't sharp enough.
A B C D
3. In recent years a large volume of short-term capital or 'hot money' have been
A B C
moving from one country to another seeking greater security or higher interest
D
rates.
4. I didn't expect to see Peter at the party. I was really surprising to see him there.
A B C D
5. Mr. Robert have no objection to his daughter Sarah studying in the USA but he
A B C
refuses to let her work there.
D
6. She told me the most strangest story I had ever heard.
A B C D
7. We have spend £200 on food this month and there's another week to go before I
A B C
get paid.
D
8. Her sister is twentieth-seven years old. She is tall and she has long curly hair.
A B C D
9. He sometimes get dressed too quickly, and this morning he is wearing one blue
A B C D
sock and one red one!
10. I remember when Frank was last here. It was the Christmas when I got my
A B C D
new bike.
11. He'll be ready as soon as you will be.
A B C D
12. Anita was so embarrassing that her whole face turned red.
A B C D
13. If you're looking for the good clothes shop, I would recommend Harrison's.
A B C D
384
14. This exercise isn't very difficult. The next exercise is much difficult than this
A B C D
one!
15. When I realize my wallet had been stolen, I didn't know what to do.
A B C D
16. Do you want to borrow my car? Thanks, I bring it back tomorrow.
A B C D
17. The Galapagos are one of most expensive places in the world to visit.
A B C D
18. Don't be so negative! They don't know her. I sure they will like her.
A B C D
19. When I arrived home at seven o'clock, my sister hasn't had dinner yet.
A B C D
20. Do you think you will still doing the same job in ten years' time?
A B C D

Test 13

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. On Sunday morning the wind was blow softly so Peter decided to go

A B C D
windsurfing.
2. I don't like very hot weather. Thirty degrees are too warm for me.
A B C D
3. Plants and vegetables have been disappearing from my garden for we had new
A B C D
neighbours.
4. I find it relaxed to lie on the sofa and listen to music after a hard day's work.
A B C D
5. What was your parents reaction to your decision to be a lawyer?
A B C D
6. That was the most sweetest chocolate I have ever eaten.
A B C D
7. It's the first time I heard Mr James shout at anyone since he started teaching at
A B C D
385
 the school.
8. Susan has been the fourtenth girl to win such an expensive award since 2000.
A B C D
9. I am not go away for my holidays next month because I have not got enough
A B C D
money.
10. With the wedding and the new job, it was a summer she would always
A B C D
remember.
11.The lift will start as soon as you will press that button.
A B C D
12. I was really surprising when my employer gave me the day off.
A B C D
13. The Emperor Napoleon lost the battle of Trafalgar against the English led by
A B C D
Admiral Nelson.
14.They phoned me to say they have missed their train.
A B C D
15. Sue's homework wasn't very good. Your homework is better then Sue's.
A B C D
16. If you don't understand the exercise, I explain it to you.
A B C D
17. Boracay Island in the Philippines has best beaches I have ever seen.
A B C D
18. What speed was the car do at the time of the accident?
A BC D
19. My father knew Spain so well because he had visit the country four times.
A B C D
20.Don't phone me between 7 and 8. We will having dinner then.
A B C D

Test 14

386
Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases
marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. John Druise was drive when Michelle called him.

A B C D
2. The staff at the school isn't happy with their new working conditions.
A B C D
3. It's sometimes embarrassed when you have to ask people for money.
A B C D
4. I have been reading this book on astrophysics since hours and I'm still only on
A B C D
page 6.
5. This is an utopian idea i.e., in other words, it is highly impracticable.
A B C D
6. Paris is most cheerful city in France during Christmas.
A B C D
7. I marked twenty essays today, but I've still got five more before I go to bed.
A B C D
8. There are several thousands people in the national stadium to watch the soccer
A B C D
final.
9. What are you usually doing in your spare time? Have you got any hobbies?
A B C D
10. He was often kept awake in morning by their song which floated up through
A B C D
the window.
11. He will washes up before he goes to bed.
A B C D
12. By 12.00 Susan felt so tiring that she went to rest.
A B C D
13. Do you like oysters? I do, but I didn't like a fish I ate yesterday.
A B C D
14. Bob's garden isn't very big. Your garden is more bigger than Bob's.
A B C D
15. The reason was that they have forgotten the exact time of their departure.

387
 A B C D
16. A: Did you get the theatre tickets? B: No, I forgot all about them. I book them
A B C D
tomorrow.
17.Easter Island is the more interesting island I have ever visited.
A B C D
18. We can go out now. It is not rain anymore.
A B C D
19. She offered me dinner, but I had just eaten a sandwich, so I didn’t was hungry.
A B C D
20. Look, I can give you lift to the station. I will be driving that way anyway.
A B C D

Test 15

Directions:Each sentence (1 – 20) has four underlined words or phrases

marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must
be changed in order for the sentence to be correct.

1. They were all working when Michelle arrive.

A B C D
2. I can't find my binoculars. Do you know where they are?
A B C D
3. If I said anything as stupid as he did in front of a thousand people, I'd feel really
A B C
embarrassing.
D
4. In recent years, Brazilian companies have been putinga lot of money into
A B C
advanced technology developing.
D
5. How many music instruments did Eminem play?
A B C D
6. This meal is the more delicious I've ever eaten.
A B C D

388
7. I read a lot this week, but I have to get the book completely finished by this
A B C D
week end.
8. Million of people were in the streets to protest against the government's
A B C D
decision.
9. It's usually dry here at this time of the year. It do not rain much.
A B C D
10. They will wake up in morning, and find their video-recorder.
A B C D
11.I'll go on doing it until he tell me to stop.
A B C D
12. I heard the film was good, but it was very disappointed.
A B C D
13. I am afraid this is too serious a question for us to make a decision right away.
A B C D
14. The town isn't very clean. The country is clean than the town.
A B C D
15. As soon as she had lie, she wished she had told the truth.
A B C D
16. If you listen careful, you will hear an owl in the trees over there.
A B C D
17. I have just a little money, then I'll have cheapest menu.
A B C D
18. Catherine phoned me last night. She’s on holiday in France. She is having a
A B C
great time and don't want to come back.
D
19. Before coming to Siberia Tom hadn't never seen snow.
A B C D
20.This time tomorrow, Maria will be sunbathe on a beach in Majorca.
A B C D

389
 Key to the tests

№ Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5

1. B C C C D
2. B B B A A
3. A B C A B
4. A C A A C
5. B C A C A
6. C C D C C
7. D D B D B
8. B C C B C
9. C C B A A
10. D C B D C
11. D D A A B
12. B B D C B
13. C C D D B
14. C B B C D
15. B C D C C
16. B B D B A
17. C C B C D
18. C D B D C
19. B A D A C
20. D C D A C

№ Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9 Test 10

1. A B C C B
2. C B C A D
3. D B B A D
4. D C C D C
5. B D D D A
6. C D A A B
7. C A C B B
8. B B A D B
9. C A C A B
10. B D C D D
11. D A C D C
12. C A A C B
13. D A B C A
14. D C B D A
15. A B A A D
16. B B D C D
17. D C D B A
390
18. A D B B B
19. C C A C B
20. D D B A D

№ Test 11 Test 12 Test 13 Test 14 Test 15

1. A A C B D
2. D D C C D
3. B C C B D
4. C D B C B
5. D A B B B
6. B B B A B
7. A A A A A
8. C A B B A
9. C A B A C
10. D C D B C
11. C D C B D
12. D B B B D
13. B B A C B
14. B C C D C
15. D A D B A
16. C C C D B
17. B C C B D
18. C C B C D
19. C B D D C
20. D C C B D

391
ГРАМАТИЧНИЙ ДОВІДНИК

392
 ДІЄСЛОВО
THE VERB

Дієсловом називається частина мови, яка означає дію або стан. Дієслово
має особові (Finiteforms) і неособові форми (Non-Finiteforms).
Особові– це форми, які виражають особу, число, час, стан, спосіб і
виступають у реченні у функції присудка. Дієслова в англійській мові
можуть мати активний чи пасивний стан, дійсний, умовний чи наказовий
спосіб.
Дійсний спосібозначає реальну дію, яка відбувається, відбувалася чи
відбуватиметься:
America believes in education: the average professor earns more money in a
year than a professional athlete earns in a whole week.(EvanEsar)
Умовний спосібвиражає не реально виявлену дію, а лише бажану або
можливу за певних умов:
If I had to live my life again, I'd make the same mistakes, only sooner.
(Tallulah Bankhead)
Наказовий спосіб виражає наказ, спонукання, прохання, побажання і т.
ін.:
To avoid criticism, do nothing, say nothing, be nothing.
(ElbertHubbard)Неособові форми не мають звичайних форм особи, числа,
способу і не бувають у реченні присудком, хоча і можуть входити до його
складу. До неособових форм належать інфінітив (theInfinitive), герундій
(theGerund) і дієприкметник (theParticiple).
За значенням і функцією в реченні дієслова можуть бути смисловими,
допоміжними і напівдоміжнимими.
До смислових дієслів належать дієслова, які мають самостійне значення і
вживаються в реченні у функції простого присудка:
I know Kung Fu, Karate, and 47 other dangerous words. (Jo Ramos)

393
 Допоміжні – це ті дієслова, які не мають самостійного значення і
допомагають утворювати складні форми дієслова. До них належать: to be, to
have, to do, shall, should, will, would.
The future will be better tomorrow. (Dan Quayle)
The cost of living is going up and the chance of living is going down. (Flip
Wilson)
Напівдопоміжні – це дієслова, що не мають повністю самостійного
значення і можуть бути присудком лише в поєднанні з іншими дієсловами.
До них відносяться дієслова-зв’язки та модальні дієслова.
Дієслова-зв’язки допомагають утворювати складений іменний присудок.
Основним дієсловом-зв’язкою є дієслово tobe. Проте ряд інших дієслів таких,
як: tobecome, toget, togrow та деякі інші можуть виступати в ролі дієслова-
зв’язки:
America is a mistake, a giant mistake. (Sigmund Freud)
До модальних дієслів належать can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will,
need, dare, а також to be, to have у значенні зобов’язання.Модальні дієслова
виражають можливість, необхідність, бажаність здійснення дії і в сполученні
з інфінітивом утворюють складний модальний присудок:
You can lead a man up to the university, but you can't make him think.(Finley
Peter Dunne)
Основними формами англійського дієслова є:
1) інфінитив (theInfinitive);
2) минулий простий(неозначений ) час (thePastSimple (Indefinite) Tense);
3) дієприкметник минулого часу (thePastParticiple);
4) дієприкметник теперішнього часу (the Present Participle).
За способом утворення простого минулого часу і дієприкметника
минулого часу дієслова в англійській мові поділяються на правильні
(RegularVerbs) та неправильні (IrregularVerbs).
В англійській мові, як і в українській є перехідні (Transitive Verbs) і
неперехідні дієслова (Intransitive Verbs).

394
 Перехідні дієслова означають дію, що переходить
боспрямовананапредмет або особу, тобто вони можуть мати прамий додаток:
to buy, to ask, to translateта ін.
Неперехідні дієслова означають дію, що прямо не переходить на предмет
чи особу. Такі дієслова не можуть мати прямого додатка: togo, toliveта ін.
Деякі дієслова можуть бути як перехідними, так і неперехідними:
tomove, tostopта ін.

Дієслова to be і to have.

Дієслово tobe в англійські мові може вживатися як самостійне,

допоміжне, дієслово-зв’язка та модальне.
На відміну від інших англійських дієслів, дієслово tobe може
відмінюватися за особами і в запитальній або заперечній формі не потребує
допоміжного дієслова:

Відмінювання дієслова to beв Present Indefinite

Стверджувальна форма Питальна форма Заперечна форма

I ama student. Am I a student? I am nota student

He (she, it) is a student.
We are students.
You are students.
They are students.
Is he (she, it) a student?
Are we students ?
Are you students?
Are they students?
He (she, it) is not a
student
We are not students.
You are not students.
They are not students.

В усному мовленні перевага надається скороченим формам: I’m, he’s,

she’s, it’s, we’re, you’re, they’re, heisn’t, theyaren’t.
Дієслово tohave може вживатись як самостійне, допоміжне, модальне.
Дієслово tohave має особливу форму в PresentIndefinite третьої особи
однини he/she/ithas.

395
 ЧАСИ ДІЄСЛОВА
TENSES

В англійській мові існує чотири групи часових форм дієслова: Simple

(Indefinite) Tenses(прості (неозначені) часи), ContinuousTenses (тривалі часи),
PerfectTenses (доконані або перфектні часи)таPerfectContinuousTenses
(доконано-тривалі часи). Кожна з цих груп має свій теперішній (Present),
минулий(Past) та майбутній(Future) час. Існує також особлива форма
відносного часу, яка виражає майбутню дію відносно минулого часу – Future-
in-the-Past.

396
 ГРУПА ТЕПЕРІШНІХ ЧАСІВ
Утворення стверджувальних, заперечних та питальних форм

Present Simple Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous

am have have
V, V-s is + V-ing has + V-ed/3* has + been + V-ing
are

+ + + +
I (we, you, they) wait, work I am waiting. I (we, you, they) have left. I (we, you, they) have been
H e (she, it) waits. He (she, it) is waiting. He (she, it) has left waiting
We/ (you, they) are waiting. I have =I’ve; he has = he’s He (she, it) has been waiting

- - - -
I am not (‘m not) waiting. I//We/You/They have not I (we, you, they) haven not (=
I//We/You/They do not He/She/It is not (isn’t) (haven’t) left haven’t) been waiting long.
(don’t) wait. waiting. He/She/It has not (hasn’t) He/She/It has not (hasn’t) been
He/She/It does not (doesn’t) We (you, they) are not left. waiting long.
397
wait. (aren’t) waiting.

? ? ? ?
Do I/you/we/they wait? Am I waiting? Have I (we, you, they) left? Have I (we, you, they) been
Yes, I do. / No, I don’t. Is he (she, it) waiting? Yes, I have. waiting long? - Yes, I have.
Does he (/she, it) wait? Are we/you/they waiting? No, I haven’t. No, I haven’t.
Yes, he does. Yes, we/they are. Has he (she, it) left? - Has he (she, it) been waiting
No, he doesn’t. No, we/ they aren’t. Yes, he has. long?
No, he hasn’t. Yes, he has.
*Див. список неправильних No, he hasn’t
дієслів

Правила написання дієслівних форм

Present Simple Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect

Теперішній простий Теперішній тривалий час Теперішній доконаний час Continuous
(неозначений) час - ing - ed Теперішній
V-s доконано-тривалий
час - ing

398
Всі дієслова, крім модальних, 1. Якщо дієслово в інфінітиві При утворенні -ed форм слід
набувають закінчення -s або -es закінчується на дотримуватися наступних
для 3 особи однини. • німий - e, правил орфографії: див. «Present
He swims, she runs, it sleeps, the то цей голосний опускається і 1. Якщо дієслово в інфінітиві Continuous»
dog barks додається закінчення - ing. закінчується на
При цьому слід дотримуватися make - making, dictate – dictating, • німий - e,
наступних правил орфографії: advise - advising, argue – arguing то цей голосний опускається і
1. Дієслово 3 особи однини додається закінчення -ed.
набуває закінчення – es якщо 2. Якщо дієслово складається з live - lived, dance – danced
закінчується на одного складу і закінчується на • приголосний + y ► i + ed,
● -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o ►es один приголосний з попереднім ‘y’ змінюється на i’ і додається
I go – she goes коротким голосним звуком, то при закінчення ‘ed’:
I kiss – he kisses додаванні закінчення -ing кінцевий try - tried, modify - modified
I wash - he washes приголосний подвоюється. Якщо ж перед ‘y’ - голосний, то
we watch – he watches sit – sitting, put – putting ‘y’ зберігається:
we fix – he fixes plan – planning, run - running stay - stayed, play - played
● приголосний + y ► es, Порівняйте:
при цьому ‘y’ змінюється на ‘i’ hop – hopping, але hope - hoping; 2. Якщо дієслово складається з
I copy - he copies tap – tapping але tape – taping одного складу і закінчується на
I try - he tries один приголосний з попереднім
399
 I fly - he flies 3. Якщо дієслово в інфінітиві
закінчується на -ie, то
2. Якщо дієслово закінчується на • -ie змінюється на ► -y + ing
голосний + y ► s, die - dying
то 'y', не змінюється і додається tie - tying
закінчення –s, як і у всіх інших lie - lying
випадках.
say – says 4. Якщо дієслово складається з
buy – buys двох складів і наголос падає на
destroy – destroys • другий склад, то кінцевий
приголосний подвоюється і
додається закінчення -ing.
be'gin - beginning,
refer - referring, omit - omitting
• перший склад, то ніяких змін не
відбувається, тільки додається
закінчення -ing.
′offer - offering, listen - listening,
open - opening, differ - differing
коротким голосним звуком, то
кінцевий приголосний
подвоюється.
rob - robbed, plan - planned,
stop - stopped, shop - shopped
3. Якщо дієслово складається з
двох або більше складів і
наголос падає на останній склад
з коротким голосним звуком, то
кінцевий приголосний
подвоюється.
per'mit - permitted
4. Якщо слово закінчується на
‘l’, то незалежно від того, чи
падає наголос на останній склад
чи ні, ‘l’ подвоюється.*
quarrel - quarrelled
400
 5. Якщо слово закінчується на ‘l’, travel – travelled
то незалежно від наголосу ця
буква подвоюється.* *(Am. E.) travel –traveled
control - controlling
cancel – cancelling
travel – travelling
* (Am.E.) travel-traveling

Типи питальних речень

Present Simple Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous

Теперішній простий час Теперішній тривалий час Теперішній доконаний час Теперішній доконано-
тривалий час

Nick generally communicates Kelly is learning to drive at Anita has bought a notebook. It has been raining for about
with me by email or by phone. the moment. She is trying to She hasn’t sold her old two hours.
He sends me messages quite park the car at the appointed computer yet.
often. space.

401
He sends you messages quite
often, doesn’t he?
– Yes, he does.
He doesn’t phone you every
day, does he?
- No, he doesn’t.
Does he send you messages
quite often?
Doesn’t he send you
messages every day?
Does he call you every day or
every week?
How often does he send you
messages?
Who sends you messages so
often?
Примітка:
Якщо у кінці репліки має moment?
бути коротке заперечне пи-
тання до ’I am”, то вжива-
Kelly is parking her car, isn’t Anita has bought a notebook,
she? hasn’t she? It has been raining for about
two hours, hasn’t it?
– Yes, she is. - Yes, she has. - Yes, it has.
Kelly is not driving to us, is Anita hasn’t sold her old It hasn’t been raining all day
she? notebook yet, has she? - No, today, has’t it? - No, it
– No, she isn’t. she hasn’t. hasn’t.
Is Kelly taking the car to her Has Anita bought a new Has it been raining long?
garage? notebook? - Yes, she has. How long has it been raining?
Isn’t Kelly parking the car at Has she sold her old computer Since when has it been
the appointed space? yet? raining?
Is she parking the car at the Hasn’t she sold her old
appointed space or is she computer yet?
taking it to the garage? Примітка:
Where is she parking the car? У запитаннях, що
What is Kelly doing? починаються з when завжди
Who is learning to drive at the вживається Past Simple, a не
Present Perfect.
Порівняйте:
402
ється форма ‘aren’t I?’ They’ve bought a new luxury
Порівняйте: car. – Have they? When did
I’m a bit late, aren’t I? they buy it?
Но: I’m not late, am I?

Загальна таблиця випадків використання

Present Simple Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect

Continuous

always now ever How long....?

every day/week/month/year at the moment never for twenty minutes
usually, generally at present just for half an hour
very/quite often these days already for an hour
sometimes nowadays yet for an hour and a half
now and then currently (=at the present not yet for hours
occasionally time) lately, recently for a few days, etc.
(very) rarely still so far since
never always this week, today all day/night/morning (long)
on Sunday since all this time
at weekends all this time

Примітка: зазвичай

403
ставляться перед дієсловами,
але після ‘am/is/ are’.
Порівняйте:
They usually eat out on Sunday.
You are always busy.
1. Постіний стан або явище.
I have a friend Maxim. We are
students. We both like sport and
fast driving.
2.Звичайні дії, які
відбуваються постійно,
часто, зрідка, іноді і под.
Maxim usually waits for me after теперішньому часі
classes. When I get to the office,
I always check up my email.
Це звичайні явища. Таке буває
завжди або відбувається
1. Дія, яка відбувається 1. Дії, які почалися у минулому 1. Дії, які почалися у
зараз, у момент і продовжуються у минулому і
говоріння теперішньому, особливо з продовжуються у
Look, Maxim is waiting дієсловами, які не можуть теперішньому, але, на
for you. Зараз, у цей використовуватися у відміну, від Present Perfect,
момент, ми це бачимо. тривалому часі: be, have, hear, акцентується на
like, love, hate, know, understand, тривалості, тобто той, що
2. Дія, яка відбувається etc. говорить підкреслює,
не в цей момент, але Характерні «показники» часу: скільки часу це триває (for
цими днями, у a) since, for; an hour/for a week, all
I have known Emily since we were morning, all this time).
My brother is looking for a at school. She has been the
new job these days. manager of our firm for 5 years. Maxim has been waiting for
Ищет работу не именно you for half an hour. Він
сейчас, но в эти дни. b) ever, never, so far, yet, etc.; чекає певний проміжок .
404
доволі часто.
3.Загальновідомі істини і 3. Дія, яка запланована,
закони природи. підготовлена і має
The sun rises in the east. відбутися найближчим
Ice melts when heated. Money is часом.
not the solution to every Daniel is leaving for Paris
problem. tomorrow. Вона їде до
Парижа завтра. Усе
вирішено і вже
підготовлено. Квиток
куплено, речі складено.
4. Розклад (потягів, літаків і 4. Зі словом ‘always’,
под.), а також програми, (час коли дія відбувається
початку фільмів, шоу, дуже часто, і це вас
матчів). дратує. У цьому
The train to Paris leaves at 10 випадку ‘always’
a.m. можно перекласти , як
Our next meeting is on Monday, ‘завжди’.
I’ve never been to Africa before.
Це мій перший візит. Див.додаток 5 - Перелік
Has he decided yet what to do? дієслів, які не мають форм
тривалого часу і
с) а також конструкції: вживаються у Present
It’s (This is) the first time I (we, Perfect, a не у Present
you, he, etc.) have/has done smth. Perfect Сontinuous.
It’s the third time he has phoned
her this evening. It’s the best 2.Пояснює результат
comedy I’ve ever seen. It’s the нещодавної дії.
most attractive offer we’ve ever The roads are wet. It has
had. been raining all night long.
Не дивно, що дороги мокрі.
2. Дії, які сталися у минулому, Дощ лив усю ніч
але коли конкретно невідомо і безперестанку.
це неважливо. Головне – те, що You look so tired! – I’m. I’ve
це сталося. been driving all day.
Maxim has left. Your eyes are red and puffy.
Невідомо і неважливо, коли Have you been crying?
Максим пішов. Головне – його
405
as usual. It starts at 10 a.m. She is always doubting my тут немає. 3. Передає відтінок
words. Типово для передачі новин, незадоволення та
5.З дієсловами, які не мають You are always повідомлень про недавні події. роздратованості.
форми тривалого часу: interrupting me. Т и Have you heard the news? Mary Who has been taking money
- know, remember, forget, regret, завжди мене перериваєш, has got married. Our telephone out of my purse?
understand, realize, believe; і це мене дуже number has changed. Це вже не вперше. Таке
- want, wish, need, prefer, like, дратує/злить. сталося двічі на цьому
love, admire, hate; 3. Дії, які сталися нещодавно, і тижні.
- have, own, belong to, include; 5. Загальний стан результат цих дій ми бачимо в
- hear, see, smell, taste, etc. справ, ситуація в теперішньому Часто у
цілому змінюється ( з поєднанні з just, recently, already,
6. У конструкції кожним днем, роком, у yet.
‘Why don’t you/we ….?’ - наші дні). I’ve just washed my hair.
Чому б вам /нам не ….?, коли The climate on our planet Результат: моє волосся мокре.
ми пропонуємо щось зробити . is getting warmer and Look, mum! We’ve picked a lot of
Why don’t you contact Eric – he warmer every year. More mushrooms. Результат наявний:
may be able to help? and more people are скоріш за все, повний кошик
choosing to spend their грибів.
7.У запитаннях, holidays abroad. 4. Дії, які відбулися today, this
роз'ясненнях, інструкціях,
406
наприклад, як пройти кудись
або як приготувати якусь
страву.
- How do I get to your office? -
When you get off the bus, you
go straight on to the traffic
lights, then you come to a bank,
you turn left and then …..
8. У реченнях умови після if
(якщо), unless (якщо тільки
не)’, а також у додаткових
реченнях часу після when, as
soon as та інш.
If Dennis studies hard, he will
pass his exams. If Dennis
doesn’t study hard, he won’t
pass his exams. = Unless Dennis
studies hard, he won’t pass his
exams.
morning/week/month/year,
за умови, що це ранок чи день і
т.д. не завершилися до моменту
мовлення.
I haven’t seen our HR manager
this morning. Have you?
Важливо розрізняти:
have gone to/ have been to/
have been in
Have you ever been to Italy? –
Yes, I’ve been there three times.
Я побувала там тричі. З'їздила і
повернулася додому.
Where’re our new neighbours? -
They’ve gone to Italy.
Поїхали кудись до Італії і поки
не повернулисяь.
They have been in Italy for 3
months.
407
Увесь цей час вони
знаходяться /живуть там.

408
 Не мають форми тривалого часу дієслова, що виражають

1. почуття і емоції: like, love, adore, detest, dislike, prefer, hate;

2. бажання і потреби: want, wish, desire, need, satisfy;
3. приналежність, власність: have, own, possess, belong, etc.;
4. сприйняття органами чуття: see, look, hear, sound, smell, taste, feel;
5. згоду, здогадку, думку, сумнів, розумове сприйняття: agree, guess, believe/think/suppose, expect (that), doubt,
forget, remember, recognize, remind, resemble, realise, know, notice, understand, etc.;
6. дієслова на позначення стану або зміни стану: remain/stay (=continue to be), keep, seem/appear, prove;
7. інші дієслова, які не можуть виражати дію або стан як процес:
be, consist of, contain, comprise, include, mean, matter, depend on, rely
on, require, cost, etc.

Дієслова, які можуть вживатися у тривалому часі, але при цьому їх значення змінюється

Present Simple Present Continuous

(стан) (дія)

smell It smells (пахне) of spring. She is smelling (нюхає) the roses.

It smells of freshly baked bread.

409
taste It tastes (на смак) very good.
I see (розумію) what you mean.
see I can see (бачити) a light in the
distance.
look Angela doesn’t look (не
виглядає) her age at all.
You look (виглядаєш) so pretty
in this dress.
feel The scarf feels (на дотик) soft.
I feel (відчуваю, думаю) we
shouldn’t do it.
have They have (мають) a beautiful
house in Green Street.
I’m tasting (куштую) the soup to
see if it is OK.
I’m seeing (зустрічаюсь) Sam
this evening.
We’re looking (дивимося) at the
photos.
I’m just feeling (торкаюсь,
пробую на дотик) the quality of
this towel.
We are having a party (буде
вечірка) this Saturday.
* have breakfast/lunch/dinner;
have a shower/a bath;
have a party/ a meeting;
have problems/difficulties
410
think What do you think (думаєш … - What are you thinking (думаєш)
твоя думка) of the government? about, Vic? – About our journey
to Italy.

expect I expect (думаю, гадаю) that We are expecting

you’re tired. Economists expect (очікуємо,чекаємо) Alison
(вважають, очікують) that the home any minute now.
rate of inflation will rise.

fit This jacket fits (сидить на) you The plumber is fitting
pretty well. The music fits (встановлює) the sink at the
(підходить) the words perfectly. moment.

weigh Now the baby weighs (важить) The nurse is weighing (зважує)
more. the baby.

411
 ГРУПА МИНУЛИХ ЧАСІВ
Утворення стверджувальних, заперечних та питальних форм

Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous

V-ed/2* was had + V-ed/3* had + been + V-ing

+ V-ing
were
+ + + +
I/we/you/he/she/it/they waited I/he/she/it was waiting I/we/you/he/she/it/they had I/we/you/he/she/it/they had
I/we/you/he/she/it/they went We/you/they were waiting reported been reporting
I/we/you/he/she/it/they had
written
- - - -
I/we/you/he/she/it/they did I he/she/it was not (wasn’t) I/we/you/he/she/it/they had I/we/you/he/she/it/they had
not (didn’t) wait waiting not (hadn’t) reported not ( hadn’t) been reporting
We/you/they were not I/we/you/he/she/it/they had
I/we/you/he/she/it/they did (weren’t) waiting not/hadn’t written
not (didn’t) go

412
 ? ? ? ?
Did I/we/ you/he/she/it/they Was I/he/she/it waiting? Had I/we/you/he/she/it/they Had I/we/you/he/she/it/they
wait? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t. Were I/we/you/they waiting? reported ?Yes, I had. been reporting? Yes, I had.
Did I/we/ you/he/she/it/they Yes, I was. No, I wasn’t. No, hadn’t. No, I hadn’t.
go? Yes, they did. No, they Yes, we were. No, we Had I/we/you/he/she/it/they
didn’t. weren’t. written? Yes, I had.
No, I hadn’t.

Типи питальних речень

Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous

Last summer Jacob visited his It was early spring morning. By the time Mathew arrived, Rachel had been training for
friend in Florida. They had a Rachel was sitting in a the lecture had already six months before she got a
very good time together. pavement café and enjoying started, and the professor had promotion.
her first cup of strong coffee. outlined the planof their work.

413
Did Jacob visit his friend in
winter? - No, he didn’t.
Did they have a good time
together? -Yes, they did.
Did Jacob go to Florida or to
Taxes? - He went to Florida.
Jacob visited his friend last
summer, didn’t he? - Yes, he
did.
Jacob didn’t enjoy the
company of his friend, did he? coffee, was she? –Yes, she
- Yes, he did.
Was Rachel sitting in her
kitchen? - No, she wasn’t.
Was she enjoying her first
cup of coffee? -Yes, she was.
Was she sitting in a café or in Had the professor explained
a restaurant? - She wassitting
in a pavement café.
Rachel was sitting in a
pavement café, wasn’t she? -
Yes, she was.
She wasn’tenjoying her
was.
Had the lecture started when
Mathew arrived? -Yes, it had. forlong before she got a
Had the lecturer explained
many rulesby the time
Mathew arrived?-No, he
hadn’t.
many rulesoroutlined the
planof their workby the time
Mathew arrived? – He had
outlinedthe planof their work
The lecturehadn’t started yet
when Mathew arrived, had it?
- Yes, it had.
The professor had outlinedthe
planof their workwhen
Mathew arrived, hadn’the? -
Yes, hehad.
Had Rachel been training
promotion? -Yes, she had.
Had she been training for a
year? -No, she hadn’t.
Had she been training for a
year or for six monthsbefore
she got a promotion?- She had
been training for six months.
Rachel had been training for
six months before she got a
promotion, hadn’t she?-Yes,
she had.
Rachel hadn’t been training
for a year before she got a
promotion, had she? – No, she
hadn’t.
414
When did Jacob visit his WherewasRachel sitting? – Whathad the professor How long had Rachel been
friend? - He visited his friend She was sitting in a pavement explained/said by the trainingbefore she got a
last summer. café. timeMathew came? – He had promotion? – She had been
Wheredid Jacob go on holiday Who was enjoying a cup of outlined the plan of their training for six months.
last summer? - Jacob wentto strong coffee? - Rachelwas. work. Who hadbeen training for six
Florida. Whohad outlined the planof months? - Rachel had.
Who went to Florida last their workby the timeMathew
summer? - Jacob did. came?– The professor had.

Випадки вживання минулих часів

Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous

1. Дія, що відбулася в 1. Дія, яка тривала в 1.Дія чи стан, які 1. Дія, яка тривала в
певний час в минулому. певний час в минулому. закінчились до іншої дії чи минулому і почалась
Час вказаний чи Час початку чи моменту в минулому. раніше іншої дії,
відомий з контексту. закінчення дії All the documents had been вираженоївPastSimple, іяка
Yesterday I called Jason on невідомий, у контексті ready by 5’clock. I had already тривала протягом
the phone. We had a long не вказано. worked in marketing before I певногоперіодучасу,
talk. What were you doing in joined my present company. нащовказують зазвичай
415
 the office at 8 o’clock такі слова, як ‘since’,
2.Послідовні дії, які yesterday evening? We 2. Дія , яка завершилась в ‘for’таін.
відбувались were still considering new минулому та результати дії Alan had been
безпосередньо одна за commercial offers. спостерігались теж в lookingforanother job forabout
одною в минулому. минулому. a year before he finally found
Helen went out, took a taxi 2.Дія, яка тривала в той what he wanted.
and rushed to the office. час, як інша дія її 3. Вконструкціях She had been cooking all day
перервала. nosooner … than = when Louis phoned her and
3.Звичні повторювані Cameron was talking on hardly …when(ледве/не встиг said that they wouldn’t come.
минулі дії. the phone when Sheila …, як ….),які підкреслюють,
Last year they sent me an came. що одна діявідбуласьвідразу, 2. Дія, яка тривала певний
accountingevery month. While we were developing як тількивідбулась інша. період часу в минулому та
Часто для вираження a new working model, the Зазвичайутакихвипадкахвж чиї результати
повторюваних дій або company decided to stop иваєтьсяінверсія. спостерігались в
стану в минулому the project. No soonerhad she reached the минулому.
вживається telephone than it stopped It had been raining hard all
usedto(раніше, бувало). 3. Дві чи більше дій, що ringing. = She had no sooner night long. The roads were wet
Ron used to smoke heavily тривали одночасно в reached the phone than it in the morning.
when he was at university. певний час в минулому. stopped ringing.
Now he doesn’t smoke at While they were discussing Hardlyhad she hung up the Слова, з якими часто
all. the terms and conditions of
416
Nicole didn’t use to go out
much until she met Paul.
(Now she goes out very
often.)
Слова, з якими часто
вживаєтьсяPastSimple:
yesterday, last night/ week/
month/ year, three days/
weeks/ months ago, in
2002,How long ago ….?,
When ….?, та ін.
the contract, the secretary
was typing.
Слова, з якими часто
вживаєтьсяPastContinuou Слова, з якими часто
s:
when, while, as, still, all
morning/day /night,та ін.
phone when it rang again. = вживаєтьсяPastPerfect:
She had hardly hung up the for, since, before, until, till, all
phone when it rang again. night/ morning/ day
(long),How long …?, Since
when …?, та ін.
вживаєтьсяPastPerfect:
ever, never, just, already, before,
after, till, until, when, by, by the
time, hardly…when,no sooner …
than, та ін.

ГРУПА МАЙБУТНІХ ЧАСІВ

Утворення стверджувальних, заперечних та питальних форм

Future Simple Future Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous

+ + + +
I will type. = I will be typing. = I will have typed. = I will have been typing. =
I’ll type I’ll be typing. I‘ll have typed. I’ll have been typing.
He /She/It/We/You/They He/She/It/ We/You/They He/She/It/We/You/They He/She/It/ We/You/They

417
 will type. = will be typing. = will have typed. will have been typing.=
’ll type. ’ll be typing. ’ll have typed. ‘ll have been typing.

- - - -
I/He She/It/We/You/They I/He She/It/We/You/They I/He She/It/We/You/They I/He She/It/We/You/They
will not type = will not be typing. = will not have typed. = will not have been typing. =
won’t type won’t be typing. won’t have typed. won’t have been typing.

? ? ? ?
Will I/he/she/it type? Will I /he/she/it be typing? Will I/he/she/it have typed? Will I/he/she/it have been
Will we/you/they type? Will we/you/they be typing? typing?
* Shall вживається в Will we/you/they have been
основному з I, we коли ви typing?
у ввічливій формі
просите поради чи
вказівок або пропонуєте
свою допомогу, участь.
Shall I help you with your
luggage? Shall I do it right
away?

418
 Типи питальних речень

Future Simple Future Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous

We haven’t decided about our I’m sorry, Fred. We can’t meet I expect she will have By next Friday, Samuel and
holiday yet. Most probably, at 10 o’clock. This time changed her mind by his friends will have been
we’ll go to Nice this summer. tomorrow morning, I’ll be tomorrow. cruising in the Mediterranean
taking my driving test. for about two weeks.

Will you go to France on
holiday this summer? – Yes,
we will.
Won’t you go to Canada this
summer? – No, we won’t.
Will you be taking your Will she have changed her Won’t they have been
driving test at this time mind by tomorrow? - Yes, (I cruising in the Mediterranean
tomorrow morning? – Yes, I think) she will. for three weeks by next
will. Won’t she have changed her Friday? – No, they won’t.
Won’t you be taking your mind by tomorrow? - No, (I’m Will they have been cruising
driving test at 9 o’clock? – No, afraid) she won’t. in the Mediterranean for about
I won’t. two weeks by next Friday? –
Yes, they will.

You will go on holiday to You’ll be taking your driving She will have changed her By next Friday, they will have
France, won’t you? - Yes, (I test at 10 o’clock tomorrow mind by tomorrow, won’t been cruising in the

419
think) we will.
You won’t go on holiday to
Сanada this year, will you? -
No, we won’t.
morning, won’t you? - Yes, I
will.
You won’t be taking your
driving test at 9 o’clock
tomorrow, will you? - No, I
won’t.
she? - Yes, (I think) she will. Mediterranean for about two
She won’t have changed her weeks, won’t they?- Yes,
mind by tomorrow, will she? they will.
- No, (I’m afraid) she won’t. They won’t have been cruising
in the Mediterranean for a
month by that time, will they?
- No, they won’t.

Where will you go on holiday
this summer? - We’ll go to
Nice this summer.
When will you go to France? – test.
This summer.
Who will go with you to Nice
this summer? – My friend
Nadine will.
What will you be doing at 10
o’clock tomorrow morning?
- I’ll be taking my driving
Who else will be taking a
driving test at this time? – We
will.
Why will she have changed How long will they have been
her mind by tomorrow?
Who will have changed her friends
mind by tomorrow?
cruising there by that time? -
By that time, Samuel and his
will have been
cruising in the Mediterranean
for about two weeks.
Who will have been cruising
in the Mediterranean for about
two weeks - Samuel and his
friends will.

Випадки вживання майбутніх часів

420
 Future Simple Future Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect
Continuous

tomorrow this time tomorrow by the time (he comes…) by the time (he comes)
the day after tomorrow this time next Friday/ week/ by 6 o’clock / January, etc. for an hour
one of these days month/year by then more than two hours
next week/month/year not …till/until four years, etc.
in a week before
in two days
six weeks/ ten years, etc. from now

I don’t know/ doubt/wonder

if/when (he will …)
Важливо показати, що дія
Виражає стан, невизначену дію, Увага акцентується не на буде або не буде здійснена 1. Дія відбуватиметься
яка відбудеться (чи не самому факті дії і/або коли до певного моменту в вже якийсь час до яко-
відбудеться) один або багато разів вона відбудеться, а на її майбутньому, оскільки до гось певного моменту.
у майбутньому. процесі. якогось певного часу буде 2. Найбільш вживані у
отриманий результат. таких випадках дієслова:
1.Здогади відносно подій, які 1.Дія в її розвитку, яка 1.Найбільш типові learn, live, rain, sit, study,
можуть (не) статися у відбуватиметься у певний дієслова, що виражають travel, wait, work та ін.
майбутньому. Той, хто говорить, час у найближчому або завершеність finish, By the time you finish your
висловлює свою думку, віддаленому майбутньому. complete, retire та ін. work, I’ll have been
здогадується, сумнівається This time next week we’ll be They will have completed the waiting for more than an
421
тощо. Тому пропозиції зазвичай skiing in Courchevel. When new bridge by the end of the hour. By the time Paula
починаються зі слів: I (don’t’) you come to see me tomorrow year. He won’t have retired gets her degree, she will
think, I’m sure, I’m afraid, I believe/ I’ll be working in the garden. till the year 2020. Hopefully, have been studying law for
expect/, suppose/ doubt; certainly, Don’t call her now. She will you’ll have learnt everything five years.
perhaps, probably, maybe etc. be sleeping. by the time you sit the exam.
Perhaps, life will be better fifty years
from now. I’m afraid he won’t come 2. Дія, яка відбудеться в 2. З дієсловами, які не
tomorrow. I don’t think he will майбутньому, оскільки вона мають форми тривалого
return in a few days. була спланована раніше часу і тому не можуть
2.Обіцянки, запевнення, попе- або повинна статися у вживатися у Future
редження, погрози, сподівання відповідності з прийнятим Perfect Continuous.
тощо. рішенням або By the end of this year my
Характерні такі слова як promise, встановленим порядком son
swear, guarantee, I hope. (аналогічно the Present George will have been there
Ring your mother or she will worry. Continuous). for three years. (Сравните:
Be quiet or I’ll send you out. I’ll be seeing Dan at the George will have been living
(попередження) Of course, I’ll help meeting, so I’ll certainly tell there for three years.)
you with this job. (обіцянка) I hope him about it. (Той, що
you’ll pass all your exams. говорить, пам’ятає, що у
(выражение надежды) понеділок у них відбудуться
3. Висловлювання відносно станів збори, і він, напевне,
422
або дій, які обов’язково відбу- побачить Дена)
дуться у майбутньому, і ми не Professor Swan will be giving
можемо контролювати їх або another lecture tomorrow
вплинути на це. morning. ( = is giving)
Spring will come soon. Tomorrow
will be Friday. 3.Тривала дія, яка
My sister Ann will be sixteen next відбуватиметься протягом
month. якогось часу і не
обов’язково безперервно.
4. Рішення, які приймаються Характерні такі позначення
моментально, у момент часу як all day tomorrow, all
говоріння the time, the whole evening
I’ll buy her this handbag. та ін. (= be going to be doing
I’ll pay in cash. Oh no, I’ll pay by smth)
credit card. I will be preparing for my
 Will you …? - звертання з final test all day tomorrow.
проханням до когось або (=I’m going to be working…)
запрошення, пропозиція у Will you be working all day?
ввічливй формі.
Will you tell me the time please? 4. Коли хочуть делікатно
Will you explain how to do it? Will запитати когось про їхні
423
you stay with us for lunch? Will you плани на майбутнє. Той,
have a cup of tea? хто запитує, уточнює
Shall I /we…?. – доречно було б попросити
 Пропозиція допомоги, своїх або запропонувати щось
послуг, готовність щось зробити зробити.
для когось. Will you be using the
Shall I explain it to you? photocopier for long? – Nо,
(= Do you want me to explain it to why? – I urgently need to
you?) make a photocopy of this
Compare: Shall I help you in the letter.
kitchen? Will you help me in the Will you be passing the post
kitchen? office when you’re out?-
 Коли той, що говорить подає Probably. Why? - I need some
ідею, робить пропозицію і хоче envelopes. Could you get me
знати думку іншого і отримати some?
роз’яснення. Порівняйте: Will you be
Any suggestions? What shall we do staying for dinner? (ввічливо
tonight? - Shall we go to our запитуємо про наміри
favouritе café? (=Why don't we go людини)
to our favourite cafe?) Will you stay for dinner?
What shall I do with these letters? -
424
Leave them on my desk. (запрошуємо на вечерю)
● у реченнях типу
Let’s …, shall we? 5. Форма запитання, коли
Let’s go, shall we? Let’s buy her хочуть запитати про щось
these flowers, shall we? - OK. Let’s. особливо важливе.
● після when, if*/whether Наприклад, запитання When
(перекладається як ‘чи’) у will you be seeing Mrs Blake?
реченнях, що виражають Звучить більш ввічливо і
незнання, сумнів тактовно, ніж When will you
(I don’t know, I doubt, I wonder) і see Mrs Blake?
які відповідають на питання що?
Наприклад: Я не знаю (що?), коли
вони приїдуть. Cумніваюсь (у
чому?), чи приїдуть вони взагалі і
под.
He doesn’t know when the manager
will come. I doubt if they will
support us.
Не плутати з додатковими
реченнями часу й умови!
● У таких реченнях замість
425
майбутнього часу if, unless, when,
as soon as, until, after, before
тощо вживається теперішній час
(the Present Simple or Present
Perfect)
I’ll call you as soon as the plane
lands. We won’t begin until
everyone arrives.
Порівняйте:
I doubt if they will give us a
discount. (… чи дадуть нам
знижку) – додаткове
If (якщо) you give us a discout,
we’ll buy more units.- додаткове
умови

Інші способи вираження майбутнього часу

Конструкція Present Continuous Present Simple

426
 ‘be going +to (do)” зі значенням майбутнього часу зі значенням майбутнього часу

1. Плани, рішення і тверді 1. Дії, які заплановані на 1. Дїї, які відбудуться у

наміри на майбутнє, особливо
типово для розмовної мови.
My sister says she is going to
become a doctor. Це її бажання і
прагнення. They are going to
spend two weeks in Scotland.
Вони намагаються, збираються.
Have you phoned George? – Not
yet, I’m going to phone him after
work.Збираюсь зателефонувати/
зателефоную.
2. Пропозиція стосовно того,
що ось-ось щось відбудеться, і
це напевне.
What’s happening? The train isn’t
найближче майбутнє (особливо майбутньому згідно розкладу
особисті приготування), при (прибуття чи відправлення
цьому зазвичай вказується час потяга, літака, корабля тощо) чи
і/або місце. програми (напр.: початок сеансу
кіно, матчу тощо). Часто з
I’m not coming to the party next дієсловами start, begin, finish,
week; I’m taking an exam in arrive, leave, depart takeо off, land
Economics next Friday. I’m meeting та ін.
my parents tomorrow morning.
Не просто найближчим часом, What time does your plane arrive?
відомо, коли саме. Next term starts on 2 February. As
usual, the meeting begins at 10
tomorrow morning.
Примітка: з дієсловами, що
позначають рух, пересування
(go, come, stay, drive, fly, travel,
leave та ін.) ‘be going to’ більш
вживаним є Present Continuous.
427
going to stop! Ми це бачимо,
потяг не гальмує. Jackie is coming to our house for tea
Look at those black clouds – it’s this afternoon. I’m going to the
going to rain. Ми дивимося на market in a few minutes.
небо і розуміємо, що ось-ось
піде дощ.

428
 НАКАЗОВИЙ СПОСІБ
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

У реченнях типу Come in! Sit down, please. Don’t smoke here.
використовується наказовий спосіб дієслова. Ця форма використовується,
коли ми просимо, радимо, пропонуємо, рекомендуємо, наказуємо, даємо
розпорядження або забороняємо щось робити. Вона також вживається для
вираження добрих побажань.
Please post this letter for me.
Try again, you can do it!
Let’s eat out tonight.
Let him do it again.
Wait here!
Take these papers to the director to sign.
Don’t ask me silly questions!
Enjoy your trip!

Наказові речення можуть бути стверджувальними і заперечними. Для

їх утворення використовується інфінітив без частки to і допоміжне дієслово
don’t у заперечних реченнях.
Walk down this street and then take the second turning on the right.
Don’t cross the street, go straight.

Іноді для підсилення у стверджувальних реченнях використовується

допоміжне дієслово do.
Do be quiet!
Do come here!

Do та don’t також можуть використовуватись в коротких відповідях без

основного дієслова.

429
Can I use your phone to call a taxi? – Do, please. It’s on the desk over there.
Shall I tell Kate what has happened? – No, don’t. I’ll tell her myself.

Речення з дієсловом у наказовому способі, як правило, не мають

підмета. Однак, для того щоб було зрозуміло, до кого ми звертаємося, може
використовуватись іменник або займенник.
Sit down, everybody!

Займенник you у наказовому реченні може використовуватись для

додаткової виразності або мати відтінок роздратування.
You just sit down and keep silent!
Don’t you say a word! (не You don’t say a word!)

Якщо ми використовуємо в реченні прислівники always і never, вони

вживаються перед дієсловом.
Always think before speaking.
Never touch it again!

Розділове питання для наказового способу утворюється за допомогою

will you/would you/can you/could you?
Come here, will you?
Water the flowers, can you?
Для підсилення розпорядження чи наказу використовуються can’t you?
і won’t you?
Stop talking, won’t you?
Після заперечної форми використовується will you?
Don’t smoke here, will you?

Наказові речення, які вимовляються з низхідною інтонацією, звучать

категорично, а з висхідною – більш ввічливо.

430
Hurry up!
Come in, please. 
Однак, слід пам’ятати, що імперативна форма, навіть зі словом please,
може звучати надто різко, тому замість імператива часто використовуються
інші конструкції.
Could you help me, please?
I want you to just keep quiet for a moment.
You must hand your projects in by Friday.
You mustn’t speak to her in such a tone.

Якщо інструкція, наказ, рекомендація тощо адресовані до першої особи

однини і множини (Давай я піду туди. Давайте зробимо це разом.) або до
третьої особи однини і множини (Нехай він піде туди. Нехай вони зроблять
це разом.), використовується конструкція з let, яка теж може розглядатися як
наказовий спосіб.
Let me go there!
Let us (let’s) do it together.
Let him go there.
Let them do it together.
Заперечна форма таких речень :
Let him not go there. (Порівняйте: Don’t let him go there).
Let us not do it together/ Let’s not do it together або Don’t let’s do it together.

Розділове питання утворюється за допомогою shall we?

Let’s do it together, shall we?

Ми можемо використовувати let’s самостійно зі значенням «так» в

коротких відповідях на будь-яку пропозицію.
Shall we visit Ann this Sunday? – Let’s.

431
 В мовленні часто використовуються звороти Let me see та Let me think
зі значенням «Дай(те) подумаю».
What time shall we leave? – Let me see. Well, two o’clock will be OK.

ІМЕННИК
THE NOUN

Іменник – це частина мови, яка означає назви предметів, живих істот,

речовин, явищ і абстрактних понять.
Іменники в англійській мові мають:
 два числа: однину і множину: dog (однина), dogs (множина);
 два відмінки: загальний і присвійний: student (загальний), student’s
(присвійний);
Іменники, що називають живих істот, можуть мати чоловічий і жіночій
рід.
Іменники поділяються на загальні (tree, anger) та власні назви (Tom,
Ukraine). Загальні іменники мають конкретне (heat, house) або абстрактне
значення (freedom,love).
Іменники в англійській мові, як і в українській, за своїм складом
бувають прості, похідні та складні (складені).
Прості іменники (SimpleNouns) — це слова, які складаються тільки з
одного кореня без префіксів і суфіксів, наприклад: apen, atown, milk, noise і т.
ін.
Похідні іменники (DerivativeNouns), крім кореня, в своєму складі мають
ще префікси або суфікси: ateacher , beginning , amistake.
Складні (складені) іменники (CompoundNouns) складаються з основ
двох (рідко трьох) слів. Наголос у складних іменниках звичайно падає на
першу основу: a 'schoolgirl, a 'railwayman (залізничник). Деякі іменники
пишуться злито: chequebook, taxpayer, newspaper, flowchart, notebook; деякі –
432
через дефіс: factory-worker, work-force, air-conditioning, tape-recorder; а деякі –
окремо: employment law, insurance claim, adult education, growth rate.
Частооднеітежсловоз'являєтьсявтрьохвидахнаписання:
роздільненаписання (laid back - розслаблений, упевнений, спокійний),
написаннячерездефіс (laid-back) ізлитенаписання (laidback).
Складні слова утворюються з різних частин мови. Найбільш
продуктивними є наступні моделі: іменник + іменник (roadman - учасник
велогонки), іменник + прикметник (media-shy - людина, що випробовує страх
перед камерою), прикметник + іменник (solar farm - територія з
пристосуваннями, що перетворюють сонячну енергію на електричну),
прислівник - дієслово (downlink - передача інформації з супутника на землю),
іменник + дієприкметник (learning-disabled - нездатний вчитися). Складні
слова часто відрізняються частиною мови від їх складових, наприклад,
"passalong" (збільшення вартості послуг продюсера або того, хто надає
послуги) - іменник, утворений дієсловом і прислівником, "ripstop"
(високоміцна (про тканину)) - прикметник, утворений іменником і дієсловом,
"stonewall" (перешкоджати діяти ухильно) - дієслово, утворене прикметником
та іменником. Багато складних слів, утворених останнім часом,
представляють велику різноманітність моделей, включаючи такі, як: adj. +
noun: "right-brain" (права півкуля мозку); verb + noun: "teachware"
(аудіовізуальна апаратура, яка використовується у викладанні); noun + prep.:
"hand-on" (той, хто стимулює особисте втручання); noun + verb: "house-sit"
(наглядати і жити в будинку, поки немає господарів).
Деякі слова вимагають пояснення для того, щоб "розшифрувати" їх
значення, яке не складається із значень слів, що входять в склад, наприклад:
"magnetschool" (школа з ускладненою програмою, організованою для
залучення студентів), "pie-in-the-sky" (щось дуже віддалене, невідомо, чи
відбудеться взагалі – про план, ідею), "languageplanning" (формулювання і
здійснення програми стандартизації мови), "freedomofinformation" (свобода
від втручання уряду в доступ до інформації, вільне проникнення).

433
 За значенням іменники поділяються на загальні і власні.
Іменники загальні (Common Nouns) означають цілі класи предметів: a
book, a house, a day і т. д.
Іменники власні (Proper Nouns) означають імена або назви одиничних
осіб або предметів. Сюди належать особові власні імена — імена і прізвища
людей (Магу, Jack London, Peter); географічні власні імена — назви країн, гір,
річок, островів, морів, міст (Ukraine, Britain, the United States, London, the
Thames); назви вулиць, площ, газет і т. п. (Trafalgar Square, the Daily Worker).
Власні імена пишуться з великої букви. На відміну від української мови,
в англійській мові назви днів тижня, місяців і національностей також
пишуться з великої букви: Sunday, Tuesday, April, November, an American, a
Ukrainian і т. п.
Число іменників
В англійській мові форму множини можуть утворювати лише
обчислювані іменники. До обчислюваних відносять іменники, що піддаються
лічбі. Вони утворюють множину шляхом додавання до іменника у формі
однини закінчення -s, яке вимовляється як [s] після глухих приголосних і [z]
після дзвінких приголосних і голосних. Іменники, що закінчуються в однині
на -s, -sh, -ch, -x, утворюють множину шляхом додавання до іменника у
формі однини закінчення -es, яке вимовляється як [iz]. Також вимовляється
як [iz] закінчення іменників, що утворили множину шляхом додавання
закінчення -s до іменників, які у формі однини закінчуються на -se, -ce -ze, -
ge:
[s] books, drops, coats, pilots, cups, accounts
[z] dogs, birds, battles, balls, chairs, firms
[iz] kisses, bushes, benches, roses,foxes, places, bridges, branches

Деякі іменники, які в однині закінчуються на -th[и] з попереднім

голосним або дифтонгом, змінюють у множині вимову кінцевого звука [и] на

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[р] і закінчення множини-sвимовляється як [z]. Але якщо перед кінцевим -th
стоїть приголосний або голосний, то змін не відбувається:
mouth – mouths path - paths bath – baths
death – deaths month – months

-y => -ies Іменники, що закінчуються у формі однини на -yз попереднім

приголосним, утворюють множину шляхом додавання
закінчення -s. При цьому кінцева y змінюється на i:
army – armies lorry – lorries baby – babies
spy – spies company – companies lady – ladies

-y => -ys Якщо кінцевій y передує голосний, то при додаванні закінчення

-sтакої зміни не відбувається:
valley – valleys boy – boys day – days
donkey – donkeys guy – guys way – ways
-o => -oes Іменники, що закінчуються в однині на -oз попереднім
приголосним, утворюють множину за допомогою закінчення -
es:
hero– heroes potato– potatoes tomato– tomatoes
veto– vetoes echo– echoes embargo– embargoes
-o => -os Проте деякі іменники на -oутворюють множину за допомогою
закінчення -s. Це відбувається:
1) Якщо перед кінцевою -o в однині стоїть голосний або це
слово іншомовного походження, в тому числі музичні терміни
італійського походження:
bamboo– bamboos embryo– embryos casino – casinos
kangaroo – kangaroos stereo – stereos radio – radios
cuckoo – cuckoos patio – patios tatoo – tatoos
kimono – kimonos studio – studios taboo – taboos
oratorio – oratorios piano – pianos zoo – zoos

435
 concerto – concertos soprano – sopranos solo – solos
contralto – contraltos folio – folios trio – trios

2) Якщо це слово є абревіатурою (скороченням):

kilos (= kilograms) memos (= memoranda)
photos (= photographs) autos (= automobiles)
logos (= logotypes, logograms) limos (=limousine)
3) Із деякими власними назвами:
Eskimo – Eskimos Filipino – Filipinos
-o => -o(e)s Деякі іменники на -oможуть мати у множині як закінчення -es,
так і закінчення -s
commando – commando(e)s cargo – cargo(e)s
mosquito – mosquito(e)s grotto – grotto(e)s
tornado – tornado(e)s volcano – volcano(e)s
-f/ -fe => -ves У деяких іменниках, що закінчуються у формі однини на-fабо
–fe,у множині fзмінюється на vідодаєтьсязакінчення -es:
calf – calves half – halves knife – knives leaf – leaves
life – lives loaf – loaves self – selves shelf – shelves
thief – thieves wolf – wolves wife – wives elf – elves
sheaf – sheaves
-f/ -fe => -fs В інших іменниках, що закінчуються в однині на-f або –fe,у
множині додається закінчення -s:
chief – chiefs roof – roofs safe – safes cuff – cuffs
muff – muffs gulf – gulfs cliff – cliffs proof – proofs
belief – beliefs
-f => -fs/-ves Деякі іменники на -f можуть мати обидва варіанти утворення
множини, як на -fs, так і на -ves:
wharf – wharves/ wharfs
hoof – hoofs/ hooves
scarf – scarves / scarfs

436
 handkerchief – handkerchiefs/ handkerchieves
dwarf – dwarfs/ dwarves
-z => -zzes Іменники, що закінчуються на -zподвоюють zперед закінченням
-es: quiz– quizzes, whiz (whizz) – whizzes

Деякі іменники мають особливі форми у множині:

man – men woman – women mouse – mice goose – geese
foot – feet tooth – teeth child – children ox – oxen

Частина іменників, запозичених з латинської та грецької мов, зберегли

притаманні цим мовам форми утворення множини. Деякі з цих іменників
мають також адаптовані англійською мовою варіанти утворення множини.
-a => -ae
antenna – antennae/ antennas formula – formulae/ formulas
-ex, -ix => -ices
apex – apices/ apexes appendix – appendices/ appendixes
matrix – matrices/ matrixes index – indіces/ indexes
-is => -es
analysis – analyses thesis – theses basis – bases
crisis – crises diagnosis – diagnoses hypothesis – hypotheses
oasis – oases parenthesis – parentheses
-um => -a
agendum – agenda millennium – millennia/ millenniums
datum – data curriculum – curricula/ curriculums
medium – media/ mediums
maximum – maxima memorandum – memoranda/
memorandumus
spectrum – spectra symposium – symposia/ symposiums
bacterium – bacteria sanatorium – sanatoria/ sanatoriums
-us => -era, -ora

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 genus – genera corpus – corpora/ corpuses
-us => -i
cactus – cacti/ cactuses terminus – termini
nucleus – nuclei radius – radii
stimulus – stimuli syllabus – syllabi/ syllabuses
-eau => -eaux
bureau – bureaux/ bureaus plateau – plateaux/ plateaus

Однаковуформуводниніімножинімаютьіменники,
щопозначаютьнаціональністьізакінчуютьсяназвук [z] або [s]: a hundred (one)
Vietnamese, Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Swiss.

Однакову форму в однині і множині мають такі іменники:

(one) sheep (is) – (two) sheep (are)
deer – deer
crossroads – crossroads
swine – swine/swines
craft – craft (морське або річковесудно)
spacecraft–spacecraft
aircraft – aircraft
works – works (завод або фабрика)
means – means
barracks – barracks
headquarters – headquarters
series – series
species – species
offspring – offspring
(one big) fish – (3 huge) fish
(fishesвживається для позначення різних видів риб).

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 Деякі іменники, що позначають види риб, не змінюють свою форму у
множині: Somekindsoffishdonotnormallychangeintheplural:
carp–carp cod–cod mackerel–mackerelpike–pike
plaice–plaice salmon–salmon squid –squid/ squidstrout–trout
Порівняйте:
crab– crabs, eel– eels, sardine – sardines, shark– sharks.

У складних іменниках, що утворилися з двох або більше слів, які

пишуться окремо, в основному форму множини приймає головний іменник:
brother-in-law – brothers-in-law grant-in-aid – grants-in-aid
looker-on – lookers-on passer-by – passers-by.
Якщо ж до складу іменника увійшли слова з інших частин мови, то
форму множини приймає останнє слово:
forget-me-not – forget-me-nots grown-up – grown-ups.
Якщо першим елементом у складному іменнику є слово manабоwoman,
то обидва слова приймають форму множини:
woman-driver–women-drivers man-servant – men-servants.
Але якщо акцент робиться на інший елемент, то слова manабоwomanне
змінюються:
man-eater – man-eaters, man-hole – man-holes, woman-hater – woman-haters.

Іменник pennyмає форму множини pence, якщо ми говоримо про суму

грошей, і форму pennies, якщо мова йде про окремі монети:
Thefareisnowtwentypence.
When you drop change at a vending machine, the pennies will fall nearby,
while all other coins will roll out of sight.

Як вже згадувалось на початку цього розділу, необчислювані іменники

не мають форми множини, окрім випадків, коли вони переходять до розряду
обчислюваних:

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 I love French wines, especially the white wines.

Не мають форми множини такі іменники:

accommodation, advertising, advice, applause,baggage, brainstorming, camping,
cash, chalk, change (здача), cloth (тканина), clothing, courage, crockery,
cutlery,damage (пошкодження, збитки), employment, equipment, flour, food,
fruit,furniture, gossip (плітки), hair (волосся), hardware, information, insurance,
knowledge, laughter, legislation, lightning, linen,macaroni, merchandise, money,
news, parking, pepper, postage, progress, research, rice, salt, sand, scenery,
seaside, shopping,soap,software, spaghetti, thunder, traffic, training, transport,
travel, trouble, twilight, underwear, weather, work, etc.
Для переданнякількості з необчислюваними іменниками можуть
використовуватись такі слова:
a bit/item/piece of news,a barof chocolate/ soap, a drop of oil/ water, a grain of
sand, a pieceof cake/ paper/advice/ information/ furniture/ chalk, a glass/ bottleof
water, ajarof jam/ honey, aclove/ bulb of garlic, a rasherof bacon, a packetof
rice/tea, a loaf/sliceof bread, a potof yoghurt/ honey, a pot/ cupof tea, a kiloof
meat, a tubeof toothpaste, a canof soda, a tin of tuna, a cartonof milk, a bowlof
sugar/ soup, a sheet of paper/ metal, a ball of string, a blade of grass, a heap of
earth, a lump of sugar/ coal, etc.

Деякі іменники мають закінчення множини, проте узгоджуються з

дієсловом в однині. До них належать:
– назви навчальних дисциплін на -ics: physics, mathematics (maths), phonetics
– назви деяких видів спорту й ігор: gymnastics, athletics, bowls, billiards,
dominoes, darts, draughts (checkers), chess,etc.
– назви деяких хвороб: diabetes, measles, mumps, etc.
Деякі іменники вживаються (часто в певних значеннях) лише у
множині:

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annals (літописи), arms (зброя), binoculars, bellows, belongings, board (рада
директорів), brains (розумові здібності), breeches, cattle, clothes,
congratulations, contents, dregs, earnings, glasses (окуляри), grapes (виноград),
goods, greens (зелень, овочі),headquarters, jeans, makings, manners (звичаї),
massmedia, means, oats,odds,outskirts (околиці), pants, personnel, pincers, pliers,
police, poultry (свійська птиця), premises (нерухомість), proceeds, pyjamas
(butapyjamatop/jacketis …), reins (віжки), refreshments, remains,riches
(багатство),scales, scissors, shears,spectacles, stairs (сходи), statistics
(статистичні дані), steps (драбина, стрем'янка), suburbs (передмістя,
околиці), surroundings, takings (бариші, прибутки), thanks, tights, tongs,
trousers,valuables,winnings, works, etc.
Проте потрібно пам’ятати, що деякі іменники, які мають декілька
значень, в інших значеннях можуть вживатись в однині. До іменників, що
мають різні значення в однині й множині,належать:
аir(повітря) – airs (ефект), ash (попіл) – ashes (рештки), cloth(тканина)
– clothes (одяг), compass (компас) – compasses (циркуль), content(зміст) –
contents (вміст), custom(звичай) – customs (митниця), damage(пошкодження)
– damages (збитки), drawer(шухляда) – drawers (кальсони), fund(фонд) – funds
(кошти), glass(скло) –glasses (окуляри), hair(волосся) – hairs (волосини),
look(виляд) –looks (риси), manner(спосіб) –manners (звичаї), minute(хвилина) –
minutes (протокол), pain(біль) –pains (зусилля), relation(ставлення) –relations
(відносини), saving(економія) –savings (заощадження), scale(шкала) –scales
(ваги), spectacle(спектакль) –spectacles (окуляри), spirit(дух) –spirits
(настрій), step(крок) –steps (сходи), wood(деревина) –woods (ліс),
work(робота) – works (завод), etc.
Іменникpeopleзі значенням “люди” вживається лише у формі множини,
але якщо це слово має значення “нація, народ”, воно може вживатись як в
однині, так і у множині:
Most people are about as happy as they make their mind up to be. (Abraham
Lincoln); Customs similar to this one are found among many peoples of the world.

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 Збірні іменники можуть узгоджуватися з дієсловом як в однині, так і у
множині, в залежності від значення. Якщо мова йде про групу в цілому,
іменник вживається в однині. Якщо мова йде про індивідів, що складають
групу, то іменник вживається у множині. До таких іменників
належать:audience, class, clergy, committee, company, congregation, crew,
crowd, family, gang, government, group, jury, public, staff, team, union, etc.
The team were all training hard for that match. / The team was ready for the
match.
Іменники, що означають фрукти й овочі, мають в основному форму
множини, якщо вони вживаються в загальному значенні, та форму однини,
якщо вони в подрібненому стані є складовою супів, салатів, пирогів, тощо:
Tomatoes are expensive this year.
There is too much carrot in this soup.
Eat plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables. (But: the fruits of nature, the fruits of
your labour).
Такі ж слова, як beans, peas, raisins, grapes, prunes тощо, вживаються
частіше всього у множині:
There are toomanyprunesinthispie.

Іменник узгоджується з дієсловом в однині, якщо мова йде про кількість,

тривалість, відстань як єдине ціле:
Three hundred pounds is enough to buy a ring.

Якщо після виразів a/the majority of, a number of, a couple of, a group
of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), some (of), the rest of стоїть іменник у множині,
то він узгоджується з дієсловому множині:
A lot of people are afraid to say what they want. That's why they don't get
what they want. (Madonna)

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 Але the number of+ іменник у множині узгоджується з дієсловом в
однині:The number of people watching you is proportional to the stupidity of your
action.

Утворення множини іменників

Спосіб утворення Приклад Примітка

множини утворення
За допомогою
закінчення
+ -s a set – sets [s] після глухого приголосного
a name – names АЛЕ: mouth – mouths
a boy - boys [z] після дзвінкого голосного і
після приголосного
(-ge; -ce; -ze; -se;) + -s a place – places [iz] АЛЕ: a house – houses
a prize – prizes
a horse - horses
(-s; -ss; -sh; -ch; -x;) + a bus – buses [iz]
-es a box – boxes
a class – classes
a church - churches
-o + -es a torpedo – torpedoes АЛЕ: photos, videos, kilos
a hero – heroes Подвійний варіант:
a potato - potatoes a flamingo – flamingos (es)
a volcano – volcanos (es)
-y + -s = ies a city – cities АЛЕ: Kennedys,
(після голоснго) a spy - spies the two Germanys
(-ay; -ey; oy;) + -s = a ray – rays
ys a journey – journeys
-f (-fe) + -s = ves [vz] a wife – wives АЛЕ: roofs, beliefs, chiefs, safes

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 a half – halves Подвійний варіант:
a life - lives dwarfs (ves) карлик, hoofs (ves)
копито , handkerchiefs (ves)
хусточка
АЛЕ: a still life (натюрморт) –
still lifes (натюрморти)
+ -en an ox – oxen
a child – children
a brother – brethren
(реліг.)
Інші способи
утворення
Зміною кореневого a man – men
голосного a foot – feet
a mouse - mice
Збіг форм однини і a fish – two fish АЛЕ: a fish – fishes (у значенні
множини a Chinese – many «різноманітні види риб»)
Chinese
a sheep - three sheep
a means – numerous
means
Іменники a stimulus (стимул) – АЛЕ: a bonus – bonuses,
латинського stimuli a virus – viruses
походження на: a bacillus (бацила) – Подвійний варіант:
-us = i bacilli a radius – radiuses(radii)
-a = ae an alumna – alumnae АЛЕ: an area – areas, a diploma –
a larva (личинка) – diplomas,
larvae an arena – arenas

Подвійний варіант:

444
 a formula – formulas(в
загальному значенні)
formulae (в матем.)
-um = a a stratum(шар геог.) АЛЕ: an album – albums,
– strata a chrysanthemum –
an agendum – agenda chrysanthemums
Подвійний варіант:
a memorandum -
memorandums, memoranda
(-ex; -ix;) = ces an index – indices АЛЕ: indexes (в книгах),
(матем.) appendixes (в медицині)
an appendix –
appendices (в
книгах)
Іменники грецького a thesis – theses АЛЕ: a metropolis – metropolises
походження на: a crisis – crises
-s = es
-n = a a criterion – criteria АЛЕ: a demon – demons,
a phenomenon - an electron – electrons
phenomena
Складені іменники a breakdown – АЛЕ: a mother-in- law – mothers-
breakdowns, in- law,
an assistant director – a passer-by – passers-by,
assistant directors, a woman doctor – women doctors
an Englishman -
Englishmen
Скорочення p. (page) – pp.
(pages)
Mr. (Mister) – Messrs
MP (Member of

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 Parliament) – MPs
VIP – VIPs

Класифікація іменників за ознакою обчислювані/необчислювані

Обчислювані Необчислювані
Countable Uncountable
Означають предмети, які можна Означають предмети і поняття, які не
порахувати можна порахувати
Присутні форми однини і Немає форми множини
множини
Поєднуються з: Не поєднуються з числівниками.
числівниками seven days
a/the a student / the Поєднуються з :
student(s) the the meat
займенниками: займенниками:
many many questions much much money
a lot of / lots of a lot of cars / a lot of / lots of a lot of time / lots of
(a) few lots of cars a little time
some a few seats / some a little salt / little salt
every few seats all some consolation
some ideas all the butter
every man

Випадки переходу необчислюваних іменників у обчислювані

Дійсний іменник означає предмет glass – скло a glass – склянка

із даної речовини iron - залізо an iron - праска

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Дійсний іменник означає сорт, coffee - кава a coffee – сорт кави або
вид чи пропорцію речовини чашка кави
Абстрактний іменник light - світло a light – лампа
конкретизується

Іменники, які узгоджуються із дієсловом в однині

Дійсні Абстракт Ряд слів Назви Назви Назви Власні

ні на дисциплін ігор на хвороб назви
-s на -s на
-ics -s
sugar advice news gymnastics billiards measles Athens
copper information gallows statistics darts mumps the UN
china poetry summons mathematics dominoes rickets the
water progress politics draughts shingles USA

Іменники mathematics, statistics і т.п. вживаються з дієсловом у множині,

якщо вони не означають наукову дисципліну.
Mathematicsis not taught here. – Тут не вчать математику.
His mathematicsare poor. – У нього слабкі знання з математики.

Іменники, які узгоджуються із дієсловом у множині

Назви парних Іменники, у яких немає форми Деякі

предметів і одягу однини чи вона має інше узагальнені
значення іменники
scissors scales binoculars clothes tights pants
оdds proceeds goods whereabouts wages contents

447
сattle police gentry vermin clergy people

Рід іменників

Рід іменників в англійській мові розрізняється за значенням. До

чоловічого роду відносяться назви осіб чоловічої статі. До жіночого роду
відносяться назви осіб жіночої статі.
actor – actress emperor – empress prince – princess
bachelor – spinster sir – madam hero - heroine
duke – duchess monk – nun steward - stewardess
conductor – conductress host – hostess manager – manageress
earl – countess landlord – landlady god – goddess
policeman – policewoman heir – heiress king – queen
lad – lass father – mother son – daughter
boy – girl husband – wife uncle – aunt
bridegroom – bride nephew – niece gentleman – lady
godfather – godmother stepfather – stepmother father-in-law – mother-in-law
male – female barman – barmaid masseur – masseuse etc.

Проте значна частина іменників має однакову форму для позначення

осіб чоловічої і жіночої статі: cousin, doctor, teacher, student, neighbour. Коли
ж потрібно вказати на стать особи або тварини, то додається слово, яке вказує
на стать: aboy-friend – agirl-friend, womanastronaut, he-goat – she-goat.
Деякі назви тварин мають різні родові форми, хоча, звичайно,
замінюються займенником it:
bull – cow gander – goose ram - ewe tiger – tigress
cock – hen stag – doe drake – duck leopard – leopardess
dog – bitch stallion – mare boar – sow lion – lioness

Рід іменників в англійській мові

448
Спосіб Чоловічий рід Жіночий рід Середній
відображення роду рід
Лексичне значення man woman traffic
brother sister pumpkin
king queen hotel
bull cow dog
Особові займенники he she it
Суфікси: -er; -ess; widower widow
-ine / ina; -ette tsar tsarina
host hostess
bachelor bachelorette
Утворення a boyfriend a girlfriend
складених іменників a businessman a businesswoman
a he-cook a she-cook
a tom-cat a tabby-cat
a male nurse a nurse
a surgeon a woman surgeon

Відмінки іменників
В англійській мові існує лише два відмінки: загальний і присвійний.
Оскільки в загальному відмінку немає спеціальних закінчень, його
взаємозв’язок з іншими словами визначається місцем в реченні.
Присвійний відмінок передає значення приналежності. В присвійному
відмінку вживаються в основному іменники - назви істот.
Присвійний відмінок однини утворюється за допомогою апострофа і
закінчення -s: myfather’sfriend, Tom’sbike.
Якщо іменник в однині закінчується на -sабо -x, то присвійний відмінок
утворюється в основному за допомогою лише апострофа, хоча варіант -’s
також можливий: Charles’ book, theboss’ car.

449
 У множині присвійний відмінок утворюється за допомогою лише
апострофа: girls’ school, neighbours’ dog. Якщо ж іменник у множині не має
закінчення –s, то присвійний відмінок утворюється за допомогою апострофа і
закінчення -s: children’splayground.
Окрім іменників - назв істот, форму присвійного відмінка можуть мати
іменники, що означають проміжок часу та відстань; назви планет, країн, міст,
кораблів; слова country, town, city, world, ocean, river, а також збірні
іменники: amonth’ssalary, Saturn’srings, London’smuseums, Ukraine’sterritory.
Поряд з присвійним відмінком для передачі приналежності вживається
іменник у загальному відмінку з прийменником of: Mary’sroom =
theroomofMary.

Відмінок іменника. Форми та особливості вживання присвійного

відмінку

Відмінок

Загальний відмінок Присвійний відмінок

Common Possessive
Загальне значення Значення приналежності або опису
Немає спеціальних закінчень Закінчення –‘s (-‘)
Вказує на незалежне вживання Вживається переважно з іменниками при
іменника означенні істот
a girl a girl’s
Irak Irak’s oil deposits

Форми присвійного відмінку

Однина Множина

450
 -’s -’ -’s

a boy’s toys boys’ toys workers’ tools

a sheep’s skin sheep’s skins
children’s toys

Якщо ім’я на –sє старовинним, іноземним чи класичним, до нього додається

тільки апостроф, що читається як [iz]: Hercules’ labours.

Особливості вживання присвійного відмінку

Значення
Сумісне володіння
чимось
Окреме володіння
У функції обставини
місця (слова shop,
office, house, school,
hospital і т.п.
пропускаються)
В значенні «один з» He is an old business client of
(з прийменником of)
Приклади
Peter and Robin’s room
Peter’s and Robin’s room
at the cleaner’s (shop),
at my aunt’s (house),
at the dentist’s (office),
at Madame Tussaud’s
(museum)
my uncle‘s.

Вживання іменників - назв неістот у присвійному відмінку

Випадки вживання Приклади

Збірні іменники the company’s office,
government’s views

451
 Іменники, що означають час, відстань і a month’s holiday,
вартість (зі словом worth) a dollar’s worth
Назва країн, міст, пір року, місяців днів Italy’s museums, April’s
тижня projects
Слова country, city, world, nature, earth, sun, the play’s title,
moon, ship, play і т.п. the country’s traditions
У деяких стійких виразах for conscience’s sake,
at one’s wit’s end

Іменники у функції означення

Як було зазначено вище, іменники в присвійному відмінку, а також

іменники в загальному відмінку з прийменником ofможуть вживатися для
означення іншого іменника: Bob’sbicycle, thebicycleofBob.
Означенням до іншого іменника може також виступати іменник у
загальному відмінку без прийменника. У цій ролі іменник, як правило,
вживається в однині, навіть якщо йому передує числівник: athreeroomflat,
atwodaytrip.

АРТИКЛЬ
THEARTICLE

В англійській мові існує два види артиклів – неозначений

(TheIndefiniteArticle) та означений (TheDefiniteArticle).
Неозначений артикль вживається, коли йдеться про будь-який предмет з
усього класу однорідних предметів.
Означений артикль вживається, коли йдеться про конкретну особу або
предмет, виділений з усіх осіб або предметів даного класу.

452
 Неозначений артикль має дві форми: a [ə] - вживається перед словами,
що починаються з приголосного звука (а не букви): apen, adog, aUFO,
aEuropean, aone-armedbandit;an [ən] - перед словами, що починаються з
голосного звука: anactor, anhonorarium, anFMradio, anMP, anumbrella.
Означений артикль має одну форму the і вимовляється як [ði:] перед
словами, що починаються з голосного звука (а не букви): theair, theapple,
theEEC,; та як [рə] перед словами, що починаються з приголосного звука:
theday, theplace,theUN, theworld.

Вживання неозначеного артикля.

Неозначений артикль a/anне вживається перед іменниками у множині і,

як правило, не вживається з необчислюваними іменниками.
A/anвживається:
 із обчислюваними іменниками в однині, коли вони вживаються у
загальному значенні:
Onlyageniuscanplayafool. (MichaelRapaport)
An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind. (Gandhi)
У множині артикль відсутній:
What luck for rulers that men do not think.
 коли певна особа, місце або предмет згадується вперше і не
конкретизується, тобто коли співрозмовник або читач ще не знають, про
кого або що конкретно йтиме мова:
Theyliveinanoldhouse.
При їх подальшому згадуванні вживається означений артикль the або
займенники it, he, him, she, her:
GivemeamuseumandI'llfillit. (Pablo Picasso)
Theyliveinanoldhouse. Itwasbuiltin the last century.

453
 Якщо ж мова йде не про певну особу або предмет, а про будь-яку особу
або предмет, які можна віднести до певного типу, то при повторному
згадуванні знову вживається a/anабо займенник one:
Getmeacar. Iwantacar.
 коли обчислюваний іменник в однині виконує номінативну функцію і
виступає представником свого класу:
Athroneisonlyabenchcoveredwithvelvet. (Napoleon Bonaparte)
Abear (anybear, allbears) isadangerousanimal.
Проте a/anне вживаються, якщо згадується про місцезнаходження
предмета, особи або тварини. В таких випадках іменник вживається у
множині або з означеним артиклем the:
PenguinsliveintheAntarctic.
ThepenguinlivesintheAntarctic.
У множині артикль або інший детермінант (визначальне слово) відсутні:
Exceptionsalwaysoutnumberrules (Murphy'sLaws)
Bearsaredangerousanimals.
 з іменником-предикативом після tobe, якщо відсутній інший детермінант:
Boredomisagreatmotivator. (UmaThurman)
Але якщо предикатив означає конкретний предмет або особу, то перед
ним вживається означений артикльthe:
ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt. (MotherGooseRhymes)
 перед іменником-прикладкою:
John, afriendofmybrother, graduated from the university last year.
Проте якщо іменник-прикладка означає конкретний предмет, особу, або ж
загальновідому людину, то перед ним вживається означений артикльthe:
Shakespeare, theoutstandingBritishpoet, wasbornin1564 inStratford-on-Avon.
Daniel Smith, the author of thesensational article in The Washington Times,
gave a press conference.
У множині артикль або інший детермінант відсутні:
JohnandTom, managersofourdepartment, graduatedfromthesameuniversity.

454
 після звороту thereis (therewas, therewillbe, etc.) перед обчислюваними
іменниками:
There is a right way, a wrong way, and my way of doing things. (misquote
from“The Caine Mutiny”)
 перед деякими словами, що виражають кількість: a few - кілька, декілька;
a little - трохи, небагато; a greatmany, a goodmany - дуже багато; acouple–
пара; a (або one) dozen – дюжина; a (або one) score - два десятки:
Canada: Afewacresofsnow. (Voltaire)
 перед деякими числівниками поряд з one: a (або one) hundred, a (або one)
thousand, a (або one) million.
It's better to live one day as a lion, than a hundred as a sheep.
Але:1100 =onethousand, onehundred
 перед порядковими числівниками у значенні “ще один, інший”:
Autumnisasecondspringwheneveryleafisaflower. (AlbertCamus)
 перед деякими дробами поряд з one: a (або one) third, a (або one) quarter
 перед half, якщо йому передує ціле число: akiloandahalfабо oneandahalf
kilos. Але: half a kilo.
 у виразах, що вказують на відношення до ваги, ціни, відстані, частотності,
тощо:fivehryvnasakilo, 100 kilometersanhour, twiceaweek, 20padozen, 30
milesagallon. У таких випадках a/an=per.
 з необчислюваними іменниками, що вказують на порцію чого-небудь:
twocoffeesand a tea - дві чашки кави і одна чаю;
 перед Mr., Mrs., Miss + прізвище у значенні “якийсь”: a Mr. Brown- якийсь
Браун;
 перед іменем автора, якщо маємо на увазі твір літератури або мистецтва
тощо: a Renoir - картина Ренуара;
 перед власними назвами, що перейшли в розряд загальних, якщо йдеться
про те, що хтось має або не має особливі якості, притаманні названій
особі:

455
 Peterplaysfootballwell, butheisnot (a) Shevchenko.
В деяких випадках артикль відсутній або вживається означений артикль
the:
MozartwascalledtheRaphaelofmusic.
 коли мова йде про один екземпляр чого-небудь:
Hebought a Tavria.
 перед власною назвою, надаючи їй значення приналежності до сім'ї:
ShemarriedaThompson. — Вона вийшла заміж за одного з Томпсонів.
 в окличних реченнях після what перед обчислюваними іменниками:
Whatasurprise!
 після such, rather, quite перед обчислюваними іменниками в однині:
Isn't it strange that I who have written only unpopular books should be such a
popular fellow? (AlbertEinstein)
 перед абстрактними іменниками у значенні akindof (такий, такого роду),
якщо вони мають означення і мова йде про різновид прояву якості,
почуття тощо:
Agreaterunityisneeded.
 перед іменниками-назвами речовин, якщо вони мають означення, що
описує різні види або сорти речовини: a deliciousCalifornianwine
 перед назвами прийомів їжі, якщо перед ними стоїть прикметник або якщо
це спеціальні прийоми на честь кого-небудь:
Afteragooddinneronecanforgiveanybody, evenone'sownrelations. (OscarWilde)
 перед іменниками, що означають пори року, якщо ми виділяємо якийсь
певний період:
IspentawinterinEgypt.
 перед назвами днів, місяців і пір року, якщо їм передує описове означення:
AcoldMayisausualthinginourcity. Imethimonahot Monday.Itwas a
surprisinglymildwinter.
 перед назвами днів, коли ми хочемо виділити якийсь один день тижня:

456
 IalwaysdoyogaonaMonday. He was born on a Monday.
 перед іменникамиday, morning, evening, night, afternoon, якщо перед
ними стоїть прикметник: on a cold (hot, rainy, winter, etc.) day (morning,
evening, night, afternoon);
 з іменниками, які означають єдині у світі речі, якщо маємо на увазі певний
аспектабо прояв і їм передує означення:
There wasa crescent moon last night.

Вживання неозначеного артикля a/an

(тільки із обчислюваними іменниками в однині)

Правила Приклад Примітки

При першому Theylivein a flat.
згадуванні в Heboughtan ice-
даній ситуації cream.
В значенні один A childneedslove.
із класу, It’s a rose.
множини
В значенні I’dlikeanapple.
«один»
При згадуванні She’llbe a doctor. У цьому випадку іменник є
професії, Mydadis a politician. частиною іменного присудка.
національності,
релігійної і
політичної
приналежності
В конструкціях Thereis a
thereis…, I mistakeinthisword.
havegot…, I’vegot a coldagain.

457
thisis… та схожих
В окличних What a surprise! What a lotofflowers!
речення після Such a longqueue! What a lotoftrouble!
слів what, such
При наявності Wehadbreakfast. – Thebreakfastweorderedinnotreadyye
описового Wehad a t.
означення veryniceearlybreakfast
.
В деякий стійких tohave a goodtime
словосполучення togo for a walk
х

A/anабо one

Ми вживаємо one, коли рахуємо:

A wise man hears one word and understands two. (Yiddish Proverb)
One child is often not enough, but two children can be far too many.
(Murphy's General Laws)
Ми вживаємо a/an,коли маємо на увазі “будь-який”, “якийсь”:
I need a cup of tea.
Oneвживається зі словами day, evening, morning, night, week, month, year,
summer, Monday, January, etc., щоб показати, що дія відбулася в якийсь час
у минулому:
One day he walked out of the house and never came back.
Вираз oneday також може вказувати, що дія відбудеться в майбутньому
(=some day):
One day you will be sorry to leave this place.
Oneвживаєтьсяв структурі one… other/another:
One Man's Sunset is another Man's Dawn. (FievelMouskawitz)

458
 One boy wanted to read, another wanted to watch TV.
Деякі інші випадки вживання a/an поряд з one були наведені вище.

Артиклі з деякими необчислюваними іменниками

Без артикля A Примітки

fruit – фрукт, a fruit – плід
фрукти
help – допомога a help – помічник
hair – волосся a hair – волосина Конкретизація
значення
experience – досвід anexperience – випадок
knowledge – знання a goodknowledgeoflife
hatred - ненависть a hatredofviolence Уточнююче
визначення
education – освіта a classicaleducation
pity – жалість It’s a pityyoucan’tgo.
fear – страх Thereis a Уточнююче
fearthathehasbeenmurdered. підрядне
suspicion - підозра Wehave a
suspicionthatshewon’treturn.

Вживання означеного артикля

Означений артикль the вживається з іменниками в однині та множині і

вказує на конкретну особу або предмет.
Theвживається:

459
 якщо особа або предмет, що називалися раніше, згадуються знову або
вони відомі співрозмовникам:
Thefactoryofthefuturewillhaveonlytwoemployees - amanandadog.
Themanwillbetheretofeedthedog.
Thedogwillbetheretokeepthemanfromtouchingtheequipment.(WarrenBennis)
Якщо ж при повторному згадуванні ми відносимо особу або предмет до
певного типу (або підтипу), то вживається неозначений артикль a (див.
розділ “Вживання неозначеного артикля”)
 якщо із ситуації або контексту зрозуміло, про кого або що йде мова:
Didyoulockthecar?
 з іменником, конкретизованим підрядним реченням або означенням:
My opinions may have changed, but not the fact that I am right.
(AshleighBrilliant)
 з іменниками, які означають єдині у світі речі: the atmosphere,the
universe, the galaxy, the solar system, thesun, theearth, themoon, the sky,
the planets, the stars, the equator, the world, etc.:
The sun goes down just when you need it the most.
 з іменником, який означає особу або предмет, єдиний у даній ситуації:
The light at the end of the tunnel is the headlamp of an oncoming train.
(Unknown)
 з іменником в однині, який має узагальнююче значення і означає весь клас
у цілому:
The optimist proclaims that we live in the best of all possible worlds; and the
pessimist fears this is true. (IrvingCaesar)
Проте слово man, у значенні “людство, людська раса” вживається без
артикля:
There has been opposition to every innovation in the history of man, with the
possible exception of the sword. (BenjaminDana)
 з іменником у множині, якщо він має узагальнююче значення і мають на
увазі всі особи або предмети даного класу в певній ситуації або у світі:
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 HeaveniswherethepoliceareBritish, thecooksareFrench, themechanicsGerman,
theloversItalianandit'sallorganizedbytheSwiss. (Unknown)
 з прикметниками і дієприкметниками, що виступають у ролі іменників.
Вони мають значення множини і позначають групу людей:
Onlytheeducatedarefree. (Epicteus);The dead might as well try to speak to the
living as the old to the young.(WillaCather)
 якщо іменник вживається з прикметником у найвищому ступені
порівняння:
Thebestwaytorealizeyourdreamsistowakeup.(PhilJackson)
Означення, виражені прикметником у вищому ступені порівняння, не
впливають на вибір артикля:
ButIrefusetobelievethatIamabetteractorthanmyself. (JimCarrey)
 якщо іменник вживається зпорядковим числівником:
The first myth ofmanagement is that it exists; the second myth of management is
that success equals skill. (Heller'sLaw)
 якщо іменник вживається з означенням, вираженим одним із слів: only,
same, very, last, next, following:
Love is the only force capable of transforming an enemy into a friend. (Martin
Luther King, Jr.)
Awell-
adjustedpersonisonewhomakesthesamemistaketwicewithoutgettingnervous.
(Alexander Hamilton)
Проте next(наступний)та last(минулий) вживаються без артикля у
словосполученнях nextyear, nextweek, nextmonth, lastyear, lastweek,
lastmonth, тощо:
The devil came to me last night and asked what I wanted in exchange for my
soul. I stillcan'tbelieve I saidpizza. (MarcOstroff)
 якщо іменник вживається з конструкціями one of, many of, some of, none
of, most of, any of, each of, all of, several of:

461
 The difference between what we do and what we are capable of doing would
suffice to solve most of the world's problems. (MohandasGandhi)
 з іменниками назвами речовин, якщо мова йде про певну конкретну
кількість речовини, тобто: а) коли із ситуації зрозуміло, про яку саме
кількість іде мова, і мається на увазі вся кількість, наявна в даній ситуації:
Passthesaltandpepperplease!
б) коли певна кількість речовини згадується вдруге:
Iboughtsomemeatandmilkyesterdaybutmycatrefusedtoeatthemeat.
в) коли іменник, що означає назву речовини, має при собі означення, яке
виділяє певну кількість з усієї кількості:
Thewaterinthisriverisverypolluted.
 з абстрактними іменниками, що мають обмежувальне означення або
уточнюються ситуацією:
Theonlyknowledgethatcanhurtyouistheknowledgeyoudon'thave. (Unknown)
 з іменником-предикативом або прикладкою, якщо він означає предмет або
особу, виділені з загальної маси або ж загальновідому людину:
WolfgangMozart, thefamousAustriancomposer,
startedcomposingmusicwhenhewas 5 or 6 yearsold. (див. також розділ
“Вживання неозначеного артикля”)
 перед назвами частин доби (day, dawn, morning, afternoon, evening, night,
midnight, twilight, dusk, sunrise, sunsetetc.) та пір року, якщо йдеться про
конкретний день, ранок, вечір, тощо або вони мають обмежувальне
означення:
Theautumnwasverywarmthatyear.
 із прізвищем у множині, коли йдеться про всю сім’ю: theMansons (сім’я
Менсонів)
 з іменем в однині зі значенням “той”: а) коли ми розрізняємо двох осіб з
однаковими іменами (чи прізвищами):
WehavetwoMrBrownsinouroffice. – IwanttheMrBrownwhichcalledmeyesterday.
б) коли ми хочемо підкреслити, що названа особа є знаменитістю:
462
 – ImetHarrisonFordyesterday. – DoyoumeantheHarrisonFord?
в) коли порівнюємо особу з тим, якою вона була в минулому.
HewasnottheTomIknewtenyearsago.
 з титулами:the Queen, the Prince of Wales,the Duke of York, the President
etc. Проте, якщо титул вживається з іменем, то артикль відсутній:
Prince Charles isthe Prince of Wales.
 з іменником, який називає професію, якщо за ним слідує ім’я або
прізвище: thewonderfulactorKevinCostner, thepainterSurikov.
 з назвами океанів: theArcticOcean, thePacificOcean; морів: theBlackSea,
theNorthSea; заток, каналів: thePanamaCanal,thePersianGulf,
theEnglishChannel,theBayofBengal; річок: theDnipro, theSevern; озер, якщо
перед назвою відсутнє слово lake: theMichigan (але LakeMichigan);
пустель: theSahara,theKalahari; гірських масивів:
theAndes,theApenninemountains; груп островів:
theMaldives,theAntilles;theHawaiianIsles; водопадів і гірських перевалів:
theSwallowFalls,theSt. GotthardPass(протеNiagaraFalls);
 з назвами країн, якщо до їх складу входять такі слова, як kingdom,
republic, state, union:theUnitedKingdom, the United States of America. А
також із деякими іншими назвами країн: theArgentine (алеArgentina),
theNetherlands;
 з назвамипровінцій: the Ruhr, the Tyrol;
 з назвами музеїв: theBritishMuseum; театрів: theOperaHouse; картинних
галерей: theHermitage; концертних залів: theAlbertHall; кінотеатрів:
theKyivskaRus; хорів та оркестрів: thePhiladelphiaOrchestra; клубів та
готелів;theSavoy; кораблівtheTitanic; газет і журналів: TheTimes,
TheWashingtonPost(проте в назвах журналів артикль не завжди присутній
Timemagazine, NewScientist); партій: theDemocraticParty.
Якщо до назви ресторанів, готелів, магазинів, банків входить ім’я їх
засновників, яке закінчується на -s або -‘s,то артикль не вживається:
Harrods;
463
 із назвами музичних інструментів і танців: theviolin, thetango;
 із назвами пір року. З назвами пір року вживається як артикль the, так і
нульовий артикль:
In (the) summerwearegoingaway. (Див. також розділ “Вживання
неозначеного артикля”);
 з іменниками, що позначають історичні періоди: intheMiddleAges, the
StoneAge;We owe to the Middle Ages the two worst inventions of humanity -
gunpowder and romantic love. (AndreMaurois)
 у виразах, що позначають вимірювання і починаються зby: by the kilo, by
the litre, by the month.

Вживання означеного артикля the

Правила Приклади Примітки

Якщоіменникзгадувавсяраніше His car
struck a
tree. You
can see the
mark on the
tree.
Якщо на предмет чи особу вказуєситуаціячи Pass me the (the salt on the
контекст salt, please. table)
Who's at the (the one who
door? — comes to us)
The
postman.
Якщоіменникозначає один у своємуродіоб’єкт the Earth, Назвиіншихпла
the sea, the нет
sky, the вживаються без

464
 Sun, the артикля: Mars,
Moon, the Pluto
stars, the
universe, the
equator, the
Great Bear
При наявностіобмежувальноговизначення The Smith
you are
looking for
no longer
lives here.
The letters
on the shelf
are for you.
Зприкметникамиунайвищомуступені, It's the worst АЛЕ: She was
порядковимичислівниками, словамиonly, next, play I've an only child.
last, left/right, right/wrong, very, opposite ever seen.
She's the
only person
for this
position.
He was the
first man
who helped
me.

В узагальненомузначенні, коли The whale is АЛЕ: Man

іменникпредставляє весь клас людей, тварин, in danger of developed
предметів. becoming earlier than
extinct. people think.

465
 The
Japanese
admire the
traditions of
the Chinese.
Якщоіменникєобставиноюмісцяівсполученнях Ann is in
in the street, to the cinema, in the country the garden.
Can I go to
the cinema?
They always
spend
summer in
the country.
Встійкихсполученняхthe sooner the better, do What's the
the shopping, make the bed, on the whole, what’s use talking
the use?таін. about it
now?
I haven't
made the
beds yet.

Артиклі з географічниминазвами

NO ARTICLE USE THE EXCEPTIONS

CATEGORY (Article ‘a’)
* a full moon, the sky, the nature, space
Thingsconsideredtobeu
a bright red sun,
nique
sun (like any the moon,

466
 noun with the ground, Men’s ventures
a descriptive the earth, into space.
attribute) the world, I love nature.
the
universe,
the horizon,
the cosmos
Venus [vi:nэs], Butthe planet
Mercury['mә:kj we live in or
Planets uri], 'Jupiter , the land we
'Saturn, Uranus liveon:the
[ju'reinэs], Earth, the
Pluto, 'Neptune planet Earth or
the earth
Asia, Africa,
Australia,
Continents Europe,
South/North
America,
Antarctica
the north, set
the south, expressions:
The four cardinal points the east, from east to
and directions the west, west,
the north- from north to
west, south
the north-
east
the North /
South Pole,

467
 the
Equator,
in the South
of England
the Arctic,
Geographicalregions
the
Antarctic
the Far
North,
the Far
East,
the Middle
East,
the
Midlands,
the
Caucasus,
the Crimea,
the Ruhr (in
Germany),
theDordony
e (France),
the Punjab
(India)
Ancient Greece, Note:
Historicalreferences
Medieval The Dark Ages,
Europe, the
Renaissance, But: Renaissance,
Europe, the Europe the Stone Age,
Feudal France, of today the Victorian

468
 Roman Britain, (with a Age
pre-war/post limiting
war Germany, attribute)
present day Italy
Great Britain, but: the
Countries
Sweden, France of the Vatican,
Switzerland, his youth the Congo,
Denmark,  plural (the) Ivory
Ukraine, Israel, names Coast, (the)
China, the Sudan,
Argentina* Netherlands (the) Lebanon,
, the (the) Yemen,
Philippines; the Transvaal,
 the Cameroun or
names the Cameroons
which the Argentine*
include
words like
‘republic,
union,
kingdom,
states’:
the
People’s
Republic of
China, the
Czech
Republic,
the ARE or
the Arab

469
 Republic of
Egypt, the
United
Arab
Emirates or
the UAE,
the USA,
the UK
most states, Washington the state of
counties, state, New Washington
provinces, Mexico, Florida, ,
political and Texas, the state of
administrative regions California, New Texas,
of a country England,
Wiltshire,
Westphalia,
Bavaria, Kent, the whole
Venice of Venice –
усяВенеція
(Holland is a
region in the
central-western
part of the
Netherlands.)
names of
Northern
countries or regions or
Ireland,
areas which have a
Highland
geographical attribute
Britain,
Central Asia,

470
 Upper Austria,
Lower Egypt,
Southern
France,
Western and
Eastern Europe,
Latin America
Chicago,
Towns, cities Oxford, Vienna, the Chicago the Hague
Cairo ['kaiэrou], ofthe 1920s, (in the
Kyiv, the city of Netherlands,
New York City New York the seat of its
but: government)
It was a
different
Paris,unknown
to her.
Streets, avenues Downing Street, the London
Oxford Str., Road, the Mall,
Fifth Avenue, the Champs of
Charing Cross Elysees
Road (Єлисейськіпо
ля),
theEdgwareRoa
d,
the High Street
but in the
address:
24 High Street,
104

471
 EdgwareRoad
Bodies of water: the (River)
 rivers Thames,
the River
Seine,
the
Mississippi,
the Nile,
 lakes the Danube,
Sg. the Rhine, the Great Salt
Victoria Lake, theDnipro Lake
Lake Huron,
Lakes Michigan the lake of
and Ontario, Geneva,
Loch Ness, the Baikal,
Mono Lake, the Huron
Lake Ladoga (without
 gulfs, bays the word
(usually smaller than Hudson Bay, ‘lake’!)
gulfs), straits San Francisco Pl.the Great
Bay, Lakes
 cannels, Gibraltar the Persian
channels Gulf,
the Gulf of
Finland
the Bay of
Biscayne
the Bay of
Bengal
the Strait(s)

472
 seas of Gibraltar,
the Strait of
Magellan,
the Panama
Canal,
 oceans the Suez
Canal,
the
 waterfalls (English)
Channel
Niagara (Falls)
the Black
Sea,
the Dead
Sea,
the
Mediterrane
an
the Caspian
sea

the Atlantic
ocean,
the Pacific

the Iguaçu
Falls,
the Victoria
Falls
 islands individual groups of

473
 island islands:
Long Island, the British
Hong Kong, Isles,
Tahiti, Crete, the
Corsica, Cyprus Hawaiian
[sai..] Islands,
the West
Indies,
the
Bahamas,
theBermud
as,
the
Canaries =
the Canary
Islands
Note:
the Isle of
Man
Mountains, peaks, hills individual mountain
mountain ranges
Ben Nevis, the Andes,
Elbrus, Everest, the Alps,
Mont Blanc, the
Snowdon, Himalayas,
Kilimanjaro, theCarpatia
Mount Fuji, ns,
Mounts the
Whitney and Appalachia
Rainier n

474
 mountains;
the Rocky
mountains
or
the
Rockies,
the Black
Hills
the
Valleys
Sacramento
valley,
the Hudson
valley
Jungles, forests, the
rainforest Amazon
rainforest,
the Black
Forest
the Sahara,
Deserts
the Gobi,
the Kara
Kum Desert

The Article with place names (names of buildings, ships, etc.)

Category No article The Exceptions

airports, railway Kennedy Airport,
stations and Heathrow,
other two-word Gatwick Airport,

475
names the first Victoria Station,
word of which is King’s Cross Station,
the name of a Windsor Castle,
person or place Buckingham Palace
most hotels But:Claridge’s the Hilton (hotel)
Brown’s Hotel the Ritz, the Plaza
hotel, the Carlton
banks Lloyds Bank the bank of
Barclays Bank England
shops Harrods, Selfridges,
Marks and Spencers
restaurants, pubs Maxim’s,Macdonalds, the Red Lion (pub)
Luigi’s Italian the Café Royal
Restaurant,
Leoni’s(restaurant)
Emma’s pub
cinemas, the Odeon, the
theatres, Globe,
concert halls the Coliseum
(theatre), the
National Theatre,
the Carnegie Hall
museums, art the Prado, the
galleries, Louvre, the British
monuments Museum,
the Museum of
Modern Art,
the Tate Gallery,
the Lincoln
Memorial,

476
 the Washington
Monument,
theTrevi Fountain,
theColosseum
hospitals Guy’s (hospital) the London
Hospital
schools, colleges, Manchester Grammar the University of
universities School, Carnegie Texas
College,
Bristol University,
Cambridge University,
Oxford University,
Kyiv National
Economic University
the UN, the BBC,
the EU= the
organisations European Union,
Usually no article is theLabour Party
used if the the Organization of
abbreviation is Petroleum
pronounced as a word: Exporting
NATO, Countries
OPEC ['oupэk]
most of political the Senate, Parliament,
and the Cabinet, Congress,
governmental the Ministry, Kent
institutions theBunderstag, County
the Supreme Court, Council,
the British Leeds City
Parliament Council

477
most companies General Motors, Sony,
and firms Nissan, Shell, IBM,
KLM
churches, St John’s Church, the
cathedrals, St Paul’s Cathedral Domincan
abbeys Westminster Abbey Abbey
names of the Houses of
buildings with Parliament,
‘of’ the Tower of
London, the Great
Wall of China,
the Leaning Tower
of Pisa,
the Palace of
Versalles,
the Federal Bureau
of Investigation
zoos London zoo
parks and Hyde park, Trafalgar
squares Square, George Square
ships the Titanic,
the Mary Rose,
the Discovery

Артиклі з іншиминазвами

Назви З артиклем the Без артикля

Історичніподії і періоди the French Revolution, Roman Britain,
the Stone Age Post-War Germany

478
 Книги, фільми, the Bible, the Odyssey, Jaws
документи the Graduate, the Great
Charter
Газети, журнали, the Times, the Economist Pravda, Korrespondent,
телебачення (the press, the radio, the Life, Time
television)
Оркестри, the Philadelphia uranDuran,
музичні гурти Orchestra, the Beatles DepecheMode
Музичніінструменти і to play the piano/the with Ellison on bass
танці violin/the guitar, to dance guitar
the tango.
Thisisthe 1979 recording.

Артиклі в назвахдеякихкраїн, націй, жителівкраїн і мов

Назвакраїни Прикметни Національніст Жителікраїн Назвамов

к ь и и
Belgium Belgian a Belgian theBelgians Dutch,
French,
German
Britain / British / a Brition the British English
England / English a Brit Britions
Great Britain / a Britisher Britisher
the UK anEnglishman the English
(Englishwoman) Englishmen
Chile Chilean a Chilean theChileans Spanish
Cyprus Cyprian a Cypriote theCyprians Greek,
Turkish
Denmark Danish a Dane theDanish / Danish

479
 (the) Danes
Finland Finnish a Finn theFinnish / Finnish
Finns
France French a Frenchman theFrench / French
a Frenchwoman Frenchmen
Holland / Dutch a Dutchman theDutch / Dutch
theNetherland a Dutchwoman Dutchmen
s
Iraq (Irak) Iraqi anIraqi theIraqi Arabic /
Kurdish
Israel Israeli anIsraeli theIsraelis Hebrew
thePhilippines Filipino a Filipino (the) Filipinos Filipino
(Tagalog)
Poland Polish a Pole (the) Poles Polish
Russia Russian a Russian (the) Russians Russian
Scotland Scottish / a Scot / a (the) Scots Scottish
Scotch Scotsman
(Scotswoman)
Spain Spanish a Spaniard the Spanish Spanish
(a Spanish
woman)
the Sudan Sudanese / a Sudanese / a the Sudanese / Arabic
Sudani Sudani the Sudani
Sweden Swedish a Swede the Swedish / Swedish
(the) Swedes
Switzerland Swiss a Swiss the Swiss German,
French,
Italian
Thailand Thai a Thai the Thais Thai
Turkey Turkish a Turk (the) Turks Turkish

480
 Ukraine Ukrainian a Ukrainian (the) Ukrainian
Ukrainians
the USA / American an American (the) English
America Americans
Zimbabwe Zimbabwean the Zimbabwean the English
Zimbabwean

Артиклі з іменниками, що означають часові поняття, назви періоду доби,

днів тижня, місяців, пір року і свят

Без артикля А The

Загальнезначення Описовевизначення Лімітованевизначеннячи
контекст
Monday is always a It was a very hectic The Monday you are speaking
bad day. Monday about was tiring.
We'll wait till night I could never imagine We stayed at the motel for the
and then call the such an awful night. night.
police.
We get good crops of We are having a The autumn in Colorado was
apples in autumn. wonderful autumn this long and wet.
year.

Особливостівживання

at dawn, at midnight, in a day in th evening, in the morning,

before morning, by a week from today the other morning, the day
day, in winter, on a after tomorrow, the following
Tuesday, on New fortnightfromtomorrow day, the year after next, in the
Year's day, in March, past, in the future, in the end,

481
every other day, day in the 19th century, in the
after day, from holidays, at the moment
morning till night
next week, last year

Артиклі з назвамиприйомуїжі

Без артикля А The

Загльнезначення Описовевизначення Лімітованевизначеннячи
контекст
Dinner is served. That was a very nice Soon the dinner was served.
dinner. I was not invited to the formal
Let's have lunch. We had a late lunch. dinner.

Взначенні «порція»:
to have a meal
to have a drink
to have a snack
В значенні «прийом
гостей, вечір, вечірка»:
We met him at a public
dinner.
He couldn't afford in a
cheap cafe.

Артиклі з особовимиіменами

Без артикля A The

GeorgeBush В значенні В значенні «члени

482
 PresidentBush «хтосьізсім’ї»: однієїсім’ї»:
He was a Bush and The Bushes are
wanted to become coming to this
president. dinner.
АЛЕ: There are many Wilsons,
Smiths and Browns in England.
(значення просто множини)
MrSmith Взначенні «хтось»: Взначенні
Linda A Mr Smith left a «визначенаособа»:
message for you. He’s the Smith I met
A Lindacalled. last night.
Linda at 45 was still
the Linda of 20.
David Beckham При вказівці на
Alice in Wonderland риси,
якіасоціюються з
кимось:
Jack plays football
well, but he’ll never
be a Beckham.
She felt like an
Alice in
Wonderland.
SalvadorDali Зціллювказівки на
ChristianDior авторські твори:
The art dealer
agreed to buy a
Dali.
She wants to wear a
Dior this time.

483
 Артиклізіменникамиbed, hospital, church, school, class,
college, court, market, prison, university
Без артикля A/The
Якщоціпредмети і Якщо вони означають просто місце
закладивикористовуються за
призначенням
My father is in hospital I saw my father in the hospital.
(налікуванні) (уприміщеннілікарні)
He was taken to hospital after the This is a new hospital. (приміщення)
heart attack. (з метою лікування)
The children are in school now, It’s an old school.
and my mother is in church. There’s a meeting at the school at 7 o’cloc.
АЛЕ: at a/the office/factory, cathedral,
mosque

Артиклі з іменникамиуфункції прикладки

A The Без артикля

Ізобчислюваними Зіменемвідомоїперсони, При зазначенніна посаду
іменниками в при чипропозицію, яку
однині наявностілімітованогов можезаймати одна людина:
изначеннячи контексту president, head, author,
minister
D.H. Lawrence, an D.H. Lawrence, the D.H. Lawrence, author of
author from author of ‘Lady ‘Lady Chatterley’s Lover’,
Nottingham, wrote Chatterley’s Lover’, died died in 1930.
a book called ‘Lady in 1930. (ім’яавторавідомозагалу)
Chatterley’s (ім’яавторавідомобагать Mrs Banks, Head of Logistics,

484
 Lover’. ом) is from Toronto.
(авторможебутине Miss Hicks, the
відомим) supervising nurse, is
My friend, a coming to see you.
dentist, works long
hours.
АЛЕ: Mr Blair, prime minister of
The prime minister is England, has arrived in Paris.
fond of dogs. (мовайде
про людину, а не її
посаду)
the painter Rubens АЛЕ: Queen Anne
the playwright Pinter Pope Benedict
the calculating Becky President Lincoln
the Emperor Napoleon DoctorHouse
Іменники,
якіозначаютьофіційну
посаду, в
функціїпредикативутакожвж
иваються без артикля:
HecametoKyivwhenhewasMin
isterofDefense.

Артиклі з іменниками в словосполученнях з прийменниками

Прийменники A Без артикля The

from не вживається from memory from the cradle
from day to day from the stable
fromscratch fromthewordgo

485
 in in a mess in debt in the egg
in a minute in tears in the end
in a whisper in comfort inthe couds
on on a bet on time on the hour
on a diet on strike on the radio
on a leash on reflection ontheway
with with a nod with smiles with the word
with a heavy heart with good grace with the colors
with a bounce with kid gloves withtheexceptionof
like like a dream like beans, likethewind
like a brother like show
like a king business,
like clock-work
as as brave as a lion as good as gold as the crow files
as fit as a fiddle as hard as nails as good as the first
as mad as a hatter assafeashouses time

by by a majority by post by the way

by a hair by degrees by the head and ears
by a closeshave by credit card bythedozen
at at a profit at sea at the cross-roads
at a glance at first hand at the moment
at a at pains attheweekend
moment’snotice
for for a walk for sale for the record
for a change for fun for the rest
for a rainyday for starters for the time being

Артиклівмісцевихзворотахіззначенням «цілетайогочастина»

486
 A/TheNoun + of + Noun

Здійснимиіменниками a bit of chalk – two

bits of chalk
a roll of paper
a can of beer
a kilo of sugar
a grain of rice
Знеобчислюваними абстрактнимиіменниками an item of news –
some items of news
a branch of
knowledge
a period of calm
a piece of research
a vase of flower
Зіменниками в множині a book of stamps –
ten books of stamps
a cartoon of
cigarettes
a box of matches
a tin of sardines
a vase of flowers
Зназвами ігор a game of football-
many games of
football
a game of chess
a game of billiards
Зназвамипарнихпредметів і одягу a pair of gloves –
two pairs of gloves
a pair of jeans

487
 a pair of skates
Знеобчислюваними іменниками і обчислюваними a type of cloth –
іменниками в однині в значенні«тип, сорт, вид будь- some types of cloth
чого» a brand of soap
a sort of cake
a species of insect
a kind of friendship

Вживання нульового артикля (відсутність артикля)

Артикль не використовується:
– з іменниками у множині, коли вони вживаються у загальному значенні:
Complexproblemshavesimple, easytounderstand, wronganswers.
(Grossman'sMisquote)
– перед іменниками, що вже мають інший детермінант (визначальне слово),
такий як присвійний займенник my, his, her, its, our, your, their; вказівний
займенник this, that, these, those; неозначені займенники some, any, much,
many, little, few, each, every, either, neither; питальні займенники what?
which? whose? тощо:
WhenIfirstsawyouwithyoursmilesotender, myheartwascaptured,
mysoulsurrendered. (ElvisPresley, It'sNowOrNever.)
– з іменником у множині, коли він виступає представником свого класу:
Elephantsaretheonlyanimalsthatcan'tjump.
– з іменником-предикативом та іменником-прикладкою, коли він вказує ким
або чим є особи або предмети:
Friendsarethievesoftime. (Proverb)
– в окличних реченнях після what з обчислюваним іменником у множині
або необчислюваним іменником:
Whatnastyweather!

488
– із обчислюваним іменником у множині після such, quite, rather:
WhywasIbornwithsuchcontemporaries? (OscarWilde)
– з необчислюваними іменниками, вжитими у загальному значенні:
Informationisnotknowledge. Knowledge is not wisdom. Wisdom is not truth.
Truth is not beauty. Beauty is not love. Love is not music. Music is the Best.
(FrankZappa)
– з іменами та прізвищами людей (окрім випадків, наведених вище):
BennyHill, AlbertEinstein
– з назвами країн: Canada (проте theNetherlands, theArgentine (алеArgentina);
міст: London (але theHague); вулиць: Whitehall (але: theStrand,
theHighStreet, theMall, theLondonroad); площ: TrafalgarSquare; мостів:
WaterlooBridge,(але: theGoldenGateBridge, theBridgeofSighs); парків:
HidePark, CentralPark; станцій: VictoriaStation, WaterlooStation;
континентів: Africa, Asia, Europe; гірських вершин: Everest, MontBlanc; з
назвами озер, якщо перед назвою стоїть слово lake: LakeErie, LakeGeneva;
окремі острови:Corsica,Elba.
– з назвою спортивних ігор:
I am fond of football.
– у газетних, журнальних заголовках, об’явах, телеграмах тощо:
"HusbandandCatLost... RewardforCat"
– з назвами днів тижня, місяців, свят (окрім випадків, викладених вище):
onMonday, atChristmas.
– з іменниками, які позначають титули, військові звання і посади, або якщо
такий іменник є формою звертання і за ним iде власне ім’я: CaptainSmith,
ProfessorBrown, PrinceCharles, DoctorWhite, QueenElisabeth, Mr. Rogers.
– у звертаннях: Good morning, doctor.
– з іменниками, що позначають членів сім’ї, коли члени родини вживають їх
замість власних імен, а також якщо за такими іменниками йде власне ім’я:
UncleTom, CousinDick.
WhereisDad? Heisupstairs.

489
– з іменником-предикативом або іменником-прикладкою в однині, якщо він
позначає посаду або звання, які є єдиними в даній ситуації, або коли такий
іменник стоїть після слів toappoint, toelect, tomake:
Mr. Smithwasappointedheadofmarketingdepartment.
– з іменником предикативом або прикладкою, що позначає членів сім’ї у
випадку, коли ми робимо наголос на соціальний статус цієї особи:
Mary, daughterofamayor, worksatourcollege.
– з власними іменниками, якщо перед ними стоять прикметники little, old,
young, dear, poor, honest:
Little Eddie was bent over his deskwriting an exercise when the teacher came
up to him.
– з назвами навчальних дисциплін: History, Geography.
– з назвами мов, якщо відсутнє слово language: English
(алеtheEnglishlanguage).
– з назвами прийомів їжі: breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, supper, окрім
випадків, перелічених вище:
Therearetwothingsyoucannevereatforbreakfast. Theyare lunch and dinner.
– як правило, з назвами університетів і коледжів, якщо вони не починаються
зі слова University: LondonUniversity, OxfordUniversity, TrinityCollege.
– з назвами хвороб: scarletfever, cancer, diabetes, pneumonia(проте (the) flu,
(the) measles, (the) mumps). Деякі іменники, які не є спеціальними
медичними термінами, можуть бути обчислюваними іменниками і
вживатися з неозначеним артиклем:a headache, a sore throat, a cold, (US a
toothache, an earache, a backache).
– зі словами bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school, college, university,
коли місця, позначені цими іменниками, відвідуються або
використовуються в зв’язку з їх призначенням. Якщо це місце
відвідується або використовуються з іншою метою, то вживається
означений артикль the:

490
 ThankgoodnessIwasneversenttoschool;
itwouldhaverubbedoffsomeoftheoriginality. (BeatrixPotter)
One of the most adventurous things left us is to go to bed. For no one can lay a
hand on our dreams. (E.V.Lucas)
– зі словом work (місце роботи):
He goes to work early in the morning.
– з кількісними числівниками:
I've been on a diet for two weeks and all I've lost is two weeks. (TotieFields)
Проте, якщо предмети або істоти вже згадувались або вони
конкретизуються, то з кількісними числівниками вживається означений
артикль the:
The secret of a good sermon is to have a good beginning and a good ending;
and have the two as close together as possible. (George Burns)

ДЕТЕРМІНАНТИ
DETERMINERS

Детермінанти – це слова типу the, his, that і под., які вживаються перед
іменниками: the countryside; your friend; that young girl; one hundred US
dollars; some paper.
Крім артиклів, до таких слів відносяться:
вказівні слова (demonstratives) – this, that, these, those;
присвійні слова (possessives) – my, your(s), his, her(s), its, our(s), their(s);
кількісні слова (quantifiers) – (a) few), (a) little, many, much, some, any, etc.;
числівники (numerals) – one, two, three, etc.

Детермінанти виконують дві функції: вони уточнюють іменник, перед яким

вживаються, або вказують на його кількість.

491
  Where is my book? – It’s on the desk. But don’t take this book
because I need it. → my, the і this уточнюють, про які книгу (book) і стіл
(desk) іде мова.
 There were a few calls for you. I told the callers that you would be
back in two hours. → a few і two вказують на кількість тих, хто
телефонував (callers), і на час (hours).

До уточнюючих детермінант відносяться артиклі, присвійні і вказівні слова.

ПРИСВІЙНІ ПРИКМЕТНИКИ І ЗАЙМЕННИКИ

POSSESSIVES

Присвійні прикметники
Присвійні прикметники my, your, his, her, its, our, their, one’s і whose
вживаються перед іменником чи групою іменника і вказують на
приналежність.
Can I have your phone number, please?
She told me her name.
It’s easy to lose one’s temper when one is criticized.
Whose book is this?

Присвійні прикметники не вживаються з іншими детермінантами, такими як

артиклі чи вказівні займенники.
Jane has left her umbrella at the department store. (NOT … the her umbrella)

У прийменникових словосполученнях з іменниками, що означають частини

тіла, та з дієсловами типу hit, kiss, punch, slap, bite, touch, pat, sting замість
присвійних займенників вживається означений артикль.
I was stung on the arm by a wasp.
Dad patted the dog on the head.

492
Порівняйте: Jack broke his leg playing ice-hockey.

Присвійні займенники
Присвійні займенникиmine, his, hers, its, ours і theirs схожі на присвійні
прикметники, але не є детермінантами, оскільки вживаються без іменника.
Порівняйте:
That’s her bag. – This bag is hers.
Can I borrow your pen? I can’t find mine.

Присвійні займенники можуть вживатися з прийменником of у конструкції

іменник + of + присвійний займенник:
a flat of theirs; that new idea of hers.
Is that student your friend? = Is that student a friend of yours?

ВКАЗІВНІ СЛОВА
DEMONSTRATIVES

Вказівні слова this/these/that/those в якості детермінант вживаються перед

іменниками, що означають як людей, так і предмети. This (sing)/these (pl)
вказують на людей чи предмети, які ближче за відстанню чи у часі; that
(sing)/those (pl) – на ті, що далі за відстанню чи у часі.
Do you like this dress? I bought it yesterday.
All the time I was in that country I felt bored.

Ми також вживаємо this/these, коли говоримо про майбутні події і that/those,

коли посилаємося на події у минулому.
Do you remember that winter we went to France?
These new projects seem to be promising for our company.

493
Іноді this/these/that/those вживаються з емоційним забарвленням: this /these
виражають згоду чи цікавість, тоді як that/those виражають незгоду чи
критику.
Tell me about these new neighbours of yours.
I’ve never liked those new neighbours of yours.

Іменник після this/these/that/those може не вживатися, якщо зрозумілий зміст.

I liked the shoes we saw yesterday, but these are fantastic!

Займенники this/these/that/those вживаються без іменників.

This is my room. Come in, please.

Ми також вживаємо this/that у телефонних розмовах: this – коли називаємося,

і that – коли уточнюємо, з ким говоримо.
Hello. This is Jane. Is that Nick?

КІЛЬКІСНІ СЛОВА
QUANTIFIERS

До кількісних детермінант відносяться словаsome, any, no, many, much, a lot

(of), (a) few, (a) little, most, all, both,none, either, neither, each, every, (an)other, а
також числівники.

Some/any/no

Some та any вказують на невизначену кількість чогось. Some вживається у

стверджувальних реченнях, а також у питальних, коли ми пропонуємо щось
або чекаємо на стверджувальну відповідь.
I need some water.
Would you like some water?

494
Have you got some water? – Порівняйте: Have you got any water here?

Переклад:
Some + обчислювані іменники в однині → якийсь (чи не перекладається).
There must be some mistake.
Some + не обчислювані іменники → небагато.
There is some milk left.
Some +обчислювані іменники у множині → декілька, небагато.
Have some more vegetables.

Any вживається у питаннях і з часткою not або з іншими заперечними

словами (hardly, never, without, seldom, rarely) – у заперечних реченнях.

Is there any water in that can?

Unfortunately, there aren’t any tickets for the show left.
You never give me any help.

Any може вживатися в стверджувальному реченні зі значенням «будь-який,

кожний, всякий» .
You can take any bus. All go that direction.

No вживається у заперечних реченнях аналогічно not any, щоб виразніше

підкреслити заперечну ідею.
Sorry, I can’t do it for you. I have no time. (Пор. I haven’t got any time.)

Many/much/a lot (lots) of/ (a) few/ (a) little

Many/much/alot (lots) of , коли ми говоримо про більше число або кількість

людей чи предметів.

495
Many + обчислювані іменники (офіційний або письмовий стиль).
Many people hunt wild animals for sport.

Much + необчислювані іменники.

Much damage has been caused by the recent fire.

A lot of/lots of + обчислювані та необчислювані іменники (нейтральний або

розмовний стиль)
We saw a lot of / lots of places of interest and took a lot of / lots of photos.
There was a lot of / lots of rain last month.

(А) few/(a) little вживаються, коли ми говоримо про невелику або недостатню
кількість чогось.
A few (of) + обчислювані іменники →декілька.
We stayed a few days in Madrid and visited the Prado and some other museums.
A few of our students visited that conference.

Few (of) + обчислювані іменники → небагато, мало.

Few of the relatives knew the truth.

A little (of) + необчислювані іменники → небагато.

She drank only some tea and ate a little bread.

Little (of) + необчислювані іменники → мало, недостатньо.

Hurry up, we’ve got little time left!

All (of)/most (of)

All (of the) + іменники у множині → усе.

496
People were coming from all directions.
All (of the) + необчислювані іменники → усе, увесь, цілий.
All wool tends to shrink when washed in hot water.
He has worked hard all year.

Most + іменник → більшість (взагалі).

Most students realize the importance of learning foreign languages.

Most of the + іменник → більшість (у певному випадку).

Most of the students in our group speak good English.

Every/each

Every вживається перед іменниками в однині і означає «кожний», «всякий»

при спілкуванні. За змістом every схоже на all.
We enjoyed every minute of our stay in Paris.
Each також вживається перед іменником в однині і перекладається «кожний»
і «всякий», але зазвичай вказує на людей чи предмети зокрема.
Each student was given their own email address.
Порівняйте:
Each person in turn went to see the doctor. He gave every patient the same
medicine.

Another/the other/other

Another + обчислюваний іменник в однині → інший, інакший, ще один (із

багатьох).
Would you like another cup of coffee?

The other + обчислюваний іменник в однині → інший (з двох), другий.

497
The bank is on the other side of the street.

Other + необчислюваний іменник в однині → інший, інакший.

I can’t see you now. Some other time, maybe.

Other + іменник у множині → інші, інакші.

This sweater is too big for me. Do you have it in other sizes?

The other + іменник у множині → інші.

Five of us went on a mountaineering expedition while the other sportsmen were
staying in the camp.

З іменниками у множині, що вказують на час, відстань, гроші і под., часто

вживаєтьсяanother.
We had another five miles to drive.
Could you give me another two days to think over your proposal?
Переклад стійких словосполучень:
Each other = one another → один одного.

Every other → кожний другий.

They visit us every other week.

The other day → днями, нещодавно.

I ran into Tim while shopping the other day.

On the other hand → з іншого боку.

On the one hand, he would like to have this job; on the other hand, he doesn’t
want to move to another city.

The other way round/around → (якраз) навпаки.

498
I found him, not the other way round.

Both, neither, either, none

Both, neither та either відносяться до двох людей або предметів.

both + іменник в множині → обидва, обидві.
Both satellites were launched in the 1990s.

neither + іменник в однині → жоден, ніякій.

Neither answer is correct, unfortunately.(= not one or the other)
either + іменник в однині → будь якій.
I don’t mind where we go. Either restaurant is fine. (= one or the other is fine)

Ми використовуємо both + of + determiner + іменник/ займенник в множині з

дієсловом в множині.
Ми можемо використати either/neither + of + determiner + іменник/ займенник
в множині з дієсловом в однині або множині:
Neither of my sisters lives /live in the same town as me.
Both of them are married. (NOT Both of them is married.)

None означає ніхто (з групи). None може використовуватися з

дієсловом в однині або множині:
None of our countries is/are able to ignore the implications of global warming.

Запам'ятайте, як перекладаються словосполучення з подвійними

прислівниками:
either … or → чи…чи; або…або;
neither … nor → ні … ні;
both … and → і…і; як … такі.
Well, I think she’s either Ukrainian or Polish.

499
(Порівняйте: There were two options for us, and either was acceptable.)
I neither knew nor cared what was going to happen.
(Порівняйте: Neither plan was approved.)
For this job you will need a good knowledge of both English and French.
(Порівняйте: Both (of the) women were French.)

ЧИСЛІВНИКИ
NUMERALS

0 – nought /AmE zero 21 – twenty-one

1 – one 22 – twenty-two
2 – two 23 – twenty-three
3 – three 24 – twenty-four
4 – four 25 – twenty-five
5 – five 26 – twenty-six
6 – six 27 – twenty-seven
7 – seven 28 – twenty-eight
8 – eight 29 – twenty-nine
9 – nine 30 – thirty
10 – ten 40 – forty
11 – eleven 50 – fifty
12 –- twelve 60 – sixty
13 – thirteen 70 – seventy
14 – fourteen 80 – eighty
15 – fifteen 90 – ninety
16 – sixteen 100 – one / a hundred*
17 – seventeen 1,000 – one / a thousand
18 – eighteen 1,000 000 – one /a million

500
 19 – nineteen Числівники більше1,000 000
20 – twenty відрізняються:
(AmE) a billion or a thousand millions -
1,000,000,000
(BrE.) a billion or a million millions -
1,000,000,000,000

Якщо перед числівниками hundred/ thousand/ million стоять числівники

‘two, three, four’ і так далі, вони не закінчуються на – s.
Наприклад: five hundred dollars (a неfive hundreds dollars);
two / three thousand customers;
two dozen bottles (a неtwo dozens bottles).

Слова dozen*,hundred, thousand, million закінчуються на –s у тих випадках,

коли вони виражають невизначену кількість, тобто дюжини, сотні, тисячі і
т.д.,при цьому вживаються з прийменником of.
Порівняйте:A hundred tourists… сотня туристів.
Two hundred tourists … двісті туристів.
Hundreds of tourists … сотні туристів.
E.g. Several thousand people have bought the new model. To be more precise, we
have sold eight thousand four hundred and twenty. The population of North
America is three hundred and thirty-two million.
* Слово ‘dozen’ часто використовується для позначання числа 12.
Наприклад: 12 roses = a dozen red roses; 6 eggs = half a dozen eggs.

 Великі числа:
310 – three hundred and ten;
425 – four hundred and twenty-five;
1,001 – one thousand and one;

501
1,100 - a/one thousand, one hundred; (informal style: eleven hundred);
2,084 – two thousand and eighty-four;
6,102 – six thousand, one hundred and two;
50,000 – fifty thousand;
250,127 – two hundred and fifty thousand, one hundred and twenty-seven;
500, 000 – five hundred thousand or half a million;
750,000 – seven hundred and fifty thousand;
1,000,000 – one million (1m).

1. При написанні чисел кожні три розряди цифр відділяються комою

(справа наліво). У випадку з чотирьохзначними числами допустимо писати
4,126 або 4126.
2. При читанні чисел в американському варіанті англійської мови слово
«and», як правило, випадає. Порівняйте:
1,400,702 (BrE) one million, four hundred thousand, seven hundred and two
(AmE) one million, four hundred thousand, seven hundred two

 Грошові суми:
При позначенні грошових сум враховується різниця при написанні і
прочитанні. При написанні спочатку пишеться знак $, ₤, € тощо, а потім
позначається число.
При прочитанні спочатку називається сума, а потім - у яких грошових
одиницях вона вимірюється.
₤1.75 one pound seventy-five (one pound and seventy-five pence);
₤3.70 three pounds seventy;
$11.99 eleven dollars ninety-nine (eleven dollars and ninety-nine cents);
€ 250 two hundred and fifty euros;
₤478m = ₤ 478,000,000:
- four hundred and seventy-eight million pounds (BrE);
- four hundred seventy eight million pounds (AmE);
$7.5bn = $7,500,000,000 seven and a half billion dollars.
502
Примітка:
₤10 це ‘ten pounds’,але ‘a ₤10 note’ читається‘a ten--pound note’;
a ten thousand pound car (а не ‘a ten thousand pounds car’).

 Відсотки:
1% one per cent (AmE percent);
25% twenty-five per cent / percent;
0.2 % nought point two per cent;
0.75% nought point seven five per cent;
3.5% three point five per cent;
31/2% three and a half per cent;
inflation of 3.5 per cent – inflation of three point five per cent;
Oxygen accounts for 40.6% of the earth’s crust. (forty point six per cent).

 Прості та десяткові дроби:

1
/2 a (one) half;
1
/3 a (one) third;
1
/4 a quarter / a (one) fourth;
1
/10 a (one) tenth;
2
/3 two third+s;
2
/5 two fifths;
3
/4 three quarters/ three fourths;
21/4 two and a quarter;
21/2 two and a half;
2 9/10 two and nine tenths;

0.1 nought point one (BrE);

zero point one (AmE);
0.001 nought point oh oh one; also possible: point oh oh one;
0.25 nought point two five;

503
4.83 four point eight three;
99.3 ninety-nine point three;
26.012 twenty-six point oh one two;
127.578 one hundred twenty-seven point five seven eight;
(also possible: one two seven point five seven eight).

Будьте максимально уважні при озвучуванні цифр. Недбалість з ‘0’ може

призвести до серйозних помилок або непорозуміння. Якщо, наприклад,
називаючи по телефону число 0.145, ви скажете ‘zero point a hundred and
forty-five’, англієць може подумати, що ви припустились помилки з нулем
або передумали під час розмови і прийняти це за 145.
Будьте уважні!
В англійській мові при написанні десяткових дробів ставиться крапка, а
не кома.
Порівняйте:
15.001 fifteen point oh oh one 15,001 fifteen thousand and one

З числами у вигляді десяткового або простого дробу зі значенням до одиниці

зазвичай використовується структура of a+ іменник в однині і читається так:
3
/4 ton - three quarters of a ton;
0.25 mile - nought point two five of a mile.
Відповідно, після числа (простого або десяткового дробу) зі значенням
більше за одиницю стоїть іменник, як правило, у множині.
18.5 tons читаеться ‘eighteen point five tons’;
3.6 km – three point six kilometres;
11/2 h - one and a half hours.
Можливий також варіант: an hour and a half (але не ‘one and a half hour’).

 Математичні знаки та дії:

+ plus/and;

504
- minus;
÷ divided by;
x multiplied by/times;
= is equal/equals to/ is;
31 + 46 = 77thirty-one plus forty-six is/equals/is equal to seventy-seven;
thirty-one and forty-six equals seventy-seven;
64 – 31 = 33 sixty-four minus thirty-one equals/ is thirty-three;
9 х 3 = 27 nine multiplied by 3 equals/is twenty-seven;
nine times* three equals/is twenty-seven;
9÷3=3 nine divided by three equals 3;
10 ÷ 6 =1.666 ten divided by six is one point six recurring;
*two times = twice;
three times = thrice;
102 ten squared;
103 ten cubed;
10n ten to the power of n;
√4 the square root of 4;
3
√27 the cube root of twenty-seven.

 Дати:
1100 eleven hundred (закінчується на 00);
1500 fifteen hundred;
1900 nineteen hundred;
1905 nineteen hundred and five (офіційно);
nineteen oh five (більш сучасний і розмовний варіант);
1917 nineteen seventeen;
1945 nineteen forty-five;
2000 (the year) two thousand (закінчується на 000);
2001 two thousand and one;
twenty oh one;

505
2005 two thousand and five / twenty oh five;
2011 twenty eleven;
2012 twenty twelve;
2050 twenty fifty.

May 15, 2012 May the fifteenth, twenty twelve.

15 May, 2012 the fifteenth of May, twenty twelve.

1980s the nineteen eighties.

Examples: life in the nineteen thirties;
pop music of the sixties;
a man in his fifties

 Телефонні номери:
При прочитанні номерів телефонів, факсів (а також банківських рахунків,
номерів кімнат, машин, паспортів тощо) кожна цифра вимовляється окремо.
Цифра 0 читається як oh (AmE zero). Якщо дві цифри підряд однакові,
вживається слово double.

171 225 4677 one seven one (мініпауза) double two five (мініпауза) four six
double seven.

 Час
9. 00It’s nine (o’clock). Also: It’s nine a.m. It’s nine p.m.
09.05 It’s nine oh five.
It’s five (minutes) past nine.
AmE: It’s five (minutes) after nine.
09.15 nine fifteen = a quarter past nine;
09.30 half past nine;
09.45 a quarter to ten;

506
 AmE: a quarter of ten.
09.50 ten (minutes) to nine;
12.00 It’s noon.
It’s midnight.

 Температура:
32˚C thirty-two degrees Celsius (or Centigrade);
90˚F ninety degrees Fahrenheit;
0 читається як ‘zero’ (амер. та брит. англ.);
-5˚ five below zero.

Деякі буквені позначення, що використовуються для позначення чисел:

bn
1bn зазвичай 1,000,000,000.
k – в окремих випадках використовується для позначення тисячі;
k = 1,000.
Якщо в об’явах про вакансії вказується заробітна плата у ₤12k, це означає,
що вона складає ₤12,000.00 в рік.
m – часто використовується для позначання мільйона;
1m = 1,000,000.

ЗАЙМЕННИК
THE PRONOUN
Займенник – це частина мови, що вказує на предмети, ознаки,
кількості, але не називає їх.
Вживання деяких займенників було розглянуто в розділі
«Детермінанти».

Особові займенники

507
 Personal Pronouns
Особові займенники Особові займенники
Суб'єктна форма Об'єктна форма
Personal pronouns Personal pronouns
Subject form Object form
I me
you you
he him
she her
it it
we us
you you
they them

Слова I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they і them є особовими
займенниками і використовуються замість іменника.
Mary isn’t in the office today. She is on sick leave. I called her in the
morning.

Займенник he замінює іменник, що позначає осіб чоловічої статі.

Займенник she замінює іменник, що позначає осіб жіночої статі. Кажучи про
тварин, займенники he або she вживають тоді, коли хочуть підкреслити їх
стать, а також в різних казках, байках, або в описах звичок і характеру своїх
домашніх вихованців.
My dog Barney is so sweet! He’s only fourteen months.
Займенник it замінює іменник, що позначає неживий предмет,
абстрактне поняття, тварину або рослину, а також замінює іменник baby,
child, якщо не вказується стать дитини.
A baby needs its mother.

508
 Особові займенники можуть виконувати в реченні функції підмета і
додатку.
subject object object
↓ ↓ ↓
Jack called yesterday. He told me that his boss had offered him to head the
company’s branch in Warsaw.

Особові займенники звичайно не опускаються в реченні, навіть якщо

зміст речення зрозумілий. Вони також не використовуються відразу після
іменника, повторюючи його.
They thanked Alex for the job done and paid him a productivity bonus.
(NOT … and paid a productivity bonus)
My colleague has always been very helpful and supportive. (NOT My
colleague he has always been very helpful and supportive.)

Після дієслова-зв'язки використовується об'єктна форма особового

займенника.
Who broke my vase? – It wasn’t me, Mum! It was him!
У розмовній мові, в коротких відповідях також використовується
об'єктна форма.
Who said that? – Me.
Але в офіційнішому стилі в таких випадках використовується суб'єктна
форма займенника + відповідне допоміжне дієслово.
Who said that? – I did.
Те ж правило відноситься до використання займенників після слів as і
than.
Jane goes to the same university as me. (розмовний стиль).
Jane goes to the same university as I do. (офіційний стиль).

509
 Займенник it використовується також як формальний підмет (не
перекладається рідною мовою):
а) коли ми говоримо про погоду, час або відстань:
It didn't often rain there. It's five o'clock. It's 10 km from the sea.
б) про людину, коли називаємо її:
Who’s the man in black? – It’s our new director.
в) коли реальним підметом є інфінітив або герундій, або ж перед
підрядним реченням із сполучником that:
It’s important to be there on time.
It’s no use trying to explain anything to her.
It’s a shame that he didn’t tell you the truth!
г) коли it відноситься до якогось факту, події або ситуації:
I passed the most difficult exam yesterday. It made me so happy.
д) коли it відноситься до слів nothing, everything, somethingі anything:
Everything happens when you don’t expect it.
е) коли висловлюємо думку про якесь місце або подію:
Oh, it’s so lovely here!
ж) у наступних виразах:
It seems that …/ It appears that … - Здається, що...
It looks like… - Схоже, що .
It is said that … - Говорять, що.
It doesn’t matter … – Не має значення, і так далі.

It або there?
There також може використовуватися як формальний підмет:
а) коли ми згадуємо щось вперше. Коли повідомляємо подробиці,
використовуємо займенник it.
There is а meeting this evening. It will start at seven.
There was an accident yesterday. Fortunately, no one was hurt in it.
б) коли говоримо про існування чогось десь:

510
 There are some letters for you on the desk.
в) з числівниками або із словами, що означають кількість, – а lot of,
many, much, more, enough:
There were a lot of problems to discuss.
Will there be enough food?

Дієслово to be після there узгоджується з наступним іменником.

Порівняйте:
There is a lot of noise in the street. – There are some people outside.

Неозначено-особові займенники
Indefinite Personal Pronouns

Коли ми говоримо не конкретно про когось, а узагальнено, ми

використовуємо наступні займенники:
You:
In Denmark you often eat sandwiches for lunch.
Practice what you preach. (У прислів'ях і приказках. Тут: Що
проповідуєш, те і в житті роби.)

We (коли ми маємо на увазі також і себе):

We often eat lunch in a bit of a hurry.

They:
They are building a new ring road. (they = authorities)
They have discovered a new treatment for this disease. (they = scientists)
They say it will be very cold this winter (They say – Говорять, …)

They також використовується, коли ми не знаємо стать людини, про

яку говоримо.

511
 If anyone calls for me, ask them to leave а message, please.

One:
One should knock before entering somebody’s room (більш офіційний
стиль. У розмовній мові - You should knock.)

Зворотні займенники
Reflexive Pronouns

Зворотні займенники вказують, що зазначена в реченні дія спрямована

на особу, яка її виконує. Зворотні займенники утворюються шляхом
додавання до присвійних займенників закінчення -self або-selves.

Особа Однина Множина

1-а myself ourselves
2-а yourself yourselves
himself
3-я herself themselves
itself
oneself

Зворотні займенники myself, yourself та інші використовуються після

певних дієслів (behave, burn, cut, enjoy, hurt, kill,look at і т. п.), коли і суб'єкт, і
об'єкт дії один і той же.
We went out of the sea and dried ourselves.
Вони також можуть використовуватися після дієслова-зв'язки be, feel,
look, seem для опису емоції або стану.
She hasn’t been herself recently.

512
 Певні дієслова (wash, shave, dress, undress, meet, rest, relax, stand up, get
up, sit down, wake up) зазвичай використовуються без зворотних займенників.
She woke up and dressed. Але: The little girl is washing herself.

Після прийменників місця ми використовуємо особові займенники в

об'єктній формі, а не зворотні займенники.
She looked behind her. (NOT …behind herself)

Підсилювальні займенники мають таку ж форму, як і зворотні, але вони

мають дещо інший смисл. Вони або виділяють іменник, до якого
відносяться, або підкреслюють факт, що саме певна людина зробила дію, або
вказують, що вона зробила це сама, без сторонньої допомоги.
The people themselves are very friendly, but the country is poor and dirty.
The manager spoke to me herself. (Або:The manager herself spoke to me.)
Do it yourself and you’ll understand how it’s important.

Запам'ятаєте наступні стійкі вирази із зворотно-підсилювальними

займенниками.
Enjoy yourselves! (= Have a good time!)
Behave yourself! (= Be good!)
He likes being by himself. (= He likes being alone.)
She lives by herself. (= She lives on her own.)
By myself, by yourself, by himself, etc. (= on my own, on your own, on his own
etc)
Help yourself to tea. (= You're welcome to take some tea if you want some.)
Make yourself at home! (= Feel comfortable.)
Make yourself heard. (= Speak loudly enough to be heard by others.)
Make yourself understood. (= Make your meaning clear.)

513
 ПРИКМЕТНИК
ADJECTIVE

Прикметник (the Adjective) – частина мови, що виражає ознаку

предмета і відповідає на питання: What/what kind of..? Який/що за...?У
реченні прикметник може стояти перед означуваним іменником, іноді після
нього або після дієслова-зв’язки be, seem, appear, look, feel, smell, taste, get,
become, grow, remain, stay, keep.
We are planning to place a large order with this firm.
Please send all goods available.
Our contract is/seems/appears very profitable.
The prices are getting higher every month.

Прикметники, які починаються з a- , а також glad, ill, well (в значенні

«здоровий, вдалий, хороший»), у реченні вживаються тільки після дієслова-
зв’язки, а не перед іменником:
The baby was asleep (Ср. The sleeping baby moved and started crying).
He looked afraid.
She felt alone.
He is not well, he’s still ill.

Прикметники можуть бути простими, похідними і складними.

Прості прикметники: big, long, strict, old, green тощо.
Похідні прикметники: beautiful, hopeless, unnatural тощо.
Складні прикметники: black-eyed, first-class, light-blue тощо.
Складні прикметники також утворюються шляхом поєднання
числівника з іменником воднині у фразах, що вказують навік, обсяг,
довжину, ціну, вагу, тривалість, час, відстань і под.
A twenty-year-old man (NOT a twenty-years old man);

514
 a two-metre hole; a three-day trip; a fifty-pound dress.

Найбільш вживані рефікси, що утворюють прикметники від

прикметників та іншихчастин мови:
префікс значення приклад
a- не, без amoral
anti- проти antisocial
auto- сам autobiographical
dis- не disloyal
extra- надзвичайно extraordinary
hyper- особливо hypercritical
in- не incomplete, insensitive;
(im- перед p; impossible;
il- перед l; illegal;
ir- перед r) irrespective
inter- між international
multi- багато multicultural
over- зверх over-confident
post- після post-modern
pre- до pre-war
pro- на користь pro-American
semi- пів semi-conscious
sub- під subconscious
super- зверх supernatural
trans- наскрізь transatlantic
ultra- зверх ultramodern
un- не uncertain
uni- одно unilateral

Найбільш вживані суфікси, що утворюють прикметники від інших

частин мови:
515
 Суфікс Значення приклад
(співвідноситься зі
значенням слова, від
якого утворено
прикметник)
-able придатний для, здатний drinkable, changeable,
understandable
-al стосовнодо,що стосується practical
-ent здатний different
-ed той, що має green-eyed
-ful повний; useful
(значення, протилежне той, що забезпечує
суфіксу -less)
-ic стосовно до, що стосується electric
-ical стосовно до logical
-ish 1) схильний; 1) childish;
2) означає національну 2) Swedish
належність
-ive здібний impressive
-less що не має hopeless
-like подібно businesslike
-ly що має якість,властивість friendly
-ous той, що бере до уваги; dangerous
що характеризується
-ward у напрямку backward
-y характерний wealthy

516
 Оскільки іменник у реченні може визначатися кількома
прикметниками, існує певний порядок їх вживання. Як правило,
прикметники, що позначають якість, стоять перед класифікуючими:
a white sand castle; asilkdancingshoes.

Прикметники, що виражають думку, вживаються перед описовими:

a pretty young woman; a silly fat cat.

Існує також відносно суворий порядок вживання описових

прикметників:
розмір вік форма колір походження матеріал
a small round white Italian porcelain dish
an old square brown wooden box

Числівники зазвичай вживаються перед прикметниками, а first, next та

last перед числівниками:
ten white cups; the first good contract; his last two efficient projects.

У деяких випадках прикметники вживаються без означуваних

іменників, якщо вони позначають:
а) групу людей, яка об’єднана за якимись фізичними чи соціальними
ознаками. У цьому випадку прикметники вживаються з означеним артиклем
the:
the old, the young, the poor, the rich, the blind, the deaf, the unemployed.
The number of the unemployed has increased recently;
б) національність. Це прикметники із закінченням –sh і –ch, вони теж
вживаються із означеним артиклем the і мають значення множини:
the Welsh, the Irish, the British, the Dutch, the French;
The British are known for their love for pets.

517
 Прикметники також можуть вживатися без означуваного іменника у
сталих словосполученнях: the accused – обвинувачений; the deceased –
покійний; the former – перший (з вище зазначених); the latter – останній (з
вище зазначених).
The meeting was attended by Mr Smith and Mr Jones; the latter is vice-
president of the partner company.

Прикметники найвищого ступеня порівняння часто вживаються без

означуваного іменника.
John is the cleverest in our group.

ПРИСЛІВНИК
ADVERB

Прислівник (the Adverb) – частина мови, яка вказує на ознаку дії або
обставини, за яких вона відбувається. Прислівник показує як, коли, де, з якою
метою тощо відбувається дія, виражена дієсловом.
We woke up late.
Slowly, he approached.
What are you doing tomorrow?
Крім того, прислівник може визначати ступінь якості, виражений
прикметником чи іншим прислівником.
I am terribly sorry to tell you this news.
We need to buy some food ─ the fridge is nearly empty.
I am satisfied ─ you’ve translated the text quite well.

Після дієслів-зв’язок: be, seem, appear, look, feel, smell, taste, get,
become, grow, remain, stay, keep замість прислівників вживаються
прикметники.

518
 He felt angry.
The soup smells delicious!
She appears shy.

Прислівники можуть бути простими і складеними.

Прості прислівники: late, yesterday, here, soon таін.
Складені прислівники (Adj + -ly): quickly, suddenly, fortunately, quietly
та ін.

Слід розрізняти різні прикметники і прислівники з однаковим

закінченням-ly. Наприклад, слова: costly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively,
lonely, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely є прикметниками, а не прислівниками.
We all noticed his friendly behaviour.
She is such a lovely creature.
Слова daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early, hard, fast, late можуть бути
і прикметниками, і прислівниками.
I got up early and took an early train to London.
Is his car so fast or does he drive so fast?
Деякі прислівники схожі, але різняться значенням: hard – hardly, late –
lately.
I’ve trained hard for this competition. But I can hardly compete with African
athletes.
Lately, she’s been 20 to 30 minutes late to the office, and our boss is
outraged.

Прислівники поділяються на кілька категорій:

Прислівники місця here, there, where, inside, outside, above,
below та ін.
Прислівники часу/частоти дії now, when, then, today, yesterday,
tomorrow, before, after, ever, never,

519

Прислівники міри і ступеня
Прислівники способу дії
Прислівники ймовірності
Прислівники, що виражають
думку, або слугують для зв’язки з
попереднім реченням
always, sometimes, often, seldom,
usually, already, lately, recently та ін.
many, much, a lot, (a) few, (a) little,
enough, too, very, so, hardly, scarcely,
nearly, almost та ін.
well, badly, quickly, slowly, early, late,
hard, angrily, happily та ін.
probably, certainly, definitely, obviously,
maybe, perhaps та ін.
however, luckily, stupidly та ін.

Залежно від категорії прислівник займає певне місце у реченні: на

початку, в середині, в кінці речення:
 На початку речення – з’єднувальні прислівники, прислівники способу
дії, часу/частоти дії (крім alway, ever, rarely, seldom, never), ймовірності,
місця.
Suddenly, the door opened. Then somebody entered the room.
Usually I get up early. Maybe, I’ve got used to it.

 У середині речення – прислівники часу/частоти дії, ймовірності, міри

і ступеня, способу дії.
We always go to the seaside in summer. It is certainly the best place for
holiday.
She angrily looked at me. I had completely forgotten to phone her the day
before.
У цій позиції прислівник вживається перед більшістю основних дієслів,
але після допоміжних і модальних дієслів.
She always comes here at weekends. She certainly likes this place.

520
 I have already looked through your project. I can certainly help you.

 У кінці речення –прислівник способу дії, місця, часу/частоти дії.

You speak English well. I guess, you’ve been working hard.
Emily is reading upstairs. She is unusually quiet today.

Для посилення значення прикметників і прислівників використовується

so:
so + adj/adv
I didn’t like the film. The plot was so naїve.
The train arrived so late that we didn’t risk going home on foot and took а
taxi.
Порівняйте з such + noun
I didn’t like the film. They used such а naїve plot.

Прикметники і прислівники можуть використовуватися із словом

enough («достатньо»). У цьому випадку enough ставиться після
прикметників і прислівників.
She is experienced enough to apply for this job.
He was walking slowly enough for me to catch up with him.

Порівняйте використання enough з іменниками:

She hasn’t got enough experience to apply for this job.

Слово too в значенні «надто» ставиться перед прикметником або

прислівником.
They are too young to marry.
It was too late to start а new project.

Цей зворот може ще більш посилюватися словом far.

521
 far too much/big/early, etc. = much/too much/big/early, etc.
The issue is far too important to be discussed behind closed doors.

Ступені порівняння прикметників

Утворення ступенів порівняння односкладових і двоскладових
прикметників, що закінчуються на y, ненаголошений голосний, l чи r

Позитивний ступінь Вищий ступінь Найвищийступінь

Adj Adj + er (the) Adj + est
great greater (the) greatest
fat fatter (the) fattest
happy happier (the) happiest
narrow narrower (the) narrowest
simple simpler (the) simplest
clever cleverer (the) cleverest

The ferry is cheaper than the plane.

It is the cheapest way to Hastings.
This year has been busier for our company than the previous one.
It has been the busiest year (of all) so far.

Односкладові прислівники і прислівники early, late, fast, hard, near,

soon утворюють ступені порівняння аналогічно односкладовим
прикметникам.
Позитивний ступінь Вищий ступінь Найвищий ступінь
Adv Adv + er (the) Adv + est
fast faster (the) fastest
early earlier (the) earliest
near nearer (the) nearest

522
 Sam lives nearer to the university than Jack, so he can get up later.
Jack overslept and came to the meeting the latest (of all).

Утворення ступенів порівняння більшості двоскладових і

багатоскладових прикметників
Позитивний ступінь Вищий ступінь Найвищий ступінь
Adj more +Adj the most + Adj
usual more usual the most usual
interesting more interesting the most interesting
beneficial more beneficial the most beneficial

Travelling by car is more stressful than travelling by bus.

It is the most stressful in large cities at rush hours.
This project is more important for our department than the one you
suggested.
It is the most important of all (projects we have already done).

Більшість прислівників утворюють форми порівняння таким же чином.

Позитивний ступінь Вищий ступінь Найвищий ступінь
Adv more + Adv (the) most + Adv
quickly more quickly (the) most quickly
correctly more correctly (the) most correctly

This lecturer explains material more clearly than others. In fact, he explains
rules the clearest (of all).

Особливі випадки утворення ступенів порівняння прикметників і

прислівників

Позитивний ступінь Вищий ступінь Найвищий ступінь

523
good better the best
bad worse the worst
far farther (за відстанню) the farthest
further (за відстанню;
додатковий) the furthest
old older (за сімейними узами; the oldest
за віком)
elder (за сімейними узами) the eldest
many more the most
much more the most
little less the least
well better the best
badly worse the worst

Sam plays better than everybody else in the team. He is the best player in
the team.
Heathrow is farther/further from London than Gatwick.
For further information do not hesitate to contact us.
My elder/older sister has just got married. She is two years older than me.
Her husband is our neighbors’ eldest/oldest son.
She talks less than he does, but she thinks more.

Для підсилення вищий ступінь порівняння прикметників і прислівників

вживається зі словами far, much, very much, a lot, rather, a bit, a little, any,
no, які перекладаються: далеко, дуже, значно, набагато, істотно, швидше,
переважно, скоріше, досить достатньо, ледве, ледь, трохи, ніскільки,
аніскільки, анітрохи.
Ukrainian is much more difficult than Italian.
This place is a bit farther than we drove last time.
Is your mother any better?

524
 Our new lecturer is very much nicer than we had last year.

Найвищий ступінь може підсилюватися словами much, by far, quite,

nearly, almost, practically.
He is much the most talented of them all.
Jenny was by far the prettiest girl in the group.
It was quite the most stressful day in my life.

Для вираження меншого чи найменьшого ступеня можуть вживатися

слова less і the least.

This hotel is less expensive (cheaper) because it is the least comfortable (the
most uncomfortable), I think.

Особливі конструкції з вищим ступенем прикметників

1) такий (же) … як (і) - as … as:
Her French is as fluent as her native English.
Is it as good as you expected?
2) не такий … як - not so/as … as:
They are not as/so hospitable as we could imagine.
3) вдвічі, втричі більше/менше, ніж - half/twice/three times, as…
large/small … as:
He is not half as clever as he was described.
Your room is twice as small as mine.
The way was four times as long as I had hoped.
У таких випадках також вживається конструкція three, four..
manytimes (крім half і twice) + вищий ступінь + than.
The way was four times longer than I had hoped.
4) для опису мінливої ситуації (усе темніше і темніше; все важче і
важче) вживається повторення порівняльного ступеня:

525
 It was getting darker and darker.
5) чим …, тим- the + вищий ступінь..., the more + вищий ступінь:
The older he grew, the more stubborn he became.
The more dangerous it was, the more excited he felt.

526
 APPENDICES

Appendix 1
Словотворення
Word formation

I Введення
У англійській мові є декілька способів словотворення:

527
1) конверсія – творення нових слів без зміни їх написання і вимови:
work – робота; towork – працювати
master – господар; tomaster – керувати, управляти
empty – порожній; toempty - спустошувати
2) словоскладення – утворення нового слова шляхом складання двох слів в
одне:
airfield – аеродром (air + field)
birthplace – місце народження (birth + place)
Складні слова зазвичай пишуться разом, але іноді через дефіс, наприклад:
water-way– водний шлях (water + way)
3) зміна наголосу в слові і отримання нового слова іншої частини мови:
′increase – збільшення, зростання; toin′crease – збільшувати, зростати;
′export – експорт; toex′port – експортувати.
Іноді з перенесенням наголосу не тільки змінюється частина мови, але певною мірою
змінюється і значення:
to re′fuse – відмовлятися;′refuse - сміття.
4) абревіація:
laser = lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation, – лазер (посилення світла

індукованим випусканням випромінювання)

ad = advertisement– реклама
5) афіксація, як найпоширеніший спосіб словотворення, – додавання до
кореня суфікса або префікса.

II Суфікси іменників

-ment high rate of unemployment; reach an agreement

-ion/-tion/-sion arrange a discussion; increase oil production
-ation/ition an invitation to a conference; political opposition
-ence/-ance a difference in prices; a distance of two miles
-ty/ity feeling of certainty; measures of security

528
-ness consumers’ willingness to buy a product
-ing leave a building; sorry for misunderstanding
-dom fight for freedom; the boredom of long winter evenings
-hood ties of brotherhood; local neighbourhood
-ship a football championship; long-lasting friendship
-ure military expenditure; the pressure of work

III Іменники, що позначають людей

-er/-or* the chief manager of the company; a newspaper editor

-ist places visited by tourists; a talented artist

-ant/-ent a personal assistant; students at the university
-an/-ian a convention of Republicans; a university librarian
-ee an employee of the company ( = someone employed)
recommendations for interviewees (= people answering the
questions in an interview)

* Суфікс -er також використовується для утворення іменників, що

позначають пристрої або механізми, які виконують дію, вказану дієсловом:
a combine harvester; a food mixer.

IV Суфікси дієслів
-ize (BrE also -ise) A lot of public enterprises were privatized.
The company has maximized its profits.
-en The gap between rich and poor is widening.

-ify/-fy First of all, we must identify the problem areas.

-ate Research indicates possible changes in demand.

529
V Суфікси прикметників

-al a chemical element; a professional skills

-ic scientific research; an electric generator
-ive an informative talk; the rent inclusive of water and heating
-ful a successful career; a cheerful boy
-less useless advice; to be powerless to change anything
-ous a dangerous situation; luxurious goods
-y a rocky landscape; foggy London
-ly a friendly smile; a lovely countryside
-able/-ible a comfortable seat; a comprehensible task
-ant/-ent a dependent factor; a distant relative
-ish childish behavior; a vain, foolish woman

VI Суфікси прислівників

-ly He replied to my letter very quickly.

-ward(s) They continued moving eastwards.
-wise Turn the key clockwise.

VII Деякі часто використовувані префікси

anti- (проти) anti-war protestors; anti-theft device

co- (разом) international cooperation; my co -workers
de- (зворотна дія, decentralize power; debug a computer program
зменшення)
en-/em- (надавати enable an easier access; be emboldened to take decisive
якість) measures

530
ex- (колишній) ex-president; ex-boyfriend
inter- (між) an intercontinental flight; interstate highways in the US
micro- (дуже use microchips; a microwave oven
маленький)
mini- (маленький) take a mini-bus; use the minibar in a hotel room
mis- (невірно) mislead the court; miscalculate the amount
multi- (багато) multicultural society; a multimillionaire
over- (надто overcrowded roads; cause overproduction
багато)
post- (після) post-war world; a postgraduate student
pre- (до) predetermine the tendency; in prehistoric times
re- (повторно) a reunion of university friends; rewrite the essay
semi- (половина) semi-skilled work; sitting in a semicircle
sub- (нижче) a police subdivision; sub-zero temperatures
super- (великий) a new supermarket; a supertanker carrying oil
under- (надто underestimate a person; underpaid work
мало)

VIII Заперечні префікси

dis- a dishonest way to do business; dislike the idea; a

disadvantage of the merger
il- (+ l) an illegal monopolisation; computer illiterate
im- (+ m or p) an impossible task; an impolite question
in- politically inactive route; professional incompetence
ir- (+ r) an irregular shape; an irrelevant remark
non- non-alcoholic drinks; a non-stop flight
un- uncertain what to do; an unusual event; unpack the bag

Appendix 2
531
 Таблиця неправильних дієслів
№ Неозначена Минулий час Дієприкметник Основні значення
форма Past Indefinite/ минулого часу дієслова
дієслова Past Simple Past participle/
TheInfinitive Participle ІІ
1. arise arose arisen виникати, походити;
підійматися
2. awake awoke awoken будити, прокидатися
awaked awaked
3. be was/were been бути, знаходитися
4. bear bore born народжувати
5. bear bore borne носити, нести;терпіти,
зносити
6. beat beat beaten бити, лупити
7. become became become робитися, ставати
8. begin began begun починати (ся)
9. bend bent bent гнути
10. beseech besought besought благати, просити
beseeched beseeched
11. bet bet bet битися об заклад,тримати
парі
12. bid bid bid наказувати, пропонувати
ціну (на щось - for; звич.
на аукціоні)
13. bind bound bound в'язати, зв’язувати
14. bite bit bitten кусати (ся)
15. bleed bled bled кровоточити; стікати
кров'ю
16. bless blest blest благословляти;
blessed blessed освячувати
17. blow blew blown дути; віяти; роздувати
18. break broke broken ламати(ся), порушувати
19. breed bred bred розводити, вирощувати
20. bring brought brought приносити, доставляти
21. broadcast broadcast (ed) broadcast (ed) передавати по радіо
22. build built built будувати
23. burn burnt (-ed) burnt (-ed) горіти, палати
24. burst burst burst лопнути, вибухати
25. buy bought bought купувати
26. cast cast cast кидати
27. catch caught caught ловити, хапати
28. choose chose chosen вибирати
29. cling clung clung чіплятися, прилипати
532
30. come came come приходити
31. cost cost cost коштувати
32. creep crept crept повзати, плазувати
33. cut cut cut різати, рубати, стригти
34. deal dealt dealt розподіляти;
торгувати;мати справу
35. dig dug dug рити, копати
36. dive dived, dove dived пірнати, занурювати
37. do did done робити
38. draw drew drawn тягти, малювати
39. dream dreamt dreamt мріяти, бачити у сні
dreamed dreamed
40. drink drank drunk пити
41. drive drove driven вести, гнати
42. dwell dwelt dwelt жити, мешкати,
перебувати
43. eat ate eaten їсти
44. fall fell fallen падати
45. feed fed fed годувати
46. feel felt felt почувати (себе)
47. fight fought fought боротися, битися
48. find found found знаходити
49. fit fit fit підходити, бути
придатним
50. flee fled fled тікати, рятуватися
51. fling flung flung кидати(ся),
жбурляти;рішуче братися
52. fly flew flown літати
53. forbid forbade forbidden забороняти
54. forecast forecasted forecasted передбачати
forecast forecast
55. forget forgot forgotten забувати
56. forgive forgave forgiven прощати, вибачати
57. forsake forsook forsaken залишати,
покидати;відмовлятися
(від звички і т. ін.)
58. foresee foresaw foreseen передбачати
59. freeze froze frozen мерзнути, заморожувати
60. get got got одержувати, ставати,
робитися
61. give gave given давати
62. go went gone іти, ходити
63. grind ground ground молоти, терти
64. grow grew grown рости, ставати
533
65. hang hang hang вішати, висіти
66. hear heard heard чути
67. hew hewed hewed (hewn) рубати, тесати
68. hide hid hidden ховати
69. hit hit hit ударяти
70. hold held held тримати
71. hurt hurt hurt ранити, чинити біль
72. keep keep kept тримати, зберігати
73. kneel knelt knelt ставати на коліна
74. know knew known знати
75. lay laid laid класти; накривати
76. lead lead lead вести,приводити
77. leap leapt leapt стрибати
leaped leaped
78. lean leaned leaned нахиляти(ся);прихилятис
leant leant я
79. learn learnt learnt вчити(ся)
80. leave left left залишати; від'їжджати;
заповідати
81. lend lent lent позичати
82. let let let дозволяти, здавати
внайми
83. lie lay lain лежати
84. light lit lit запалювати(ся);
lighted lighted освітлювати
85. lose lost lost губити, втрачати
86. make made made робити; готувати;
заставляти
87. mean meant meant значити
88. meet met met зустрічати
89. mislead misled misled вводити в оману; завести
на хибний шлях
90. mistake mistook mistaken помилятися; неправильно
розуміти
91. mow mowed mowed (mown) косити; жати
92. overhear overheard overheard підслуховувати;випадков
о почути
93. overpay overpaid overpaid переплачувати
94. overtake overpay overpay наздогнати; надолужити
95. partake partook partaken брати участь
96. pay paid paid платити;
винагороджувати
97. plead pleaded pleaded просити, благати;
pled pled звертатися з проханням;
534
 клопотатися
98. put put put класти
99. read read read читати
100. rewrite rewrote rewritten переписати
101. rebuild rebuilt rebuilt перебудовувати
102. rend rent rent рвати, роздирати,
шматувати
103. retell retold retold переказувати
104. rid rid rid звільняти,рятувати від
чогось
105. ride rode ridden їздити верхи
106. ring rang rung дзвонити
107. rise rose risen підніматися
108. rive rived riven розколювати;
розщеплювати;розрубува
ти
109. run ran run бігти
110. saw sawed sawn пиляти, розпилювати
111. say said said говорити, сказати
112. see saw seen бачити
113. seek sought sought шукати; намагатися;
прагнути
114. sell sold sold продавати
115. send sent sent посилати
116. set set set ставити; поміщати,
заходити (про сонце)
117. sew sewed sewed шити, пришивати,
зашивати
118. shake shook shaken трясти(ся); коливати(ся)
119. shape shaped shaped(shapen) надавати форму
120. shear sheared shorn стригти; зрізати
121. shed shed shed втрачати, губити (зуби,
вовну, волосся, листя) ;
скидати (одяг, шкіру);
проливати
122. shine shone shone світити(ся); сяяти
123. shoe shod shod узувати, підковувати
124. shoot shot shot стріляти
125. show showed shown показувати
126. shrink shrank shrunk скорочувати(ся);зсідатис
я, збігатися (про тканину)
127. shrive shrove shriven сповідати, відпускати
(shrived) (shrived) гріхи
128. shut shut shut закривати
535
129. sing sang sung співати
130. sink sank sunk опускати(ся), тонути;
занурюватися
131. sit sit sat сидіти
132. slay slew slain вбивати
133. sleep slept slept спати
134. slide slid slid ковзати; посковзнутися
135. sling slung slung кидати, шпурляти,
жбурляти
136. slink slunk slunk іти крадькома;
підкрадатися
137. slit slit slit розрізати вздовж,
нарізати вузькими
смужками,
138. smell smelt/smelled smelt/smelled нюхати; пахнути
139. smite smote smitten ударяти; розбивати
140. sow sowed sown сіяти
141. speak spoke spoken говорити; розмовляти
142. speed sped sped поспішати;прискорювати
speeded speeded
143. spell spelt spelt писати або вимовляти
spelled spelled (слова) по буквах
144. spend spent spent витрачати;проводити
(час)
145. spill spilt spilt розливати(ся),
розхлюпувати(ся);
розсипати(ся)
146. spin spun spun прясти;мчати, швидко
рухатися (на велосипеді
тощо
147. spit spat spat плювати(ся)
148. split split split розколювати(ся);
розщеплювати(ся)
149. spoil spoilt spoilt псувати(ся)
150. spread spread spread поширювати(ся)
151. spring sprang sprung стрибати, підскакувати;
бити джерелом;
152. stand stood stood стояти
153. steal stole stolen красти
154. stick stuck stuck встромляти;
приклеювати
155. sting stung stung жалити
156. stink stank stank смердіти
stunk stunk
536
157. strew strewed strewn розкидати;
(strewed) розбризкувати;посипати
158. stride strode stridden крокувати
159. strike struck struck бити
160. string strung strung зав'язувати;
прив'язувати;шнурувати;
натягувати
161. strive strove striven старатися, намагатися,
докладати зусиль
162. swear swore sworn клястися,
присягатися;лаяти(ся)
163. sweep swept swept мести, підмітати
164. swell swelled swollen надимати(ся), пухнути,
(swelled) збільшуватись
165. swim swam swum плавати
166. swing swung swung коливати(ся), гойдати(ся)
167. take took taken брати
168. teach taught taught вчити, навчати
169. tear tore torn рвати(ся)
170. tell told told говорити, сказати
171. think thought thought думати
172. thrive throve thriven процвітати; мати
успіх;пишно
розростатися
173. throw threw thrown кидати(ся)
174. thrust thrust thrust штовхати;засовувати;кол
оти
175. tread trod trodden ступати,крокувати, іти
176. unbend unbent unbent випрямляти(ся),
випростувати(ся);
розгинати(ся)
177. undergo underwent undergone зазнавати, зносити,
переносити
178. underlie underlay underlain лежати під чимось,
лежати (бути) в основі
(чогось)
179. underpay underpaid underpaid недоплатити
180. understand understood understood розуміти
181. undertake undertook undertaken починати, братися
182. underwrite underwrote underwritten підписувати(ся)
183. upset upset upset перекидати(ся);
засмучувати
184. wake woke woken прокидатися;будити
185. wear wore worn носити
537
186. weave wove woven ткати; плести, вплітати
187. weep wept wept плакати
188. win won won перемагати
189. wind wound wound заводити;вертітися,
крутитися
190. withdraw withdrew withdrawn брати назад,
відкликати;відводити
(очі)
191. withhold withheld withheld відмовляти в чомусь; не
давати; стримувати,
утримувати
192. withstand withstood withstood ставати проти, опиратися
193. wring wrung wrung скручувати
194. write wrote written писати

538
ENJOY YOUR READING

539
 I, Pencil
My Family Tree as told to Leonard E. Read

Leonard Read
Foundation for Economic Education
December 1958

"Leonard Read's delightful story, 'I, Pencil,' has become a classic, and deservedly
so. I know of no other piece of literature that so succinctly, persuasively, and
effectively illustrates the meaning of both Adam Smith's invisible hand—the
possibility of cooperation without coercion—and Friedrich Hayek's emphasis on
the importance of dispersed knowledge and the role of the price system in
communicating information that 'will make the individuals do the desirable things
without anyone having to tell them what to do.'" (Professor Milton Friedman, the
1976 Nobelist in Economic Science)

I am a lead pencil—the ordinary wooden pencil familiar to all boys and girls and
adults who can read and write*.
Writing is both my vocation and my avocation; that’s all I do.
You may wonder why I should write a genealogy. Well, to begin with, my story is
interesting. And, next, I am a mystery—more so than a tree or a sunset or even a
flash of lightning. But, sadly, I am taken for granted by those who use me, as if I
were a mere incident and without background. This supercilious attitude relegates
me to the level of the commonplace. This is a species of the grievous error in
which mankind cannot too long persist without peril. For, the wise G. K.
Chesterton observed, “We are perishing for want of wonder, not for want of
wonders.”
I, Pencil, simple though I appear to be, merit your wonder and awe, a claim I shall
attempt to prove. In fact, if you can understand me—no, that’s too much to ask of
anyone—if you can become aware of the miraculousness which I symbolize, you

540
can help save the freedom mankind is so unhappily losing. I have a profound
lesson to teach. And I can teach this lesson better than can an automobile or an
airplane or a mechanical dishwasher because—well, because I am seemingly so
simple.
Simple? Yet, not a single person on the face of this earth knows how to make me.
This sounds fantastic, doesn’t it? Especially when it is realized that there are about
one and one-half billion of my kind produced in the U.S.A. each year.
Pick me up and look me over. What do you see? Not much meets the eye—there’s
some wood, lacquer, the printed labeling, graphite lead, a bit of metal, and an
eraser.
Innumerable Antecedents
Just as you cannot trace your family tree back very far, so is it impossible for me to
name and explain all my antecedents. But I would like to suggest enough of them
to impress upon you the richness and complexity of my background.
My family tree begins with what in fact is a tree, a cedar of straight grain that
grows in Northern California and Oregon. Now contemplate all the saws and
trucks and rope and the countless other gear used in harvesting and carting the
cedar logs to the railroad siding. Think of all the persons and the numberless skills
that went into their fabrication: the mining of ore, the making of steel and its
refinement into saws, axes, motors; the growing of hemp and bringing it through
all the stages to heavy and strong rope; the logging camps with their beds and mess
halls, the cookery and the raising of all the foods. Why, untold thousands of
persons had a hand in every cup of coffee the loggers drink!
The logs are shipped to a mill in San Leandro, California. Can you imagine the
individuals who make flat cars and rails and railroad engines and who construct
and install the communication systems incidental thereto? These legions are among
my antecedents.
Consider the millwork in San Leandro. The cedar logs are cut into small, pencil-
length slats less than one-fourth of an inch in thickness. These are kiln dried and
then tinted for the same reason women put rouge on their faces. People prefer that I

541
look pretty, not a pallid white. The slats are waxed and kiln dried again. How many
skills went into the making of the tint and the kilns, into supplying the heat, the
light and power, the belts, motors, and all the other things a mill requires?
Sweepers in the mill among my ancestors? Yes, and included are the men who
poured the concrete for the dam of a Pacific Gas & Electric Company hydroplant
whichsupplies the mill’s power!
Don’t overlook the ancestors present and distant who have a hand in transporting
sixty carloads of slats across the nation.
Once in the pencil factory—$4,000,000 in machinery and building, all capital
accumulated by thrifty and saving parents of mine—each slat is given eight
grooves by a complex machine, after which another machine lays leads in every
other slat, applies glue, and places another slat atop—a lead sandwich, so to speak.
Seven brothers and I are mechanically carved from this “wood-clinched”
sandwich.
My “lead” itself—it contains no lead at all—is complex. The graphite is mined in
Ceylon. Consider these miners and those who make their many tools and the
makers of the paper sacks in which the graphite is shipped and those who make the
string that ties the sacks and those who put them aboard ships and those who make
the ships. Even the lighthouse keepers along the way assisted in my birth—and the
harbor pilots.
The graphite is mixed with clay from Mississippi in which ammonium hydroxide
is used in the refining process. Then wetting agents are added such as sulfonated
tallow—animal fats chemically reacted with sulfuric acid. After passing through
numerous machines, the mixture finally appears as endless extrusions—as from a
sausage grinder-cut to size, dried, and baked for several hours at 1,850 degrees
Fahrenheit. To increase their strength and smoothness the leads are then treated
with a hot mixture which includes candelilla wax from Mexico, paraffin wax, and
hydrogenated natural fats.
My cedar receives six coats of lacquer. Do you know all the ingredients of lacquer?
Who would think that the growers of castor beans and the refiners of castor oil are

542
a part of it? They are. Why, even the processes by which the lacquer is made a
beautiful yellow involve the skills of more persons than one can enumerate!
Observe the labeling. That’s a film formed by applying heat to carbon black mixed
with resins. How do you make resins and what, pray, is carbon black?
My bit of metal—the ferrule—is brass. Think of all the persons who mine zinc and
copper and those who have the skills to make shiny sheet brass from these products
of nature. Those black rings on my ferrule are black nickel. What is black nickel
and how is it applied? The complete story of why the center of my ferrule has no
black nickel on it would take pages to explain.
Then there’s my crowning glory, inelegantly referred to in the trade as “the plug,”
the part man uses to erase the errors he makes with me. An ingredient called
“factice” is what does the erasing. It is a rubber-like product made by reacting
rape-seed oil from the Dutch East Indies with sulfur chloride. Rubber, contrary to
the common notion, is only for binding purposes. Then, too, there are numerous
vulcanizing and accelerating agents. The pumice comes from Italy; and the
pigment which gives “the plug” its color is cadmium sulfide.
No One Knows
Does anyone wish to challenge my earlier assertion that no single person on the
face of this earth knows how to make me?
Actually, millions of human beings have had a hand in my creation, no one of
whom even knows more than a very few of the others. Now, you may say that I go
too far in relating the picker of a coffee berry in far off Brazil and food growers
elsewhere to my creation; that this is an extreme position. I shall stand by my
claim. There isn’t a single person in all these millions, including the president of
the pencil company, who contributes more than a tiny, infinitesimal bit of know-
how. From the standpoint of know-how the only difference between the miner of
graphite in Ceylon and the logger in Oregon is in the type of know-how. Neither
the miner nor the logger can be dispensed with, any more than can the chemist at
the factory or the worker in the oil field—paraffin being a by-product of
petroleum.

543
Here is an astounding fact: Neither the worker in the oil field nor the chemist nor
the digger of graphite or clay nor any who mans or makes the ships or trains or
trucks nor the one who runs the machine that does the knurling on my bit of metal
nor the president of the company performs his singular task because he wants me.
Each one wants me less, perhaps, than does a child in the first grade. Indeed, there
are some among this vast multitude who never saw a pencil nor would they know
how to use one. Their motivation is other than me. Perhaps it is something like
this:
Each of these millions sees that he can thus exchange his tiny know-how for the
goods and services he needs or wants. I may or may not be among these items.
No Master Mind
There is a fact still more astounding: the absence of a master mind, of anyone
dictating or forcibly directing these countless actions which bring me into being.
No trace of such a person can be found. Instead, we find the Invisible Hand at
work. This is the mystery to which I earlier referred.
It has been said that “only God can make a tree.” Why do we agree with this? Isn’t
it because we realize that we ourselves could not make one? Indeed, can we even
describe a tree? We cannot, except in superficial terms. We can say, for instance,
that a certain molecular configuration manifests itself as a tree. But what mind is
there among men that could even record, let alone direct, the constant changes in
molecules that transpire in the life span of a tree? Such a feat is utterly
unthinkable!
I, Pencil, am a complex combination of miracles: a tree, zinc, copper, graphite, and
so on. But to these miracles which manifest themselves in Nature an even more
extraordinary miracle has been added: the configuration of creative human
energies—millions of tiny know-hows configurating naturally and spontaneously
in response to human necessity and desire and in the absence of any human master-
minding! Since only God can make a tree, I insist that only God could make me.
Man can no more direct these millions of know-hows to bring me into being than
he can put molecules together to create a tree.

544
The above is what I meant when writing, “If you can become aware of the
miraculousness which I symbolize, you can help save the freedom mankind is so
unhappily losing.” For, if one is aware that these know-hows will naturally, yes,
automatically, arrange themselves into creative and productive patterns in response
to human necessity and demand—that is, in the absence of governmental or any
other coercive masterminding—then one will possess an absolutely essential
ingredient for freedom: a faith in free people. Freedom is impossible without this
faith.
Once government has had a monopoly of a creative activity such, for instance, as
the delivery of the mails, most individuals will believe that the mails could not be
efficiently delivered by men acting freely. And here is the reason: Each one
acknowledges that he himself doesn’t know how to do all the things incident to
mail delivery. He also recognizes that no other individual could do it. These
assumptions are correct. No individual possesses enough know-how to perform a
nation’s mail delivery any more than any individual possesses enough know-how
to make a pencil. Now, in the absence of faith in free people—in the unawareness
that millions of tiny know-hows would naturally and miraculously form and
cooperate to satisfy this necessity—the individual cannot help but reach the
erroneous conclusion that mail can be delivered only by governmental “master-
minding.”
Testimony Galore
If I, Pencil, were the only item that could offer testimony on what men and women
can accomplish when free to try, then those with little faith would have a fair case.
However, there is testimony galore; it’s all about us and on every hand. Mail
delivery is exceedingly simple when compared, for instance, to the making of an
automobile or a calculating machine or a grain combine or a milling machine or to
tens of thousands of other things. Delivery? Why, in this area where men have
been left free to try, they deliver the human voice around the world in less than one
second; they deliver an event visually and in motion to any person’s home when it

545
is happening; they deliver 150 passengers from Seattle to Baltimore in less than
four hours; they deliver gas from Texas to one’s range or furnace in New York at
unbelievably low rates and without subsidy; they deliver each four pounds of oil
from the Persian Gulf to our Eastern Seaboard—halfway around the world—for
less money than the government charges for delivering a one-ounce letter across
the street!
The lesson I have to teach is this: Leave all creative energies uninhibited. Merely
organize society to act in harmony with this lesson. Let society’s legal apparatus
remove all obstacles the best it can. Permit these creative know-hows freely to
flow. Have faith that free men and women will respond to the Invisible Hand. This
faith will be confirmed. I, Pencil, seemingly simple though I am, offer the miracle
of my creation as testimony that this is a practical faith, as practical as the sun, the
rain, a cedar tree, the good earth.

* My official name is "Mongol 482." My many ingredients are assembled,

fabricated, and finished by Eberhard Faber Pencil Company.

MONEY
The History of Money
(Chronology)
Inthe Beginning
Barter is the exchange of resources or services for mutual advantage, and may date
back to the beginning of humankind. Some would even argue that it's not purely a
human activity; plants and animals have been bartering -- in symbiotic
relationships - for millions of years. In any case, barter among humans certainly
pre-dates the use of money. Today individuals, organizations, and governments
still use, and often prefer, barter as a form of exchange of goods and services.

546
Barter
9,000 -- 6,000 BC: Cattle
Cattle, which include anything from cows, to sheep, to camels, are the first and
oldest form of money. With the advent of agriculture came the use of grain and
other vegetable or plant products as a standard form of barter in many cultures.

1,200 BC: Cowrie Shells

The first use of cowries, the shell of a mollusc that was widely available in the
shallow waters of the Pacific and IndianOceans, was in China. Historically, many
societies have used cowries as money, and even as recently as the middle of this
century, cowries have been used in some parts of Africa. The cowrie is the most
widely and longest used currency in history.

1,000 BC: First Metal Money and Coins

Bronze and Copper cowrie imitations were manufactured by China at the end of
the Stone Age and could be considered some of the earliest forms of metal coins.
Metal tool money, such as knife and spade monies, was also first used in China.
These early metal monies developed into primitive versions of round coins.
Chinese coins were made out of base metals, often containing holes so they could
be put together like a chain.

500 BC: Modern Coinage

Outside of China, the first coins developed out of lumps of silver. They soon took
the familiar round form of today, and were stamped with various gods and
emperors to mark their authenticity. These early coins first appeared in Lydia,
which is part of present-day Turkey, but the techniques were quickly copied and
further refined by the Greek, Persian, Macedonian, and later the Roman empires.
Unlike Chinese coins which depended on base metals, these new coins were made
from precious metals such as silver, bronze, and gold, which had more inherent
value.

547
118 BC: Leather Money
Leather money was used in China in the form of one-foot-square pieces of white
deerskin with colorful borders. This could be considered the first documented type
of banknote.

800 - 900 AD: The Nose

The phrase "To pay through the nose" comes from Danes in Ireland, who slit the
noses of those who were remiss in paying the Danish poll tax.

806 AD: Paper Currency

The first paper banknotes appeared in China. In all, China experienced over 500
years of early paper money, spanning from the ninth through the fifteenth century.
Over this period, paper notes grew in production to the point that their value
rapidly depreciated and inflation soared. Then beginning in 1455, the use of paper
money in China disappeared for several hundred years. This was still many years
before paper currency would reappear in Europe, and three centuries before it was
considered common.

1500s: Potlach
"Potlach" comes from a Chinook Indian custom that existed in many North
American Indian cultures. It is a ceremony where not only were gifts exchanged,
but dances, feasts, and other public rituals were performed. In some instances
potlach was a form of initiation into secret tribal societies. Because the exchange
of gifts was so important in establishing a leader's social rank, potlach often
spiralled out of control as the gifts became progressively more lavish and tribes put
on larger and grander feasts and celebrations in an attempt to out-do each other.

1535: Wampum
The earliest known use of wampum, which are strings of beads made from clam

548
shells, was by North American Indians in 1535. Most likely, this monetary
medium existed well before this date. The Indian word "wampum" means white,
which was the color of the beads.

1816: The Gold Standard

Gold was officially made the standard of value in England in 1816. For centuries
earlier silver had been the standard of value. The pound was originally an amount
of silver weighing a pound. France and the United States were in favour of a
bimetallic standard, and in 1867 an international conference was held in Paris to
try and widen the area of common currencies based on coins with standard weights
of gold and silver. However when the various German states merged into a single
country in 1871 they chose the gold standard. The Scandinavian countries adopted
the gold standard shortly afterwards. France made the switch from bimetallism to
gold in 1878 and Japan, which had been on a silver standard, changed in 1897.
Finally, in 1900, the United States officially adopted the gold standard.

1930: End of the Gold Standard

The massive Depression of the 1930's, felt worldwide, marked the beginning of the
end of the gold standard. In 1931 Britain, followed by most of the
Commonwealth,Ireland, Scandinavia, Iraq, Portugal, Thailand, and some South
American countries abandoned gold.

In the United States, the gold standard was revised and the price of gold was
devalued. This was the first step in ending the relationship altogether, and the
complexities of international monetary regulation began.

The Present:Paper Money and Coins

Today, every country has its own local currency. The states, members of the
European Union, have their common currency – the euro.

549
The Future: Electronic Money
Digital cash in the form of bits and bytes will most likely become an important
new currency of the future.

Excerpts from the book “The Banker” by Leslie Waller

Extract 1
Virginia Clary and Woods Palmer sat in silence until the waitress had moved away.

"You're a second-generation banker," she said.

"Third. My grandfather founded the bank."
"None of us were quite sure why you were chosen over the heads of some of the old-
timers around the shop, or a man from another New York bank who knew the local
set-up. But I begin to see the logic of the choice."
"The usual move," Palmer explained, "is to pick a man who's a senior partner in the
law firm that represents the bank. The future of the world belongs to lawyers,
anyway."
"They picked you against a trend?" She thought for a moment. "I doubt it. I think they
wanted somebody with banking in his blood."
"I imagine I'll have to take that as a compliment." He sighed. "There're a lot of things
about being chosen by Ubco that still haven't been answered to my satisfaction."
"Such as?"
Palmer shrugged slowly. "Technical things," he parried, unwilling to let the matter go
any further. It was easy enough, he told himself, to let pleasant conversation with an
agreeable dinner partner spill over into the exchange of confidences that weren't meant
for exchange. He glanced up at Virginia Clary. Not, he decided, that she'd divulge
many confidences about herself. She looked too intelligent for that.
"Ifyou'd-"

550
"Which reminds me," Palmer cut in, determined to get away from his previous words,
"we haven't even begun making a dent in your colossal mound of banking
ignorance."
Her eyes widened in mock chagrin. "I'm beginning to feellike a terrible liability to the
firm."
"Take comfort from the fact that you probably know more than most of the people in
the shop."
"1 know about interest rates and personal loans and amortization and the Federal
Reserve and like that," she rattled off. "What am I missing?"

"As we say in public relations, the Big Picture."

Palmer looked up as the waitress brought their coffee. He watched Virginia Clary add
cream and sugar and stir it with slow, full sweeps of the spoon. "Something 1 said
before," he began then. "About money being as important to modem man as air and
food. That's the frame of reference you have to understand."

"Believe me, no one has to explain the importance of money to me."

"Let's call it the necessity of money," he amended.

"There are still places on earth where you can trade a dozen spearheads for a side of
dried beef. But they're not the places where history and progress are being made."

"These miserable bartering folks have no A-bombs or moon rockets."

He looked up at her. "You are baiting me again."

"Sorry. Mother's influence. I really do want to know."

"Fine." Palmer sipped his coffee and found it good. "As we get a more highly organized
society, money begins to become more important than anything else. Eventually, we
reach the stage we're in now. Money buys a man the food he eats, the clothes on his
back, care when sick, the roof over him, his education, his recreation, everything.

551
Without money, he can't even die properly, unless he wants to lie in Potter's Field. It's
become that sharp a definition: without money, man cannot live or die with decency."

"Is that good?"

"Probably not," Palmer said. "But we are not philosophers, we're bankers. We supply,
safeguard, control and define the most precious commodity of life —money."

"More precious than anything?"

"Suggest some other commodities."

"Health?" she asked.

"Preserved and recovered through money."

"I see. And things like, oh, love or hate. Money buys them."

Palmer hunched himself forward until both his elbows rested on the small walnut
table. "Try to understand that we're not conducting a philosophical analysis. A man
can live without love or hate. Without friends. Without the gratification of desires.
But he cannot live, on the material plane, without money."

"That's only one plane of living," she demurred.

Palmer shook his head. "Not at all. Quite the contrary, if anything."
She watched him for a moment, then sat back and folded her hands in her lap.
"Anyway," she said then, "that's all there is to the history of Virginia Clary, Except
that I'm working on my mother every spare moment I get, trying to wean her from this
unreasoning hatred of banks."
"You could have lied to her, told her you were working in a house of ill fame."

"I thought of that," she said. "But then she'd insist on me going to Mass every
morning. It's easier this way."

552
Without warning, the waitress plopped menus in front of them with the question,
"Dessert?"

"Just coffee," Virginia Clary said.

"The same."

"You get dessert on the dinner," the waitress reminded Palmer.

"I know."
"Just coffee, please."

"Yes, sir."

Extract 2
Woods Palmer sipped his coffee and sat back in his chair. "What do banks do with
money? We keep it in vaults where it can't be stolen, except occasionally. We invest it
in bonds and stocks and mortgages and business and personal loans. We handle it. We
channel it. We tell it what to do. We mold it and teach it. We create it."

"Money? What do we do, print it?"

"Almost literally," he said.
"Is that legal?"
"Perfectly," Palmer assured her. "As a Federal Reserve Bank, we create a brand-new
dollar out of thin air for every four dollars we take in."
"Is that good?"
He slapped his hand palm down on the arm of his chair. "Stop asking philosophical
questions. It probably is the worst thing that could happen to the United States of
America and our great-grandchildren will pay for it dearly. But right now it's the
money that makes our particular mare go."
"In other words, we're responsible for printing money that isn't based on silver?"
In other words, we're creating inflation," Palmer told her. "But inflation is what the
American people want."
553
"You don't really believe that."
"It's not a question of belief. It's a fact. People want to buy all kinds of gimcracks,
twenty-one-inch color television sets, two-door refrigerators, overpowered
automobiles. They refuse to wait until they have saved up money^ Like little children,
when they want something they want it now. All right, behind every automobile and
television set stands a man willing to sell.
him the money and get paid for the favor by charging his customer carrying charges. But
they need their money now, too. Where do they get it? Most of them don't have enough
money to cover the tremendous amount of time . buying that goes on. So, behind them
stand banks, providing the money, and more until the supply of money begins to run a
little short. You wonder where it's all coming from. But you know where it's coming
from. It's rolling off the printing presses."
He stopped, suddenly aware of the fact that his voice had grown in intensity until a
man two tables away glanced at him. In the odd silence that followed, Palmer
stubbed out his cigarette and wondered why he had got so excited.

"You were beginning to sound like a philosopher there for a second," Virginia Clary
said then.
"I do have a philosophy about money," Palmer admitted. "It's an archaic one that
would probably wreck the country inside of a week if we ever put it into effect. It's a
banker's view of money with centuries of banking behind it."

She leaned forward toward him, watching very closely now. "Tell me this explosive
philosophy."

Palmer laughed briefly, without much joy. "Don't spend what you don't have," he said
then. "So simple. So impossible." He laid his hands palms up on the small table
between them. "When you see a lovely gimcrack, resist the urge to own it at once.
Save for it. Then buy it. Chances are, by then the urge to own it will have passed,
anyway."
554
Her rather full eyebrows drew together in an expression of pain. "Oh," she said,
"what a terribly limited way to live. I wouldn't like it at all."

Palmer shrugged. "If by limited you mean disciplined, yes."

"Disciplined? Does that sound any better?" She shook her head. "It's a bleak, stark,
cold way of life. No adventure, no excitement."

"No problems, no crises."

"You see?" she pounced. "It isn't a way of life at all. It's preview of death."
"Nonsense."

"What is life all about?" she asked. "Problems and crises. Seeing something lovely
and wanting it now and taking it and paying for it later."

"Whose life are we talking about?" Palmer wanted to know.

She frowned again. "Yes," she said, "that's right, isn't it? Not everybody wants to live
that way. I forgot."
Neither of them spoke for a moment. Palmer watched the upturned palms of his
hands, then turned them over on the cool table top. His palms
I definitely think that the prices are our lowest.
I'm absolutely convinced that you should take advantage of our introductory offer.

There's no doubt in my mind that it depends on the number you order.

Extract 3

555
Virginia Clary said: "The savings banks use the Ubco as a correspondent bank. We
sell mortgages to them. We're all doing the same thing — banking. But there is our
side and their side. Why?"
"Do you know the difference between a commercial and a savings bank?"
She nodded, blew out smoke and waved it away in a business-like manner, as if
disposing of the question. "They can't make business loans."
"That's a by-product of the real difference."
"Which is?"
"Which is shrouded in the mists of time," Palmer explained. "Back, oh, about a
century and a half. Right after the turn of the nineteenth century. Poor people could
do only two things with their money: hide it under the mattress, or spend it. It wasn't
safe under the mattress, so they spent it on the thing that would let them forget their
poverty: whisky."
"Ah, well I know the feeling."
"The do-gooders of the day were appalled. Drunkenness was all about
them. So they imported an idea developed in Scotland by a dominie. Minis
ters, philanthropists, educators, reformers ... they began organizing savings
banks to accept the savings of poor people."
"Sounds pretty dastardly."
"Terribly. The regular banks of the period wouldn't touch anything but business
deposits or the estates of wealthy men. But the savings banks would accept anything, a
penny a week, whatever a wage earner wanted to put aside. And the really dastardly
thing was that they invested those pennies and paid back interest to the wage earners as
an incentive to save more."
"Criminal!"
"No, the worst part hasn't been explained yet."

"What could be worse?" she asked.

"Just this: these savings banks were mutual. They had no stockholders. They were
owned by their depositors. They made money only for their depositors. Nobody

556
skimmed a profit off the top. All the earnings went right • back to the wage
earners who deposited their pennies in the savings bank."
"Sounds downright socialistic."
"It is," Palmer told her. "But, you see, Karl Marx was only eight years old when
that Scottish minister had his brainstorm."
"Oops."
"In any event, our brand of savings bankers were pretty true-blue. They usually
invested their funds in government bonds. Highly patriotic. Highly stable, too.
Almost none of their banks ever failed, which is more than you can say for... well,
anyway, time passed."
"A century of it."
"A century and more," Palmer said. "Things happened to the wage earner. He
became unionized. He got Social Security, old-age benefits, health insurance, life
insurance, welfare funds, pensions, everything. The commercial banks stopped
turning up their noses at him. They welcomed his savings. He was banking's
darling now, secure whether he worked or not, whether he was healthy or sick and
with his family provided for when he died." |
"Which has what to do with savings banks?"
"Exactly. It has nothing to do with them. They've outlived their usefulness.
Nobody needs them any more."
"Oh," she said, "that's a shame. Really?"
"Seriously. What do they provide that isn't available to the wage earner from five
other sources?"
"But it's sad," she objected. "All those ministers".
"I'd never have told you if I'd thought you'd crack up."
"I'll get over it in a moment," she said. "See? I'm over it already. Tell me, has
anyone mentioned this to the savings banks? They're cruising right along as though
they still served a purpose."
One corner of Palmer's mouth turned up in a wry expression. "That's the whole
problem."

557
"No one's told them, huh?"
"Here is what's happened," Palmer said. "Those ministers planted a seed that grew
into a tree. Nobody needs the tree, but it keeps right on growing. Savings banks
give jobs to tens of thousands of employees, from the presidents on down to the
clerks. True, there aren't any stockholders. But the employee corps has a stake in
making sure the savings banking system keeps flourishing."
"Why not let them? I mean, people like to save at savings banks."
"I'll tell you why," Palmer said. "That tree, the one that kept growing? It has deep
roots. They've spread out and they keep spreading. And they're stealing the
nourishment from the ground on which we're planted. Does that make it clear to
you?"
"All of sudden, yes." She sat back and stubbed out her cigarette. Then, looking up
at him in a wary way, her eyes half hidden behind her long black lashes, she asked,
"What are you going to do about the tree?"
Palmer looked at the table. "Prune it... drastically."

SUCCESS STORY
by James Gould Cozzens

I met Richards ten years or more ago when I first went down to Cuba. He was a
short, sharp-faced, agreeable chap, then about twenty-two. He introduced himself
to me on the boat and I was surprised to find that Panamerica Steel and Structure
was sending us both to the same job.
Richards was from some not very good state university engineering school. Being
the same age myself, and just out of tech, I was prepared to patronize him if I
needed to; but I soon saw I didn't need to. There was really not the faintest
possibility of anyone supposing that Richards was as smart as I was. In fact, I
couldn't then imagine how he had managed to get his job. I have an idea now. It
came to me when I happened to read a few weeks ago that Richards had been made

558
a vice-president and director of Panamerica Steel when the Prossert interests
bought the old firm.
Richards was naturally likeable and I liked him a lot, once I was sure that he wasn't
going to outshine me. The firm had a contract for the construction of a private
railroad, about seventeen miles of it, to give United Sugar a sea terminal at a small
deep-water Caribbean port. For Richards and me it was mostly an easy job of
inspections and routine paper work. At least it was easy for me. It was harder for
Richards, because he didn't appear ever to have mastered the use of a slide rule.
When he asked me to check his figures I found it was no mere formality. "Boy," I
was at last obliged to say, "you are undoubtedly the dumbest white man in this
province. If you don't buck up, Farrell will see you never get another job down
here."
Richards grinned and said, "I never want another one. Not a job like this, anyway.
I'm the executive type."'
"Oh, you are!"
"Sure, I am. And what do I care what Farrell thinks? What can he do for me?"
"Plenty. If he thinks you're any good, he can see you get something that pays
money".
"He doesn't know anything that pays money, my son."
"He knows things that would pay enough for me," I answered, annoyed.
"Oh," said Richards, "if that's all you want, when Farrell’sworking for me I'll make
him give you a job. A good one."
"Go to the devil!" I said. I was still checking his trial figures. "Look, stupid," I
said, "didn't you ever take arithmetic? How much are seven times thirteen?"
"Work that out." " Richards said, "and let me have a report tomorrow."
When I had time, I continued to check his figures for him, and Farrell only caught
him in a bad mistake about twice; but Farrell was the best man Panamerica Steel
had. He'd been managing construction jobs both in Cuba and Mexico for twenty
years. After the first month or so he simply let Richards alone and devoted himself
lo giving me the whole benefit of his usually sharp and scornful criticism. He was

559
at me every minute he could spare, telling me to forget this or that and use my
head, showing me little tricks of figuring and method. He said it would be a good
plan to take some Spanish lessons from a clerk he named in the sugar company's
office.
"Spanish?" said Richards, when I told him he'd better join the class. "Not for me!
Say, it took me twenty-two years to learn English. People who want to talk to me
have to know it, or they'd better bring an interpreter with them."
"All right," I said, "I don't mind telling you the idea is Farrell's. He spoke to me
about it."
"Well, he didn't speak to me," said Richards. "I guess he thinks I'm perfect the way
I am. And now, if you'll excuse me, I have a date with a beer bottle."
I could easily see that he was coming to no good end.
In January several directors of the United Sugar Company came down on their
annual jaunt—nominally business, but mostly pleasure; a good excuse to get south
on a vacation. They came on a yacht.
The yacht belonged to Mr. Joseph Prossert, who was, I think, chairman of United
Sugar's board then. It was the first time I'd ever seen at close quarters one of these
really rich and powerful financial figures whose name everyone knows. He was an
inconspicuous, rather stout man, with little hair on his head and a fussy, ponderous
way of speaking. He was dressed in some dark thin cloth that looked like alpaca. 14
His interest in sugar was purely financial—he didn't know anything about it from
the practical standpoint. I really saw him at close quarters, too, for he was delayed
on his boat when the directors went on a tour of inspection and Farrell left
Richards and me and two or three armed guards to come up that afternoon.
Mr. Prossert was very affable. He asked me a number of questions. I knew the job
well enough and could have answered almost any intelligent question—I mean, the
sort that a trained engineer would be likely to ask. As it was, I suppose I'd said for
perhaps the third time, "I'm afraid I wouldn't know, sir. We haven't any calcu-
lations on that," getting a glance of mildly surprised disbelief, when Richards
suddenly spoke up. "I think, about nine million cubic feet, sir," he said. He looked

560
boyishly embarrassed. "I just happened to be working it out last night. Just for my
own interest, that is. Not officially." He blushed.
"Oh," said Mr. Prossert, turning in his seat and giving him a sharp look. "That's
very interesting, Mr.—er—Richards, isn't it? Well, now, maybe you could tell me
about—"
Richards could. He knew everything. He knew to the last car the capacity of every
switch and yard; he knew the load limits of every bridge and culvert; he knew the
average rainfall for the last twenty years; he knew the population of the various
straggling villages we passed through; he knew the heights of the distant blue
peaks to the west. He had made himself familiar with local labor costs and wage
scales. He had the statistics on accidents and unavoidable delays. All the way up
Mr. Prossert fired questions at him and he fired answers right back.
When we reached the railhead, a motor was waiting to take Mr. Prossert on.
Getting out of the gas car, he nodded absent-mindedly to me, shook hands with
Richards. "Very interesting indeed," he said. "Very interesting indeed, Mr.
Richards. Good-by and thank you."
"Not at all, sir," Richards said. "Glad if I could be of service to you."
As soon as the motor moved off, I exploded. "Of all the asinine tricks! A little
honest bluff doesn't hurt; but some of your figures—"
"I aim to please," Richards said, grinning. "If a man like Prossert wants to know
something, who am I to hold out on him?"
"I suppose you think you're smart," I told him. "What's he going to think when he
looks up the figures or asks somebody who does know?"
"Listen, my son," said Richards kindly. "He wasn't asking for any information he
was going to use. He doesn't want to know those figures. If he ever does, he has
plenty of people to get him the right ones. He won't remember these. I don't even
remember them myself. What he is going to remember is you and me."
"Oh, yes?"
"Oh, yes," said Richards firmly. "He's going to remember that Panamerica Steel
and Structure has a bright young man named Richards who could tell him

561
everything he wanted to know when he wanted to know it—just the sort of chap he
can use; not like that other fellow who took no interest in his job, couldn't answer
the simplest question, and who's going to be doing small-time contracting all his
life."
"Oh, yes?" I said. But it is true that I am still working for the Company still doing a
little work in the construction line.

The Financier, by Theodore Dreiser

CHAPTER III

It was in his thirteenth year that young Cowperwood entered into his first business
venture. Walking along Front Street one day, a street of importing and wholesale
establishments, he saw an auctioneer’s flag hanging out before a wholesale grocery
and from the interior came the auctioneer’s voice: “What am I bid for this
exceptional lot of Java coffee, twenty-two bags all told, which is now selling in the
market for seven dollars and thirty-two cents a bag wholesale? What am I bid?
What am I bid? The whole lot must go as one. What am I bid?”
“Eighteen dollars,” suggested a trader standing near the door, more to start the
bidding than anything else. Frank paused.
“Twenty-two!” called another.
“Thirty!” a third. “Thirty-five!” a fourth, and so up to seventy-five, less than
half of what it was worth.
“I’m bid seventy-five! I’m bid seventy-five!” called the auctioneer, loudly.
“Any other offers? Going once at seventy-five; am I offered eighty? Going twice at
seventy-five, and”— he paused, one hand raised dramatically. Then he brought it
down with a slap in the palm of the other —“sold to Mr. Silas Gregory for seventy-
five. Make a note of that, Jerry,” he called to his red-haired, freckle-faced clerk
beside him. Then he turned to another lot of grocery staples — this time starch,
eleven barrels of it.

562
 Young Cowperwood was making a rapid calculation. If, as the auctioneer said,
coffee was worth seven dollars and thirty-two cents a bag in the open market, and
this buyer was getting this coffee for seventy-five dollars, he was making then and
there eighty-six dollars and four cents, to say nothing of what his profit would be if
he sold it at retail. As he recalled, his mother was paying twenty-eight cents a
pound. He drew nearer, his books tucked under his arm, and watched these
operations closely. The starch, as he soon heard, was valued at ten dollars a barrel,
and it only brought six. Some kegs of vinegar were knocked down at one-third
their value, and so on. He began to wish he could bid; but he had no money, just a
little pocket change. The auctioneer noticed him standing almost directly under his
nose, and was impressed with the stolidity — solidity — of the boy’s expression.
“I am going to offer you now a fine lot of Castile soap — seven cases, no less
— which, as you know, if you know anything about soap, is now selling at
fourteen cents a bar. This soap is worth anywhere at this moment eleven dollars
and seventy-five cents a case. What am I bid? What am I bid? What am I bid?” He
was talking fast in the usual style of auctioneers, with much unnecessary emphasis;
but Cowperwood was not unduly impressed. He was already rapidly calculating for
himself. Seven cases at eleven dollars and seventy-five cents would be worth just
eighty-two dollars and twenty-five cents; and if it went at half — if it went at half
—
“Twelve dollars,” commented one bidder.
“Fifteen,” bid another.
“Twenty,” called a third.
“Twenty-five,” a fourth.
Then it came to dollar raises, for Castile soap was not such a vital commodity.
“Twenty-six.” “Twenty-seven.” “Twenty-eight.” “Twenty-nine.” There was a
pause. “Thirty,” observed young Cowperwood, decisively.
The auctioneer, a short lean faced, spare man with bushy hair and an incisive
eye, looked at him curiously and almost incredulously but without pausing. He
had, somehow, in spite of himself, been impressed by the boy’s peculiar eye; and

563
now he felt, without knowing why, that the offer was probably legitimate enough,
and that the boy had the money. He might be the son of a grocer.
“I’m bid thirty! I’m bid thirty! I’m bid thirty for this fine lot of Castile soap.
It’s a fine lot. It’s worth fourteen cents a bar. Will any one bid thirty-one? Will any
one bid thirty-one? Will any one bid thirty-one?”
“Thirty-one,” said a voice.
“Thirty-two,” replied Cowperwood. The same process was repeated.
“I’m bid thirty-two! I’m bid thirty-two! I’m bid thirty-two! Will anybody bid
thirty-three? It’s fine soap. Seven cases of fine Castile soap. Will anybody bid
thirty-three?”
Young Cowperwood’s mind was working. He had no money with him; but his
father was teller of the Third National Bank, and he could quote him as reference.
He could sell all of his soap to the family grocer, surely; or, if not, to other grocers.
Other people were anxious to get this soap at this price. Why not he?
The auctioneer paused.
“Thirty-two once! Am I bid thirty-three? Thirty-two twice! Am I bid thirty-
three? Thirty-two three times! Seven fine cases of soap. Am I bid anything more?”
Once, twice! Three times! Am I bid anything more?”— his hand was up again
—“and sold to Mr.—?” He leaned over and looked curiously into the face of his
young bidder.
“Frank Cowperwood, son of the teller of the Third National Bank,” replied the
boy, decisively.
“Oh, yes,” said the man, fixed by his glance.
“Will you wait while I run up to the bank and get the money?”
“Yes. Don’t be gone long. If you’re not here in an hour I’ll sell it again.”
Young Cowperwood made no reply. He hurried out and ran fast; first, to his
mother’s grocer, whose store was within a block of his home.
Thirty feet from the door he slowed up, put on a nonchalant air, and strolling
in, looked about for Castile soap. There it was, the same kind, displayed in a box
and looking just as his soap looked.

564
 “How much is this a bar, Mr. Dalrymple?” he inquired.
“Sixteen cents,” replied that worthy.
“If I could sell you seven boxes for sixty-two dollars just like this, would you
take them?”
“The same soap?”
“Yes, sir.”
Mr. Dalrymple calculated a moment.
“Yes, I think I would,” he replied, cautiously.
“Would you pay me to-day?”
“I’d give you my note for it. Where is the soap?”
He was perplexed and somewhat astonished by this unexpected proposition on
the part of his neighbor’s son. He knew Mr. Cowperwood well — and Frank also.
“Will you take it if I bring it to you to-day?”
“Yes, I will,” he replied. “Are you going into the soap business?”
“No. But I know where I can get some of that soap cheap.”
He hurried out again and ran to his father’s bank. It was after banking hours;
but he knew how to get in, and he knew that his father would be glad to see him
make thirty dollars. He only wanted to borrow the money for a day.
“What’s the trouble, Frank?” asked his father, looking up from his desk when
he appeared, breathless and red faced.
“I want you to loan me thirty-two dollars! Will you?”
“Why, yes, I might. What do you want to do with it?”
“I want to buy some soap — seven boxes of Castile soap. I know where I can
get it and sell it. Mr. Dalrymple will take it. He’s already offered me sixty-two for
it. I can get it for thirty-two. Will you let me have the money? I’ve got to run back
and pay the auctioneer.”
His father smiled. This was the most business-like attitude he had seen his son
manifest. He was so keen, so alert for a boy of thirteen.

565
 “Why, Frank,” he said, going over to a drawer where some bills were, “are you
going to become a financier already? You’re sure you’re not going to lose on this?
You know what you’re doing, do you?”
“You let me have the money, father, will you?” he pleaded. “I’ll show you in a
little bit. Just let me have it. You can trust me.”
He was like a young hound on the scent of game. His father could not resist his
appeal.
“Why, certainly, Frank,” he replied. “I’ll trust you.” And he counted out six
five-dollar certificates of the Third National’s own issue and two ones. “There you
are.”
Frank ran out of the building with a briefly spoken thanks and returned to the
auction room as fast as his legs would carry him. When he came in, sugar was
being auctioned. He made his way to the auctioneer’s clerk.
“I want to pay for that soap,” he suggested.
“Now?”
“Yes. Will you give me a receipt?”
“Yep.”
“Do you deliver this?”
“No. No delivery. You have to take it away in twenty-four hours.”
That difficulty did not trouble him.
“All right,” he said, and pocketed his paper testimony of purchase.
The auctioneer watched him as he went out. In half an hour he was back with a
drayman — an idle levee-wharf hanger-on who was waiting for a job.
Frank had bargained with him to deliver the soap for sixty cents. In still
another half-hour he was before the door of the astonished Mr. Dalrymple whom
he had come out and look at the boxes before attempting to remove them. His plan
was to have them carried on to his own home if the operation for any reason failed
to go through. Though it was his first great venture, he was cool as glass.
“Yes,” said Mr. Dalrymple, scratching his gray head reflectively. “Yes, that’s
the same soap. I’ll take it. I’ll be as good as my word. Where’d you get it, Frank?”

566
 “At Bixom’s auction up here,” he replied, frankly and blandly.
Mr. Dalrymple had the drayman bring in the soap; and after some formality —
because the agent in this case was a boy — made out his note at thirty days and
gave it to him.
Frank thanked him and pocketed the note. He decided to go back to his
father’s bank and discount it, as he had seen others doing, thereby paying his father
back and getting his own profit in ready money. It couldn’t be done ordinarily on
any day after business hours; but his father would make an exception in his case.
He hurried back, whistling; and his father glanced up smiling when he came
in.
“Well, Frank, how’d you make out?” he asked.
“Here’s a note at thirty days,” he said, producing the paper Dalrymple had
given him. “Do you want to discount that for me? You can take your thirty-two out
of that.”
His father examined it closely. “Sixty-two dollars!” he observed. “Mr.
Dalrymple! That’s good paper! Yes, I can. It will cost you ten per cent.,” he added,
jestingly. “Why don’t you just hold it, though? I’ll let you have the thirty-two
dollars until the end of the month.”
“Oh, no,” said his son, “you discount it and take your money. I may want
mine.”
His father smiled at his business-like air. “All right,” he said. “I’ll fix it to-
morrow. Tell me just how you did this.” And his son told him.
At seven o’clock that evening Frank’s mother heard about it, and in due time
Uncle Seneca.
“What’d I tell you, Cowperwood?” he asked. “He has stuff in him, that
youngster. Look out for him.”
Mrs. Cowperwood looked at her boy curiously at dinner. Was this the son she
had nursed at her bosom not so very long before? Surely he was developing
rapidly.
“Well, Frank, I hope you can do that often,” she said.

567
 “I hope so, too, ma,” was his rather noncommittal reply.
Auction sales were not to be discovered every day, however, and his home
grocer was only open to one such transaction in a reasonable period of time, but
from the very first young Cowperwood knew how to make money. He took
subscriptions for a boys’ paper; handled the agency for the sale of a new kind of
ice-skate, and once organized a band of neighborhood youths into a union for the
purpose of purchasing their summer straw hats at wholesale. It was not his idea
that he could get rich by saving. From the first he had the notion that liberal
spending was better, and that somehow he would get along.
It was in this year, or a little earlier, that he began to take an interest in girls.
He had from the first a keen eye for the beautiful among them; and, being good-
looking and magnetic himself, it was not difficult for him to attract the sympathetic
interest of those in whom he was interested. A twelve-year old girl, Patience
Barlow, who lived further up the street, was the first to attract his attention or be
attracted by him. Black hair and snapping black eyes were her portion, with pretty
pigtails down her back, and dainty feet and ankles to match a dainty figure. She
was a Quakeress, the daughter of Quaker parents, wearing a demure little bonnet.
Her disposition, however, was vivacious, and she liked this self-reliant, self-
sufficient, straight-spoken boy. One day, after an exchange of glances from time to
time, he said, with a smile and the courage that was innate in him: “You live up my
way, don’t you?”
“Yes,” she replied, a little flustered — this last manifested in a nervous
swinging of her school-bag —“I live at number one-forty-one.”
“I know the house,” he said. “I’ve seen you go in there. You go to the same
school my sister does, don’t you? Aren’t you Patience Barlow?” He had heard
some of the boys speak her name. “Yes. How do you know?”
“Oh, I’ve heard,” he smiled. “I’ve seen you. Do you like licorice?”
He fished in his coat and pulled out some fresh sticks that were sold at the
time.
“Thank you,” she said, sweetly, taking one.

568
 “It isn’t very good. I’ve been carrying it a long time. I had some taffy the other
day.”
“Oh, it’s all right,” she replied, chewing the end of hers.
“Don’t you know my sister, Anna Cowperwood?” he recurred, by way of self-
introduction. “She’s in a lower grade than you are, but I thought maybe you might
have seen her.”
“I think I know who she is. I’ve seen her coming home from school.”
“I live right over there,” he confided, pointing to his own home as he drew
near to it, as if she didn’t know. “I’ll see you around here now, I guess.”
“Do you know Ruth Merriam?” she asked, when he was about ready to turn
off into the cobblestone road to reach his own door.
“No, why?”
“She’s giving a party next Tuesday,” she volunteered, seemingly pointlessly,
but only seemingly.
“Where does she live?”
“There in twenty-eight.”
“I’d like to go,” he affirmed, warmly, as he swung away from her.
“Maybe she’ll ask you,” she called back, growing more courageous as the
distance between them widened. “I’ll ask her.”
“Thanks,” he smiled.
And she began to run gayly onward.
He looked after her with a smiling face. She was very pretty. He felt a keen
desire to kiss her, and what might transpire at Ruth Merriam’s party rose vividly
before his eyes.
This was just one of the early love affairs, or puppy loves, that held his mind
from time to time in the mixture of after events. Patience Barlow was kissed by
him in secret ways many times before he found another girl. She and others of the
street ran out to play in the snow of a winter’s night, or lingered after dusk before
her own door when the days grew dark early. It was so easy to catch and kiss her
then, and to talk to her foolishly at parties. Then came Dora Fitler, when he was

569
sixteen years old and she was fourteen; and Marjorie Stafford, when he was
seventeen and she was fifteen. Dora Fitter was a brunette, and Marjorie Stafford
was as fair as the morning, with bright-red cheeks, bluish-gray eyes, and flaxen
hair, and as plump as a partridge.
It was at seventeen that he decided to leave school. He had not graduated. He
had only finished the third year in high school; but he had had enough. Ever since
his thirteenth year his mind had been on finance; that is, in the form in which he
saw it manifested in Third Street. There had been odd things which he had been
able to do to earn a little money now and then. His Uncle Seneca had allowed him
to act as assistant weigher at the sugar-docks in Southwark, where three-hundred-
pound bags were weighed into the government bonded warehouses under the eyes
of United States inspectors. In certain emergencies he was called to assist his
father, and was paid for it. He even made an arrangement with Mr. Dalrymple to
assist him on Saturdays; but when his father became cashier of his bank, receiving
an income of four thousand dollars a year, shortly after Frank had reached his
fifteenth year, it was self-evident that Frank could no longer continue in such lowly
employment.
Just at this time his Uncle Seneca, again back in Philadelphia and stouter and
more domineering than ever, said to him one day:
“Now, Frank, if you’re ready for it, I think I know where there’s a good
opening for you. There won’t be any salary in it for the first year, but if you mind
your p’s and q’s, they’ll probably give you something as a gift at the end of that
time. Do you know of Henry Waterman & Company down in Second Street?”
“I’ve seen their place.”
“Well, they tell me they might make a place for you as a bookkeeper. They’re
brokers in a way — grain and commission men. You say you want to get in that
line. When school’s out, you go down and see Mr. Waterman — tell him I sent
you, and he’ll make a place for you, I think. Let me know how you come out.”
Uncle Seneca was married now, having, because of his wealth, attracted the
attention of a poor but ambitious Philadelphia society matron; and because of this

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the general connections of the Cowperwoods were considered vastly improved.
Henry Cowperwood was planning to move with his family rather far out on North
Front Street, which commanded at that time a beautiful view of the river and was
witnessing the construction of some charming dwellings. His four thousand dollars
a year in these pre-Civil–War times was considerable. He was making what he
considered judicious and conservative investments and because of his cautious,
conservative, clock-like conduct it was thought he might reasonably expect some
day to be vice-president and possibly president, of his bank.
This offer of Uncle Seneca to get him in with Waterman & Company seemed
to Frank just the thing to start him off right. So he reported to that organization at
74 South Second Street one day in June, and was cordially received by Mr. Henry
Waterman, Sr. There was, he soon learned, a Henry Waterman, Jr., a young man of
twenty-five, and a George Waterman, a brother, aged fifty, who was the
confidential inside man. Henry Waterman, Sr., a man of fifty-five years of age,
was the general head of the organization, inside and out — traveling about the
nearby territory to see customers when that was necessary, coming into final
counsel in cases where his brother could not adjust matters, suggesting and
advising new ventures which his associates and hirelings carried out. He was, to
look at, a phlegmatic type of man — short, stout, wrinkled about the eyes, rather
protuberant as to stomach, red-necked, red-faced, the least bit popeyed, but
shrewd, kindly, good-natured, and witty. He had, because of his naturally
common-sense ideas and rather pleasing disposition built up a sound and
successful business here. He was getting strong in years and would gladly have
welcomed the hearty cooperation of his son, if the latter had been entirely suited to
the business.
He was not, however. Not as democratic, as quick-witted, or as pleased with
the work in hand as was his father, the business actually offended him. And if the
trade had been left to his care, it would have rapidly disappeared. His father
foresaw this, was grieved, and was hoping some young man would eventually

571
appear who would be interested in the business, handle it in the same spirit in
which it had been handled, and who would not crowd his son out.
Then came young Cowperwood, spoken of to him by Seneca Davis. He looked
him over critically. Yes, this boy might do, he thought. There was something easy
and sufficient about him. He did not appear to be in the least flustered or disturbed.
He knew how to keep books, he said, though he knew nothing of the details of the
grain and commission business. It was interesting to him. He would like to try it.
“I like that fellow,” Henry Waterman confided to his brother the moment
Frank had gone with instructions to report the following morning. “There’s
something to him. He’s the cleanest, briskest, most alive thing that’s walked in
here in many a day.”
“Yes,” said George, a much leaner and slightly taller man, with dark, blurry,
reflective eyes and a thin, largely vanished growth of brownish-black hair which
contrasted strangely with the egg-shaped whiteness of his bald head. “Yes, he’s a
nice young man. It’s a wonder his father don’t take him in his bank.”
“Well, he may not be able to,” said his brother. “He’s only the cashier there.”
“That’s right.”
“Well, we’ll give him a trial. I bet anything he makes good. He’s a likely-
looking youth.”
Henry got up and walked out into the main entrance looking into Second
Street. The cool cobble pavements, shaded from the eastern sun by the wall of
buildings on the east — of which his was a part — the noisy trucks and drays, the
busy crowds hurrying to and fro, pleased him. He looked at the buildings over the
way — all three and four stories, and largely of gray stone and crowded with life
— and thanked his stars that he had originally located in so prosperous a
neighborhood. If he had only brought more property at the time he bought this!
“I wish that Cowperwood boy would turn out to be the kind of man I want,” he
observed to himself, meditatively. “He could save me a lot of running these days.”
Curiously, after only three or four minutes of conversation with the boy, he
sensed this marked quality of efficiency. Something told him he would do well.

572
 The Iron Heel, by JackLondon
Chapter 2
Challenges
After the guests had gone, father threw himself into a chair and gave vent to
roars of Gargantuan laughter. Not since the death of my mother had I known him
to laugh so heartily.
I'll wager Dr. Hammerfield was never up against anything like it in his life,"
he laughed. "'The courtesies of ecclesiastical controversy!' Did you notice how he
began like a lamb-Everhard, I mean, and how quickly he became a roaring lion?
He has a splendidly disciplined mind. He would have made a good scientist if his
energies had been directed that way."
I need scarcely say that I was deeply interested in Ernest Everhard. It was
not alone what he had said and how he had said it, but it was the man himself. I
had never met a man like him. I suppose that was why, in spite of my twenty-four
years, I had not married. I liked him; I had to confess it to myself. And my like for
him was founded on things beyond intellect and argument. Regardless of his
bulging muscles and prize-fighter's throat, he impressed me as an ingenuous boy. I
felt that under the guise of an intellectual swashbuckler was a delicate and
sensitive spirit. I sensed this, in ways I knew not, save that they were my woman's
intuitions.
There was something in that clarion-call of his that went to my heart. It still
rang in my ears, and I felt that I should like to hear it again--and to see again that
glint of laughter in his eyes that belied the impassioned seriousness of his face.
And there were further reaches of vague and indeterminate feelings that stirred in
me. I almost loved him then, though I am confident, had I never seen him again,
that the vague feelings would have passed away and that I should easily have
forgotten him.
But I was not destined never to see him again. My father's new-born interest

573
in sociology and the dinner parties he gave would not permit. Father was not a
sociologist. His marriage with my mother had been very happy, and in the
researches of his own science, physics, he had been very happy. But when mother
died, his own work could not fill the emptiness. At first, in a mild way, he had
dabbled in philosophy; then, becoming interested, he had drifted on into economics
and sociology. He had a strong sense of justice, and he soon became fired with a
passion to redress wrong. It was with gratitude that I hailed these signs of a new
interest in life, though I little dreamed what the outcome would be. With the
enthusiasm of a boy he plunged excitedly into these new pursuits, regardless of
whither they led him.
He had been used always to the laboratory, and so it was that he turned the
dining room into a sociological laboratory. Here came to dinner all sorts and
conditions of men - scientists, politicians, bankers, merchants, professors, labor
leaders, socialists, and anarchists. He stirred them to discussion, and analyzed their
thoughts of life and society.
He had met Ernest shortly prior to the "preacher's night." And after the
guests were gone, I learned how he had met him, passing down a street at night and
stopping to listen to a man on a soap-box who was addressing a crowd of
workingmen. The man on the box was Ernest. Not that he was a mere soap-box
orator. He stood high in the councils of the socialist party, was one of the leaders,
and was the acknowledged leader in the philosophy of socialism. But he had a
certain clear way of stating the abstruse in simple language, was a born expositor
and teacher, and was not above the soap-box as a means of interpreting economics
to the workingmen.
My father stopped to listen, became interested, effected a meeting, and, after
quite an acquaintance, invited him to the ministers' dinner. It was after the dinner
that father told me what little he knew about him. He had been born in the working
class, though he was a descendant of the old line of Everhards that for over two
hundred years had lived in America. [1] At ten years of age he had gone to work in
the mills, and later he served his apprenticeship and became a horseshoer. He was

574
self-educated, had taught himself German and French, and at that time was earning
a meagre living by translating scientific and philosophical works for a struggling
socialist publishing house in Chicago. Also, his earnings were added to by the
royalties from the small sales of his own economic and philosophic works.
This much I learned of him before I went to bed, and I lay long awake,
listening in memory to the sound of his voice. I grew frightened at my thoughts.
He was so unlike the men of my own class, so alien and so strong. His
masterfulness delighted me and terrified me, for my fancies wantonly roved until I
found myself considering him as a lover, as a husband. I had always heard that the
strength of men was an irresistible attraction to women; but he was too strong.
"No! no!" I cried out. "It is impossible, absurd!" And on the morrow I awoke to
find in myself a longing to see him again. I wanted to see him mastering men in
discussion, the war-note in his voice; to see him, in all his certitude and strength,
shattering their complacency, shaking them out of their ruts of thinking. What if he
did swashbuckle? To use his own phrase, "it worked," it produced effects. And,
besides, his swashbuckling was a fine thing to see. It stirred one like the onset of
battle.
Several days passed during which I read Ernest's books, borrowed from my
father. His written word was as his spoken word, clear and convincing. It was its
absolute simplicity that convinced even while one continued to doubt. He had the
gift of lucidity. He was the perfect expositor. Yet, in spite of his style, there was
much that I did not like. He laid too great stress on what he called the class
struggle, the antagonism between labor and capital, the conflict of interest.
Father reported with glee Dr. Hammerfield's judgment of Ernest, which was
to the effect that he was "an insolent young puppy, made bumptious by a little and
very inadequate learning." Also, Dr. Hammerfield declined to meet Ernest again.
But Bishop Morehouse turned out to have become interested in Ernest, and
was anxious for another meeting. "A strong young man," he said; "and very much
alive, very much alive. But he is too sure, too sure."
Ernest came one afternoon with father. The Bishop had already arrived, and

575
we were having tea on the veranda. Ernest's continued presence in Berkeley, by the
way, was accounted for by the fact that he was taking special courses in biology at
the university, and also that he was hard at work on a new book entitled
"Philosophy and Revolution." [2]
The veranda seemed suddenly to have become small when Ernest arrived.
Not that he was so very large - he stood only five feet nine inches; but that he
seemed to radiate an atmosphere of largeness. As he stopped to meet me, he
betrayed a certain slight awkwardness that was strangely at variance with his bold-
looking eyes and his firm, sure hand that clasped for a moment in greeting. And in
that moment his eyes were just as steady and sure. There seemed a question in
them this time, and as before he looked at me over long.
"I have been reading your 'Working-class Philosophy,'" I said, and his eyes
lighted in a pleased way.
"Of course," he answered, "you took into consideration the audience to
which it was addressed."
"I did, and it is because I did that I have a quarrel with you," I challenged.
"I, too, have a quarrel with you, Mr. Everhard," Bishop Morehouse said.
Ernest shrugged his shoulders whimsically and accepted a cup of tea.
The Bishop bowed and gave me precedence.
"You foment class hatred," I said. "I consider it wrong and criminal to
appeal to all that is narrow and brutal in the working class. Class hatred is anti-
social, and, it seems to me, anti-socialistic."
"Not guilty," he answered. "Class hatred is neither in the text nor in the spirit
of anything I have ever written."
"Oh!" I cried reproachfully, and reached for his book and opened it.
He sipped his tea and smiled at me while I ran over the pages.
"Page one hundred and thirty-two," I read aloud: "'The class struggle,
therefore, presents itself in the present stage of social development between the
wage-paying and the wage-paid classes.'"
I looked at him triumphantly.

576
 "No mention there of class hatred," he smiled back.
"But," I answered, "you say 'class struggle.'"
"A different thing from class hatred," he replied. "And, believe me, we
foment no hatred. We say that the class struggle is a law of social development.
We are not responsible for it. We do not make the class struggle. We merely
explain it, as Newton explained gravitation. We explain the nature of the conflict
of interest that produces the class struggle."
"But there should be no conflict of interest!" I cried.
"I agree with you heartily," he answered. "That is what we socialists are
trying to bring about,--the abolition of the conflict of interest. Pardon me. Let me
read an extract." He took his book and turned back several pages. "Page one
hundred and twenty-six: 'The cycle of class struggles which began with the
dissolution of rude, tribal communism and the rise of private property will end
with the passing of private property in the means of social existence.'"
"But I disagree with you," the Bishop interposed, his pale, ascetic face
betraying by a faint glow the intensity of his feelings. "Your premise is wrong.
There is no such thing as a conflict of interest between labor and capital--or, rather,
there ought not to be."
"Thank you," Ernest said gravely. "By that last statement you have given me
back my premise."
"But why should there be a conflict?" the Bishop demanded warmly.
Ernest shrugged his shoulders. "Because we are so made, I guess."
"But we are not so made!" cried the other.
"Are you discussing the ideal man?" Ernest asked, "--unselfish and godlike,
and so few in numbers as to be practically non-existent, or are you discussing the
common and ordinary average man?"
"The common and ordinary man," was the answer.
"Who is weak and fallible, prone to error?"
Bishop Morehouse nodded.
"And petty and selfish?"

577
 Again he nodded.
"Watch out!" Ernest warned. "I said 'selfish.'"
"The average man IS selfish," the Bishop affirmed valiantly.
"Wants all he can get?"
"Wants all he can get--true but deplorable."
"Then I've got you." Ernest's jaw snapped like a trap. "Let me show you.
Here is a man who works on the street railways."
"He couldn't work if it weren't for capital," the Bishop interrupted.
"True, and you will grant that capital would perish if there were no labor to
earn the dividends."
The Bishop was silent.
"Won't you?" Ernest insisted.
The Bishop nodded.
"Then our statements cancel each other," Ernest said in a matter-of-fact tone,
"and we are where we were. Now to begin again. The workingmen on the street
railway furnish the labor. The stockholders furnish the capital. By the joint effort
of the workingmen and the capital, money is earned. [3] They divide between them
this money that is earned. Capital's share is called 'dividends.' Labor's share is
called 'wages.'"
"Very good," the Bishop interposed. "And there is no reason that the
division should not be amicable."
"You have already forgotten what we had agreed upon," Ernest replied. "We
agreed that the average man is selfish. He is the man that is. You have gone up in
the air and are arranging a division between the kind of men that ought to be but
are not. But to return to the earth, the workingman, being selfish, wants all he can
get in the division. The capitalist, being selfish, wants all he can get in the division.
When there is only so much of the same thing, and when two men want all they
can get of the same thing, there is a conflict of interest between labor and capital.
And it is an irreconcilable conflict. As long as workingmen and capitalists exist,
they will continue to quarrel over the division. If you were in San Francisco this

578
afternoon, you'd have to walk. There isn't a street car running."
"Another strike?" [4] the Bishop queried with alarm.
"Yes, they're quarrelling over the division of the earnings of the street
railways."
Bishop Morehouse became excited.
"It is wrong!" he cried. "It is so short-sighted on the part of the workingmen.
How can they hope to keep our sympathy--"
"When we are compelled to walk," Ernest said slyly.
But Bishop Morehouse ignored him and went on:
"Their outlook is too narrow. Men should be men, not brutes. There will be
violence and murder now, and sorrowing widows and orphans. Capital and labor
should be friends. They should work hand in hand and to their mutual benefit."
"Ah, now you are up in the air again," Ernest remarked dryly. "Come back to
earth. Remember, we agreed that the average man is selfish."
"But he ought not to be!" the Bishop cried.
"And there I agree with you," was Ernest's rejoinder. "He ought not to be
selfish, but he will continue to be selfish as long as he lives in a social system that
is based on pig-ethics."
The Bishop was aghast, and my father chuckled.
"Yes, pig-ethics," Ernest went on remorselessly. "That is the meaning of the
capitalist system. And that is what your church is standing for, what you are
preaching for every time you get up in the pulpit. Pig-ethics! There is no other
name for it."
Bishop Morehouse turned appealingly to my father, but he laughed and
nodded his head.
"I'm afraid Mr. Everhard is right," he said. "LAISSEZ-FAIRE, the let-alone
policy of each for himself and devil take the hindmost. As Mr. Everhard said the
other night, the function you churchmen perform is to maintain the established
order of society, and society is established on that foundation."
"But that is not the teaching of Christ!" cried the Bishop.

579
 "The Church is not teaching Christ these days," Ernest put in quickly. "That
is why the workingmen will have nothing to do with the Church. The Church
condones the frightful brutality and savagery with which the capitalist class treats
the working class."
"The Church does not condone it," the Bishop objected.
"The Church does not protest against it," Ernest replied. "And in so far as the
Church does not protest, it condones, for remember the Church is supported by the
capitalist class."
"I had not looked at it in that light," the Bishop said naively. "You must be
wrong. I know that there is much that is sad and wicked in this world. I know that
the Church has lost the--what you call the proletariat." [5]
"You never had the proletariat," Ernest cried. "The proletariat has grown up
outside the Church and without the Church."
"I do not follow you," the Bishop said faintly.
"Then let me explain. With the introduction of machinery and the factory
system in the latter part of the eighteenth century, the great mass of the working
people was separated from the land. The old system of labor was broken down.
The working people were driven from their villages and herded in factory towns.
The mothers and children were put to work at the new machines. Family life
ceased. The conditions were frightful. It is a tale of blood."
"I know, I know," Bishop Morehouse interrupted with an agonized
expression on his face. "It was terrible. But it occurred a century and a half ago."
"And there, a century and a half ago, originated the modern proletariat,"
Ernest continued. "And the Church ignored it. While a slaughter-house was made
of the nation by the capitalist, the Church was dumb. It did not protest, as to-day it
does not protest. As Austin Lewis [6] says, speaking of that time, those to whom
the command 'Feed my lambs' had been given, saw those lambs sold into slavery
and worked to death without a protest. [7] The Church was dumb, then, and before
I go on I want you either flatly to agree with me or flatly to disagree with me. Was
the Church dumb then?"

580
 Bishop Morehouse hesitated. Like Dr. Hammerfield, he was unused to this
fierce "infighting," as Ernest called it.
"The history of the eighteenth century is written," Ernest prompted. "If the
Church was not dumb, it will be found not dumb in the books."
"I am afraid the Church was dumb," the Bishop confessed.
"And the Church is dumb to-day."
"There I disagree," said the Bishop.
Ernest paused, looked at him searchingly, and accepted the challenge.
"All right," he said. "Let us see. In Chicago there are women who toil all the
week for ninety cents. Has the Church protested?"
"This is news to me," was the answer. "Ninety cents per week! It is
horrible!"
"Has the Church protested?" Ernest insisted.
"The Church does not know." The Bishop was struggling hard.
"Yet the command to the Church was, 'Feed my lambs,'" Ernest sneered.
And then, the next moment, "Pardon my sneer, Bishop. But can you wonder that
we lose patience with you? When have you protested to your capitalistic
congregations at the working of children in the Southern cotton mills? [8]
Children, six and seven years of age, working every night at twelve-hour shifts?
They never see the blessed sunshine. They die like flies. The dividends are paid out
of their blood. And out of the dividends magnificent churches are built in New
England, wherein your kind preaches pleasant platitudes to the sleek, full-bellied
recipients of those dividends."
It is not at all remarkable that this same note should have been struck by the
Church a generation or so later in relation to the defence of capitalistic property. In
the great museum at Asgard there is a book entitled "Essays in Application,"
written by Henry van Dyke. The book was published in 1905 of the Christian Era.
From what we can make out, Van Dyke must have been a churchman. The book is
a good example of what Everhard would have called bourgeois thinking. Note the
similarity between the utterance of the Charleston Baptist Association quoted

581
above, and the following utterance of Van Dyke seventy years later: "The Bible
teaches that God owns the world. He distributes to every man according to His
own good pleasure, conformably to general laws."
"I did not know," the Bishop murmured faintly. His face was pale, and he
seemed suffering from nausea.
"Then you have not protested?"
The Bishop shook his head.
"Then the Church is dumb to-day, as it was in the eighteenth century?"
The Bishop was silent, and for once Ernest forbore to press the point.
"And do not forget, whenever a churchman does protest, that he is
discharged."
"I hardly think that is fair," was the objection.
"Will you protest?" Ernest demanded.
"Show me evils, such as you mention, in our own community, and I will
protest."
"I'll show you," Ernest said quietly. "I am at your disposal. I will take you on
a journey through hell."
"And I shall protest." The Bishop straightened himself in his chair, and over
his gentle face spread the harshness of the warrior. "The Church shall not be
dumb!"
"You will be discharged," was the warning.
"I shall prove the contrary," was the retort. "I shall prove, if what you say is
so, that the Church has erred through ignorance. And, furthermore, I hold that
whatever is horrible in industrial society is due to the ignorance of the capitalist
class. It will mend all that is wrong as soon as it receives the message. And this
message it shall be the duty of the Church to deliver."
Ernest laughed. He laughed brutally, and I was driven to the Bishop's
defence.
"Remember," I said, "you see but one side of the shield. There is much good
in us, though you give us credit for no good at all. Bishop Morehouse is right. The

582
industrial wrong, terrible as you say it is, is due to ignorance. The divisions of
society have become too widely separated."
"The wild Indian is not so brutal and savage as the capitalist class," he
answered; and in that moment I hated him.
"You do not know us," I answered. "We are not brutal and savage."
"Prove it," he challenged.
"How can I prove it . . . to you?" I was growing angry.
He shook his head. "I do not ask you to prove it to me. I ask you to prove it
to yourself."
"I know," I said.
"You know nothing," was his rude reply.
"There, there, children," father said soothingly.
"I don't care--" I began indignantly, but Ernest interrupted.
"I understand you have money, or your father has, which is the same thing--
money invested in the Sierra Mills."
"What has that to do with it?" I cried.
"Nothing much," he began slowly, "except that the gown you wear is stained
with blood. The food you eat is a bloody stew. The blood of little children and of
strong men is dripping from your very roof-beams. I can close my eyes, now, and
hear it drip, drop, drip, drop, all about me."
And suiting the action to the words, he closed his eyes and leaned back in
his chair. I burst into tears of mortification and hurt vanity. I had never been so
brutally treated in my life. Both the Bishop and my father were embarrassed and
perturbed. They tried to lead the conversation away into easier channels; but Ernest
opened his eyes, looked at me, and waved them aside. His mouth was stern, and
his eyes too; and in the latter there was no glint of laughter. What he was about to
say, what terrible castigation he was going to give me, I never knew; for at that
moment a man, passing along the sidewalk, stopped and glanced in at us. He was a
large man, poorly dressed, and on his back was a great load of rattan and bamboo
stands, chairs, and screens. He looked at the house as if debating whether or not he

583
should come in and try to sell some of his wares.
"That man's name is Jackson," Ernest said.
"With that strong body of his he should be at work, and not peddling," [9] I
answered curtly.
"Notice the sleeve of his left arm," Ernest said gently.
I looked, and saw that the sleeve was empty.
"It was some of the blood from that arm that I heard dripping from your
roof-beams," Ernest said with continued gentleness. "He lost his arm in the Sierra
Mills, and like a broken-down horse you turned him out on the highway to die.
When I say 'you,' I mean the superintendent and the officials that you and the other
stockholders pay to manage the mills for you. It was an accident. It was caused by
his trying to save the company a few dollars. The toothed drum of the picker
caught his arm. He might have let the small flint that he saw in the teeth go
through. It would have smashed out a double row of spikes. But he reached for the
flint, and his arm was picked and clawed to shreds from the finger tips to the
shoulder. It was at night. The mills were working overtime. They paid a fat
dividend that quarter. Jackson had been working many hours, and his muscles had
lost their resiliency and snap. They made his movements a bit slow. That was why
the machine caught him. He had a wife and three children."
"And what did the company do for him?" I asked.
"Nothing. Oh, yes, they did do something. They successfully fought the
damage suit he brought when he came out of hospital. The company employs very
efficient lawyers, you know."
"You have not told the whole story," I said with conviction. "Or else you do
not know the whole story. Maybe the man was insolent."
"Insolent! Ha! Ha!" His laughter was Mephistophelian. "Great God!
Insolent! And with his arm chewed off! Nevertheless he was a meek and lowly
servant, and there is no record of his having been insolent."
"But the courts," I urged. "The case would not have been decided against
him had there been no more to the affair than you have mentioned."

584
 "Colonel Ingram is leading counsel for the company. He is a shrewd
lawyer." Ernest looked at me intently for a moment, then went on. "I'll tell you
what you do, Miss Cunningham. You investigate Jackson's case."
"I had already determined to," I said coldly.
"All right," he beamed good-naturedly, "and I'll tell you where to find him.
But I tremble for you when I think of all you are to prove by Jackson's arm."
And so it came about that both the Bishop and I accepted Ernest's
challenges. They went away together, leaving me smarting with a sense of injustice
that had been done me and my class. The man was a beast. I hated him, then, and
consoled myself with the thought that his behavior was what was to be expected
from a man of the working class.
Footnotes
1 The distinction between being native born and foreign born was sharp and
invidious in those days.
2 This book continued to be secretly printed throughout the three centuries
of the Iron Heel. There are several copies of various editions in the National
Library of Ardis.
3 In those days, groups of predatory individuals controlled all the means of
transportation, and for the use of same levied toll upon the public.
4 These quarrels were very common in those irrational and anarchic times.
Sometimes the laborers refused to work. Sometimes the capitalists refused to let
the laborers work. In the violence and turbulence of such disagreements much
property was destroyed and many lives lost. All this is inconceivable to us--as
inconceivable as another custom of that time, namely, the habit the men of the
lower classes had of breaking the furniture when they quarrelled with their wives.
5 Proletariat: Derived originally from the Latin PROLETARII, the name
given in the census of Servius Tullius to those who were of value to the state only
as the rearers of offspring (PROLES); in other words, they were of no importance
either for wealth, or position, or exceptional ability.
6 Candidate for Governor of California on the Socialist ticket in the fall

585
election of 1906 Christian Era. An Englishman by birth, a writer of many books on
political economy and philosophy, and one of the Socialist leaders of the times.
7 There is no more horrible page in history than the treatment of the child
and women slaves in the English factories in the latter half of the eighteenth
century of the Christian Era. In such industrial hells arose some of the proudest
fortunes of that day.
8 Everhard might have drawn a better illustration from the Southern
Church's outspoken defence of chattel slavery prior to what is known as the "War
of the Rebellion." Several such illustrations, culled from the documents of the
times, are here appended. In 1835 A.D., the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church resolved that: "slavery is recognized in both the Old and the New
Testaments, and is not condemned by the authority of God." The Charleston
Baptist Association issued the following, in an address, in 1835 A.D.: "The right of
masters to dispose of the time of their slaves has been distinctly recognized by the
Creator of all things, who is surely at liberty to vest the right of property over any
object whomsoever He pleases." The Rev. E. D. Simon, Doctor of Divinity and
professor in the Randolph-Macon Methodist College of Virginia, wrote: "Extracts
from Holy Writ unequivocally assert the right of property in slaves, together with
the usual incidents to that right. The right to buy and sell is clearly stated. Upon the
whole, then, whether we consult the Jewish policy instituted by God himself, or the
uniform opinion and practice of mankind in all ages, or the injunctions of the New
Testament and the moral law, we are brought to the conclusion that slavery is not
immoral. Having established the point that the first African slaves were legally
brought into bondage, the right to detain their children in bondage follows as an
indispensable consequence. Thus we see that the slavery that exists in America
was founded in right."
9 In that day there were many thousands of these poor merchants called
PEDLERS. They carried their whole stock in trade from door to door. It was a
most wasteful expenditure of energy. Distribution was as confused and irrational as
the whole general system of society.

586
587
 GLOSSARY

ability-to-pay principle – principle that states taxes ought to be paid by those who
can best afford them

account balance – the amount of money that you have in your bank account

accountability – the obligation of an individual or organization to account for its

activities, accept responsibility for them, and to disclose the results in a transparent
manner; it also includes the responsibility for money or other entrusted property

acquisition – taking control of a firm by purchasing 51 percent (or more) of its

voting shares
aggregate demand – the total quantity of goods and services consumers, business
and government are willing and able to buy at different possible price levels
aggregate supply – the total amount of goods and services produced by the
economy in a given period, usually one year

agriculture – the science, art, or practice of cultivating the soil, producing crops,
and raising livestock and in varying degrees the preparation and marketing of the
resulting products

allocation of resources – the action or process of allocating or distributing

resources; an amount of resources assigned to a particular recipient

artisan – a skilled worker who makes things by hand; one that produces something
(as cheese or wine) in limited quantities often using traditional methods

assessed value – value placed on real estate or personal property by government

(or court appointed) assessors for determining ad valorem (according to the value)
taxes, or to levy damages on the orders of a court

asset(s) – a thing or value that a person or a company owns, such as money or

property or the right to receive payment of a debt

balance sheet – financial statement summarizing a firm's assets, liabilities and net
worth

588
bank – a financial establishment that uses money deposited by customers for
investment, pays it out when required, makes loans at interest, and exchanges
currency

bank account – (written abbreviation a/c) an arrangement with a bank that allows
you to keep your money there. You can deposit (= pay in) or withdraw (= take out)
money when you need to

banking – the business conducted or services offered by a bank

banknote – a piece of paper money of a particular value that you use to buy things.
The usual word is note.

bankruptcy – the state of being unable to pay your debts

barter – an exchange without money of goods or services

benefit(s) – a helpful and useful effect that smth has; money that is paid to people
who are unemployed, ill, etc. by the government or through a system of insurance;
the advantages that you get from your company in addition to the money you earn

board of directors – the group of people chosen by shareholders to control a

company, decide its policies and appoint senior officers

borrow – (antonym: to lend) to receive and use something that belongs to someone
else and that you must give back to them later; to borrow money, especially from a
bank. Money that you borrow from a bank is called a loan.

broker – someone who buys and sells things such as shares in companies or
foreign money for other people
budget – a financial plan that summarizes income and expenditures over a period of
time

bulk – unpackaged, homogenous, dry or liquid goods, without mark or count and
usually free-flowing, bought and sold by weight or volume, such as grains, oils,
and ores

bureaucracy – a complicated official system which is annoying or confusing

589
because it has a lot of rules, processes etc.; the officials who are employed rather
than elected to do the work of a government, business etc.

buying behavior – the behaviour of individuals and households who buy goods
and services for personal consumption

buying decision – a consumer's decision to make a specific purchase

capacity – the highest sustainable output rate (maximum number of units per
month, quarter, or year) that can be achieved with current resources, maintenance
strategies, product specifications, etc.

capital accounting – that part of balance of payments which records net changes
in a country's international financial assets and liabilities

capital – money or property, especially when it is used to start a business or to

produce more wealth

cash – money in the form of coins or notes rather than cheques or credit cards, etc.;
money in any form that is available for you to use when you need it

centrally planned economy-an economic system in which a substantial majority

of economic activity is carried out through central directions to people and firms as
to what they must buy and sell, and at what prices

CEO (chief executive officer) top executive responsible for a firm's overall
operations and performance

charter – (in some US states) the name used for the Articles of Incorporation, one
of the legal documents that is created when a company is formed

cheque (Am. check) – written order to pay money, i.e., one of a set of printed
pieces of paper that you can sign and use instead of money to pay for things; a
commonly used means of transferring money through the banking system

coin – a flat disc or piece of metal with special designs on it, used as money. The
right to make and issue money is a state monopoly.

590
command economy – an economic system in which the activities of firms and the
allocation of productive resources is determined by government direction rather
than market forces

commodity – a product that can be bought and sold

commodity money – money with its own value as a good. At different times
different commodities were used as money: iron and bronze, cattle and fish, furs
and skins, cowries and precious metals, especially gold and silver. Gold coins are
examples of commodity money because gold is worth something as a commodity,
not just as a monetary unit.

competition – a situation in which people or organizations try to be more

successful than other people or organizations; the people or groups that are
competing against you, especially in business or in a sport; an organized event in
which people or teams compete against each other

consumer – a person who buys goods or services for their own use

consumer behavior – the way in which consumers choose how to spend their
oncomes

consumer goods – goods that people buy for their own use, rather than goods
bought by businesses and organizations

consumption – the utilization of economic goods in the satisfaction of wants or in

the process of production

convertible currency – a currency that can legally be exchanged for another or for
gold. In times of crisis, governments sometimes restrict such exchange, giving rise
to black market exchange rates.

chief executive officer – top executive responsible for a firm's overall operations
and performance. He or she is the leader of the firm, serves as the main link
between the board of directors (the board) and the firm's various parts or levels,
and is held solely responsible for the firm's success or failure. One of the major
duties of a CEO is to maintain and implement corporate policy, as established by

591
the board. Also called President or managing director, he or she may also be the
chairman (or chairperson) of the board

corporate tax – a tax that companies pay on their profits

corporation – a large company or group of companies; a business organisation

that has been officially created (incorporated) and is owned by shareholders

costs – the amount of money that a business needs to spend regularly; the amount
of money that is paid to produce smth

counterfeit – (adj.) made to look exactly like something else. Counterfeit bank
notes, tickets, etc. are illegal copies made in order to trick people

credit card – a small plastic card issued by a bank or a credit company, which
enables the lawful owner to make purchases (to obtain goods and services) on
credit. A similar card that you use to pay for things directly from your bank
account is called a debit card

currency – money that is used in a particular country; the physical embodiment of

money, in the forms of paper bills or notes, and metal coins. Money from a country
with a strong economy that can be used for buying things in other countries is
called hard currency.

customer – someone who buys goods or services from a shop or business

debt – a sum of money that a person or organization owes

decision-making – the process of reaching decisions, especially in a group of

people or in an organisation

default – failure to meet an obligation when it comes due

demand – a consumer's willingness and ability to buy a product or service; the

quantity of a commodity or service wanted at a specified price and time

demand curve – the graphic representation of demand

denomination – the face value of a banknote or coin

depreciation – a reduction in the value or price of something; the decrease in the

592
economic potential of an asset over its productive or useful life

distribution – the act of sharing things among a large group of people in a planned
way; when goods are supplied to shops and companies for them to sell

dividend – an amount of the profits that a company pays to shareholders

economic growth – increases in an economy's total output over a period of time

economic incentives – a reason for doing smth. In market economies, profit,

interest, wages, and rent provide economic incentives

economic resources – the assets (things of value) which an economy (or business)
may have available to supply and produce goods and services to meet the ever-
changing needs and wants of individuals (in the case of a business) and society (in
the case of society as a whole)

economics – the social science concerned with the production, distribution,

exchange and consumption of goods and services and the analysis of the
commercial activities of a society

economy – the system by which a country's money, goods and services are
produced and used, or a country considered in this way; something that you do in
order to spend less money; the careful use of money, time, goods etc. so that
nothing is wasted

effective demand – the level of demand that represents a real intention to purchase
by people with the means to pay

effectiveness – the degree to which objectives are achieved and the extent to which
targeted problems are solved. In contrast to efficiency, effectiveness is determined
without reference to costs and, whereas efficiency means "doing the thing right,"
effectiveness means "doing the right thing"

efficiency – getting any given results with the smallest possible inputs, or getting
the maximum possible output from given resources

593
elasticity – the responsiveness of a dependent economic variable to changes in
influencing factors

elasticity of demand – a measure of the sensitivity of demand for goods or

services to changes in price or other marketing variables, such as advertising

electronic money – non-physical currency that is traded and used over the
Internet.

electronic transfer – the process of moving money from one account or bank to
another that involves the use of electronic systems

employee - a person who is paid to work for smb

employer – a person, company, or organization that pays people to work for them

employment – the state of being employed; the number of people who have jobs;
the use of a particular object, method, skill etc. to achieve something

enterprise – a company, organization, or business; the activity of starting and

running businesses; a large and complicated project, especially one that is done
with a group of other people; the ability to think of new activities or ideas and
make them work

entity – a business that exists as a separate unit that has its own legal identity

entrepreneur - a person who makes money by starting or running businesses,

especially when this involves taking financial risks
entrepreneurship – the capacity and willingness to develop, organize and manage
a business venture along with any of its risks in order to make a profit

environmental economics – a branch of economics study that analyzes financial

impacts from environmental policies. Environmental Economics includes impacts
such as regulatory compliance costs

equipment – the tools, machines, clothes etc. that you need to do a particular job
or activity; the process of equipping someone or something

594
equity – share in a company from which the owner of the shares receives some of
the company's profits rather than a fixed regular payment; a situation in which all
people are treated equally and no one has an unfair advantage

exchange rate – the rate, or price, at which one country's currency is exchanged
for the currency of another country.

expenditures – the total amount of money that a government, organization, or

person spends during a particular period of time

exploitation – the development and use of minerals, forests, oil etc. for business or
industry; (sometimes) a wasteful or destructive utilization of a natural resource; an
unjust or improper use of another person for one's own profit or advantage
externalities – a loss or gain in the welfare of one party resulting from an activity
of another party, without there being any compensation for the losing party

factors of production – resources required for generation of goods or services,

generally classified into four major groups: (1) land (including all natural
resources), (2) labour (including all human resources), (3) capital (including all
man-made resources), and (4) enterprise (which brings all the previous resources
together for production). These factors are classified also as management,
machines, materials, and money (this, the 4 Ms), or other such nomenclature. More
recently, knowledge has come to be recognized as distinct from labour, and as a
factor of production in its own right

fiat money – money whose usefulness results, not from any intrinsic value or
guarantee that it can be converted into gold or another currency, but only from a
government's order (fiat) that it must be accepted as a means of payment.

finance – the management of money by governments, large organizations etc.;

(plural) money or other liquid resources of a government, business, group, or
individual; the system that includes the circulation of money, the granting of credit,
the making of investments, and the provision of banking facilities

595
fiscal policy – the way in which a government charges taxes or spends money in
order to manage the economy

flat tax – fixed tax, a system in which tax is paid at the same rate, however much
you earn or spend

free enterprise economy – an economic system in which private business operates

in competitive markets to satisfy consumer demands and to maintain equilibrium
in the national economy and in which government action in this respect is
restricted to protecting the rights of individuals rather than acting as a directing
economic force

free market – a market that operates under conditions of perfect competition

functions of money – the roles played by money in an economy. These are a

medium of exchange, a measure of value, and a store of value

glut – market situation where the supply of a good or service far exceeds its
demand, usually resulting in a substantial fall in its price

gold standard – a monetary system in which both the value of a unit of the
currency and the quantity of it in circulation are specified in terms of gold. If two
currencies are both on the gold standard, then the exchange rate between them is
approximately determined by their two prices in terms of gold

goods – commodities, or physical, tangible items that satisfy some human wants or
needs, or something that people find useful or desirable and make an effort to
acquire it

gross domestic product – the value of a country's overall output of goods and
services (typically during one fiscal year) at market prices, excluding net income
from abroad

health insurance – insurance against medical expenses and loss of earnings due to
accident or illness

household – all the people living together in a single house or flat/apartment,

considered as a unit
596
income – the money that you earn from your work or that you receive from
investments, the government etc.

income tax – the amount of money that you pay to the government according to
how much you earn or receive from some other sources

incorporate – (v) – to form a legal company or organisation, for example by

obtaining a certificate from the authorities

inflation – a continuing increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of

money, or the rate at which prices increase

input – anything that goes into the production process

insurance – risk-transfer mechanism that ensures full or partial financial

compensation for the loss or damage caused by event(s) beyond the control of the
insured party

intermediary – a person or an organisation that helps other people or

organisations who are unable or unwilling to deal with each other directly to reach
an agreement

investment – the action or process of using money in order to make a profit or

earn interest, for example by buying shares, bonds, property, etc.; the act or
process of buying materials, machines, etc. to make goods to sell

irredeemable – impossible to change or make better; money or something that

cannot be exchanged

know-how – commercial and saleable knowledge of how to do a particular thing;

experience

labour – work, especially physical work; all the people who work for a company
or in a country

labour productivity – rate of output per worker (or a group of workers) per unit of
time as compared with an established standard or expected rate of output

labour supply – availability of suitable human resources in a particular labor

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market

laissez-fair – literally, leave to do; a policy of non-intervention by government in

the economy, leaving all decisions to the market

land – includes all physical elements in the wealth of a nation bestowed by nature
such as climate, environment, fields, forests, minerals, mountains, lakes, streams,
seas, and animals

Law of Supply and Demand – the theory that prices are determined by the
interaction of supply and demand: an increase in supply will lower prices if not
accompanied by increased demand, and an increase in demand will raise prices
unless accompanied by increased supply

lease – a legal agreement which allows you to use a building, car etc. for a period
of time, in return for rent

legal tender – money that can legally be used to pay for things in a particular
country

liability/liabilities – the amount of money that a company or a person owes; the

state of being legally responsible for smth

liquidity – the capacity to turn assets into cash, or the amount of assets in a
portfolio that have that capacity. Cash itself (i.e., money) is the most liquid asset.

macroeconomics the study of large economic systems such as those of a whole

country or area of the world

management – the conducting or supervising of something (as a business);

especially: the executive function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing,
controlling, and supervising any industrial or business project or activity with
responsibility for results; the directors and managers who have the power and
responsibility to make decisions and oversee an enterprise

manufacturing – the process of converting raw materials, components, or parts

into finished goods that meet a customer's expectations or specifications.

598
margin for profit – ratio of profit after taxes to cost-of-sales, often expressed as a
percentage. It is one of the measures of the profitability of a firm, and an indicator
of its cost structure.

marginal costs – the increase or decrease in the total cost of a production run for
making one additional unit of an item. It is computed in situations where the
breakeven point has been reached: the fixed costs have already been absorbed by
the already produced items and only the direct (variable) costs have to be
accounted for

marginal product – output that results from one additional unit of a factor of
production (such as a labour hour or machine hour), all other factors remaining
constant

marginal revenue product – the worth of the extra output that can be generated
by adding an extra input unit

marginal tax rate – a rate of tax that is paid on your next unit of income; the
highest rate of tax that smb pays

Marginalism – the concept that economic behaviour can be determined by

analysing the fluctuations in the demand for basic goods and services

market – the area of economic activity in which buyers and sellers come together
and the forces of supply and demand affect prices; the available supply of or
potential demand for specified goods or services

market economy – an economic system in which the main decisions regarding

production, distribution, and exchange are made by the market, i.e. by the forces of
supply and demand

market equilibrium – the situation when supply and demand in a market are
equal at the prevailing price

means of liquidity – money or goods that can easily be sold to pay debts or
anything else that can easily be exchanged for money

means of production – the facilities and resources for producing goods

599
measure of value – one of the most important properties of money: its ability to be
a benchmark for measuring value of goods and services.

medium of exchange - anything that is used, like money, to make payments for
goods, services, and assets. For payments between countries with different
currencies, if the national currencies are not trusted, another country's currency or

gold may be used.

microeconomics – the branch of economics that deals with the behaviour of

individual market participants, mainly individual firms or consumers

mixed economy – an economy in which both publicly and privately owned

enterprises operate simultaneously

money – anything (any commodity or token) that is generally accepted in payment

for goods and services. It serves as a medium of exchange, a measure of value and
a store of value

money supply – the quantity of currency in circulation plus the amount of demand
deposits. The money supply, together with the amount of real economic activity in
a country, is an important determinant of its price level and its exchange rate

natural resources – naturally occurring materials such as coal, fertile land, etc.,
that can be used by man

necessity – something that you need to have in order to live

needs and wants – unsatisfied human desires that motivate their actions and
enhance their fulfilment when met

opportunity cost a benefit, profit, or value of something that must be given up to

acquire or achieve something else

output – the amount of goods or work produced by a person, machine, factory etc.

ownership – the ultimate and exclusive right conferred by a lawful claim or title,
and subject to certain restrictions to enjoy, occupy, possess, rent, sell, use, give
away, or even destroy an item of property

600
partnership – a business that is owned by a group of professional people that
work together and share the profits

perishable goods = perishables – things, especially foodstuffs, likely to decay

after a short time if it is not kept in the proper conditions

population – the number of people living in a particular area, country etc.; all of
the people who live in a particular area;

price system – the use of prices to allocate scarce resources

private enterprise – the economic system in which industry or business is owned

by individuals and independent companies and is not controlled by the
government; a business that is owned by individuals or other companies, not by the
government

private sector – the part of a country’s economy that is not under the direct control
of the government, but is owned by individuals and independent companies

privatization – sale or return of publicly owned enterprises to private ownership

and control
product – the good or service one receives in an exchange

production – the processes and methods used to transform tangible inputs (raw
materials, semi-finished goods, subassemblies) and intangible inputs (ideas,
information, knowledge) into goods or services

productive resources – materials, labour or money which is used to create goods

and services

productivity – the output of goods and services as measured per unit of time, or
per person, per company, per industry, or for the whole economy

profit – the surplus remaining after total costs are deducted from total revenue, and
the basis on which tax is computed and dividend is paid. It is the best known
measure of success in an enterprise

profitability – when a business or an activity makes a profit, or the amount of

601
profit it makes
property – the thing or things that someone owns; a building, a piece of land, or
both together

proprietor – the owner of a business

purchasing power - the amount of of real goods and services that money will buy,
usually measured (inversely) by the CPI (consumer price index); value of a unit of
money considered in terms of how much you can buy with it

ratio – a relationship between two amounts, represented by a pair of numbers

showing how much bigger one amount is than the other

rationing – government allocation of scarce resources and consumer goods,

usually adopted during wars, famines, or other national emergencies
raw material – basic substance in its natural, modified, or semi-processed state,
used as an input to a production process for subsequent modification or
transformation into a finished good

representative money – paper currency backed by a government or bank’s

promise to redeem it for a given weight of precious metal (gold or silver). Money
of this type was based on the gold standard, and, in theory, could be exchanged for
a fixed amount of gold. For example, the US dollar was convertible to gold until
1934.

reserve currency – a currency that is considered strong and reliable and is used a
lot in international trade. National banks keep large stores of reserve currencies

resource – an economic or productive factor required to accomplish an activity, or

as means to undertake an enterprise and achieve desired outcome

retailing – the business of selling goods to ultimate consumers for personal or

household consumption

returns on capital – ratio measuring the profitability of a firm expressed as a

percentage of funds acquired from investors and lenders

revenue – the income generated from sale of goods or services, or any other use of
602
capital or assets, associated with the main operations of an organization before any
costs or expenses are deducted; the income accruing from taxation to a government
during a specified period of time, usually a year

salary – a fixed regular payment made usually on a monthly basis by an employer

to an employee, especially a professional or white-collar worker

scarcity – a limit to the supply of productive resources or consumer goods in

relation to producers' or consumers' demand for them
securities – financing or investment instruments (some negotiable, others not)
bought and sold in financial markets, such as bonds, debentures, notes, options,
shares (stocks), and warrants

services – intangible products such as accounting, banking, cleaning, consultancy,

education, insurance, expertise, medical treatment, or transportation

shareholder – a person or group that owns shares in a company or business

shortage – a situation when there is not enough of the people or things that are
needed

small-scale decision-making unit – the informal group of individuals within an

organization that decides which items the organization should buy

sole proprietorship – a business that is owned and run by one person

stock – the value of all the shares a company can make available; a number of
shares in a company that one investor holds; a supply of a particular type of thing
that a shop has available to sell; the total amount of something that is available to
be used in a particular area

stock market – a place where shares are bought and sold, i.e. a stock exchange

store of value – one of three basic functions of money: the ability to retain value
over time, and therefore be useful for those who wish to sell something now and
not spend he proceeds until later

substitute – a good or service which can be used instead of another

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supply – the amount of a good or service offered for sale

supply curve – a curve showing the amount that firms in an industry are willing to
supply at each possible price

surplus – an amount of something left over when requirements have been met; an
excess of income or assets over expenditure or liabilities in a given period

sustainability – continued development or growth, without significant

deterioration of the environment and depletion of natural resources on which
human well-being depends

tax – an amount of money that you must pay to the government according to your
income, property, goods etc. and that is used to pay for public services;
compulsory monetary contribution to the state's revenue, assessed and imposed by
a government on the activities, enjoyment, expenditure, income, occupation,
privilege, property, etc., of individuals and organizations

tax loophole – a provision in the laws governing taxation that allows people to
reduce their taxes

tax rate – the percentage of an amount of money or of the value of smth that has to
be paid as tax

taxation – a means by which governments finance their expenditure by imposing

charges on citizens and corporate entities

trade – the activity of buying, selling, or exchanging goods or services between

people, firms, or countries

trade-off – giving up one thing in order to obtain something else

traditional economy – an economic system that allocates scarce resources

according to customs; change and growth are very slow; people do what their
parents did before them; and most goods are produced and consumed locally

transaction – a business deal; the action or process of buying or selling something

604
traveller’s cheque (AmE. traveler’s check) – a printed piece of paper that you sign
and can exchange it for money of a foreign country when you are travelling.
Traveller’s cheques can be replaced if they get lost or stolen.

undercapitalization – a situation where a business does not have sufficient

stockholders' funds for its size of operations. An undercapitalized firm does not
have enough cash to carry out its functions and usually does not qualify for bank or
other loans due to its unacceptably high loan-to-equity ratio. Under capitalization
is one of the major causes of business start-ups failures

unemployed – person of employment age (generally 16 to 55 years) who does not

have a paying job but is available for work and is actively seeking a job

unemployment – total number of able men and women of working age seeking
paid work

unit of account - a basic function of money, providing a unit of measurement for

defining, recording, and comparing value.

urbanization – an increase in a population in cities and towns versus rural areas

value – the amount that something is worth, measured especially in money

venture capital – capital invested in a project in which there is a substantial

element of risk

venture capitalists private investors who provide venture capital to promising

business ventures

wage – (often plural) a fixed regular payment for work, typically paid on a daily,
hourly, weekly or piece work basis

warrant – an official document giving someone the right to do something, for

example buy shares in a company; a legal document that is signed by a judge,
allowing the police to take a particular action

wealth – a large amount of money, property etc. that a person or country owns

605
wear-and-tear – gradual physical deterioration of an asset from age, use, and/or
weathering

welfare – practical or financial help that is provided, often by the government, for
people that need it; the health, happiness, and fortunes of a person or group

workforce – total number of a country's population employed in the armed forces

and civilian jobs, plus those unemployed people who are actually seeking paying
work; total number of employees (usually excluding the management) on an
employer's payroll

yield – the amount of profits, crops etc. that something produces; the annual
income earned from an investment, expressed usually as a percentage of the money
invested

606
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Internet Resources

governmentisgood.com
http://blog.pappastax.com
http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/
http://economics.about.com/od/money/a/Types-Of-Money.htm
http://infousa.state.gov/economy/overview/mktec6.html
http://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2011/07/what-is-money-meaning-definition.html
http://subramoneyplanning.blogspot.com/2011/11/money-its-functions
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Functions-of-Money
http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/
http://www.educationworld.com/maillist2.shtml
http://www.franchisedirect.com
http://www.neweconomics.org/
http://www.oenb.at/
http://www.whatiseconomics.org/

609
 CONTENTS
UNIT 1. What is economics?
Text A: What is economics?
Text B: What economics isn't
Text C: Micro, Macro and Fantasy Economics
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Introductions
GRAMMAR: Present Tenses. The Present Simple (Indefinite) and the Present
Continuous Tenses

UNIT 2. Factors of production

Text A: Factors of production
Text B: Entrepreneurship
Text C: Factors of Production for an Innovation Economy
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: In the office
GRAMMAR: Present Tenses. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect
Continuous Tenses

UNIT 3. Types of economic systems

Text A: Types of economic systems
Text B: Command economy
Text C: Good (and bad) models
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Finding the way
GRAMMAR: Past Tenses. The Past Simple (Indefinite) and the Past Continuous
Tenses

UNIT 4. Demand and supply

Text A: Demand and supply

Text B: The role of price
Text C: Two factors that affect labor supply and demand
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Making an appointment

610
GRAMMAR: The Past Prefect Tense. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense. Past
Tenses Review.

UNIT 5. Free-enterprise system

Text A: What is free enterprise?
Text B: Role of government in a free-enterprise economy
Text C: Invisible hand
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: At the airport.
GRAMMAR: Future Tenses. The Imperative Mood.

UNIT 6. Forms of business organisations

Text A: Forms of business organisations
Text B: Nonprofit organisations
Text C: Franchising
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: At the hotel
GRAMMAR: Nouns. Articles.

UNIT 7. Money
Text A. Money and its role in the economy
Text B. A Glimpse of the American, British and Euro currencies
Text C. A Barter Way of Doing Business
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: On the telephone
GRAMMAR: Determiners. Numerals

UNIT 8. Taxes
Text A: Taxes
Text B: Taxation in the UK
Text C: Taxes are good
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: In company
GRAMMAR: Pronouns. Adjectives. Adverbs. Comparison

611