NCM 111: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ASA || BSN 3G || MR. AMIT || MIDTERM
Qualitative Research
is a systematic approach used to describe
experiences and situations from the perspective
of persons in the situation. The researchers
analyzes the words of the participant, finds
meaning in the words, and provides a description
of the experience that promotes deeper
understanding of the experience.
IDENTIFYING THE STEPS OF THE
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Characteristics of Qualitative Research:
➢ Natural setting
To get accurate data, qualitative research is
carried out in natural settings.
➢ Context dependent
The same question in a different context will
probably produce a different answer as the
experiences of individuals are within unique
contexts.
➢ Researcher as instrument
The primary methods used by qualitative
researchers to gather their own data include
participant observation, documentation, and
direct participant interviews. Since they are
the only source of data for the study, these
researchers often don't use any instruments or
questionnaires created by other researchers
➢ Multiple sources of data
Instead, than depending just on one source of
data, qualitative researchers typically opt to
gather the necessary information from a
variety of sources, including observations,
interviews, and written documentation.
➢ Inductive and deductive analysis
➢ Qualitative researchers construct categories,
patterns, and themes from scratch
(inductively) or from disparate evidence into
a comprehensive conclusion. The deductive
method is starting with a theory, drawing
hypotheses from it, and then gathering and
examining evidence to evaluate those
hypotheses.
➢ Reflexivity
In qualitative research, the researchers openly
disclose to the participants everything about
themselves, including their history and the
reason for the study. Additionally, reflexivity
encourages their open and voluntary
participation in the study.
➢ Focuses on participants’ perspective
Instead of focusing on the meaning that
previous writers or researchers have
transmitted in specific works of literature, the
researcher must devote their complete
attention to understanding the meaning that
they have learned about the subject or
research problem from the participants.
➢ Holistic, complex description
Qualitative research offers a comprehensive
view by focusing on multiple viewpoints and
identifying distinct research-related
elements. It aims to develop a comprehensive
description of the research challenge,
focusing on complex cause-and-effect
relationships between multiple elements.
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN
THE QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
PROCESSES
Quantitative Research Process
1. Identify a Research Problem
➢ Building on previous knowledge, a gap in
knowledge is identified.
2. Formulate The Research Purpose
➢ Should be congruent with the research
problem.
3. Identify the Study Methodology
➢ Selected quantitative methodology
should be implied in the purpose.
4. Review the Literature
➢ Extensive review should be conducted to
ensure that questions and/or hypotheses
reflect what is known and not known.
5. Describe the Theoretical Framework
➢ Researchers may or may not make the
framework explicit.
6. State the Research Objectives, Questions,
Hypotheses, and Procedures
➢ The researcher may use any of these;
when possible, she or he will state
hypotheses based on what is known.
➢ Questions or hypotheses are set before
data collection.
➢ Define variables, conceptually, and
operationally.
➢ Specify procedures consistent with the
study design. These may include a
controlled setting and an intervention.
➢ Recruit a large sample of predetermined
size.
➢ Collect numerical data.
NCM 111: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ASA || BSN 3G || MR. AMIT || MIDTERM
➢ Analyze data according to predetermined
statistical analysis.
➢ Determine results and prepare tables
and/or figures.
7. Present Results
➢ Concisely state outcome of statistical
analysis, tables, and figures may be used
with limited narrative.
8. Discuss Findings
➢ Compare findings with previous
research findings.
➢ Identify limitations.
➢ State implications of the findings,
including future research needed on the
topic.
Qualitative Research Process
1. Identify a Research
o Problem Little may be known about
the topic; qualitative approach used
to explore and describe
2. Formulate the Research
o Purpose Should be congruent with
the research problem.
3. Identify the Study
o Methodology Selected type of
qualitative study should be implied
in the purpose.
4. Review the Literature
o Limited review of the literature;
extent will vary depending on the
qualitative design; researcher does
not want to be biased by the
literature.
5. Describe the Theoretical Framework
o Researchers may use a philosophy
instead of a framework or may not select
a framework to remain open to
participants’ perspectives.
6. State the Research Objectives, Questions,
Hypotheses, and Procedures
o Researchers will use research objectives
or questions. Hypotheses are not
consistent with qualitative methods.
Questions may evolve over the course of
the study
o No comparable step in qualitative
research.
o Specify how data will be collected
(interview, observation, focus groups) in
a natural setting; no intervention.
Procedures may evolve.
o Recruit purposive, network, and
theoretical sampling methods, the size of
which will not be predetermined. Size
will depend on when saturation of the
data occurs.
o Collect textual, verbal, visual, and
sensory data.
o Analyze data using flexible and iterative
steps of spending extended periods of
time reading and processing the data.
o Determine results, which will vary
according to qualitative approach (e.g.,
ethnography — a description of a culture;
grounded theory — an emerging
framework).
7. Present Results
o Provide a narrative of patterns or themes
identified. Participant quotes from
interviews or focus groups to support
results may be used.
8. Discuss Findings
o Compare findings with previous research
findings.
o Identify limitations.
o State implications of the findings,
including future research needed on the
topic.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Phenomenological Approach
Philosophical Orientation
➢ Refers to both a philosophy and a group of
research methods congruent with the
philosophy that guides the study of
experiences or phenomena.
Phenomenologists view the person as one
with the environment.
➢ Through a phenomenological study, the
researcher collects data from people who
have had the experience and seeks to create a
composite of the essence of the experience.
Husserl’s Focus
➢ Husserl’s focus was on the phenomenon
itself. The research aims to “capture
experience in its essence without interpreting,
explaining, or theorizing”.
➢ Husserl’s philosophy supports descriptive
phenomenological research, whose purpose
is to describe experiences as they are lived or,
in phenomenological terms, to capture the
“lived experience” of study participants.
➢ According to Husserl, to describe lived
experiences, researchers must bracket or set
aside their own biases and preconceptions to
describe the phenomenon in a naive way.
NCM 111: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ASA || BSN 3G || MR. AMIT || MIDTERM
Heidegger’s Focus
➢ Heidegger believed that it was impossible to
set aside one’s preconceptions and
understand the world naively.
➢ He believed that phenomenological
researchers describe how participants have
interpreted or given meaning to their
experiences.
➢ The researchers then analyze the participants’
interpretation of the experience, looking for
hidden meaning.
➢ Interpretative phenomenological research,
consistent with Heidegger’s philosophy,
involves analyzing the data and presenting a
rich word picture of the phenomenon, as
interpreted by the researcher.
Intended Outcome
➢ The purpose of phenomenological research is
to provide a thorough description of a lived
experience. Some researchers write a
detailed, rich description or an exemplar of its
existence. Sometimes, the participants will
have widely varying perspectives on the
phenomena, and the researcher may develop
two or more detailed descriptions of the lived
experience.
Grounded Theory Approach
➢ Is an inductive technique that emerged from
the discipline of sociology. The term
grounded means the theory developed from
the research; in other words, the theory is
grounded in the real world based on data
provided by participants. Most scholars base
the grounded theory methodology on
symbolic interaction theory.
➢ The grounded theory researcher seeks to
understand the interaction between self and
group from perspective of those involved
and, from that understanding, develop a
theory of the interaction or social processes.
Intended Outcome
➢ Fully developed grounded theory studies
result in theoretical frameworks with
relational statements between concepts.
Some grounded theorists provide a diagram
displaying the interactions among the social
processes that were identified. Others
describe the concepts and relationships
through a narrative description.
Ethnographic Research
➢ Ethnographic research was developed by
anthropologists as a method to study how
cultures develop and are maintained over
time.
➢ Through immersion in the culture,
anthropologists study a group of people who
share a culture and their origins, past ways of
living, and ways of surviving through time.
➢ The term ethnography can also be applied to
the product of the investigation, the written
description of the study of the culture.
➢ Early ethnography researchers studied
primitive, foreign or remote cultures. Such
studies enabled the researcher, who spent 1
year or longer in another culture to acquire
new perspectives about a specific people,
including their ways of living, believing, and
adapting to changing environmental
circumstances.
➢ According to Grove &Gray (2018), the two
approaches of Ethnographic Research are: -
The emic approach from inside the culture is
the typical goal of ethnography but may be
alternated with the etic approach. The etic
approach is to view the culture as a naïve
outsider and analyze its elements as a
researcher.
Material and Non-Material Culture
➢ The philosophical perspective of
ethnographic research is based in
anthropology and recognizes that culture is
material and nonmaterial. Material culture
consists of all created or constructed aspects
of culture, such as buildings used for cultural
events, symbols of the culture, family
traditions, networks of social relations, and
the beliefs reflected in social and political
institutions.
➢ Symbolic meaning, social customs, and
beliefs -components of the nonmaterial
culture -may be apparent in a different culture
only over time, but are essential elements of
cultures.
➢ Anthropologists and nurse ethnographers
seek to discover the multiple parts of a culture
and determine how these parts are
interrelated.
Ethnonursing Research
➢ "Focuses mainly on observing and
documenting interactions with people [and]
how these daily life conditions and patterns
are influencing human care, health, and
nursing care practices".
➢ Through immersion, the ethnographic
researcher becomes increasingly accepted
into the culture. Although ethnographic
researchers must be actively involved in the
NCM 111: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ASA || BSN 3G || MR. AMIT || MIDTERM
culture they are studying, they must avoid
"going native," which would interfere with
data collection and analysis. In going native,
the researcher becomes a part of the culture
and loses her or his ability to observe clearly.
Intended Outcome
➢ The ethnographer prepares a written report
based on the analysis of the culture.
➢ Traditional ethnographies are often book -
length and exceed what can be published in a
professional journal.
➢ Focused ethnographies are more likely to be
published in a nursing journal.
➢ Similar to focused ethnography in that the
study has a narrower focus, nurses have used
critical ethnography, a method that focuses on
the socioecological and political factors
within a culture.
Exploratory - Descriptive Research
➢ Some reports of qualitative studies do not
include mention of a specific design or
approach, such as phenomenology or
grounded theory. The researchers may have
described their studies as being naturalistic
inquiry, descriptive, or just qualitative.
➢ For example, Fallatah and Edge (2015)
conducted a descriptive qualitative study to
"to describe the experience of family
members who provide social support to their
relative with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and
explore the forms of support that they
require" (p. 180).
➢ Researchers design exploratory - descriptive
qualitative studies to obtain information
needed to develop a program or intervention
for a specific group of patients. Usually, the
researchers are exploring a new topic or
describing a situation, so we have chosen to
label these studies as exploratory -descriptive
qualitative research.
➢ Exploratory-descriptive qualitative studies
are developed to provide information and
insight into clinical or practice problems.
➢ Qualitative studies are often developed to
address problems in practice when a fresh
approach is needed, especially problems that
require the patient's or family's perspectives
to be appropriately addressed.
➢ The philosophical orientation of exploratory
- descriptive qualitative research may vary,
depending on the purpose of the study, but
often the researcher has a pragmatic
orientation.
Intended Outcome
➢ A well-designed, exploratory-descriptive
qualitative study answers the research
question.
➢ The purpose of the study is achieved, and the
researchers have the information that they
need to address the situation or patient
concern that was the focus of the study.
➢ The findings of the study are applied to the
practice problem that instigated the inquiry.
METHODS OF SAMPLING AND
RECRUITMENT
Selection of Participants
➢ Individuals in qualitative studies are referred
to as participants because the researcher and
participants carry out the study
cooperatively. Sampling in qualitative
research is purposeful. The researcher
recruits participants because of their
particular knowledge, experience, or views
related to the study.
Researcher - Participant Relationship
➢ The nature of the researcher -participant
relationship has an impact on the collection
and interpretation of data. The researcher
creates a respectful relationship with each
participant, which includes being honest and
open about the purpose and methods of the
study. The researcher's aims and means of
achieving the aims need to be negotiated with
the participants and honor their perspectives
and values.
(Abbas, 2023) identified different Sampling
Methods:
Convenience Sampling
➢ Participants are selected based on their
accessibility and willingness to participate
rather than their suitability for the research
question.
Purposive Sampling
➢ In purposive sampling, researchers
intentionally select participants with specific
characteristics or unique experiences related
to the research question.
Snowball Sampling
➢ The technique involves identifying a few
initial participants who meet the eligibility
criteria and asking them to refer others they
know who also fit the requirements.
Theoretical Sampling
➢ Theoretical sampling chooses participants
based on their potential to contribute to the
emerging themes and concepts in the data
DATA COLLECTION
NCM 111: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ASA || BSN 3G || MR. AMIT || MIDTERM
Interviews
➢ According to Librarians (2022), interviews
are the most commonly used qualitative data
gathering technique and are used with
grounded theory, focus groups, and case
studies. Interviews are purposive
conversations between the researcher and the
interviewee, either alone or as part of a group.
Interviews can be face to face, via
telecommunications (Skype, Facetime, or
phone), or via email (internet or email
interview). The length of an interview varies.
They may be anywhere from thirty minutes to
several hours in length, depending on your
research approach
➢ George (2022) identified three types of
interviews, often differentiated by their level
of structure.
1. Structured interviews have
predetermined questions asked in a
predetermined order.
2. Unstructured interviews are more free -
flowing.
3. Semi -structured interviews fall in
between.
Focus Groups
➢ A focus group is a research technique used to
collect data through group interaction. The
group comprises a small number of carefully
selected people who discuss a given topic.
Focus groups are used to identify and explore
how people think and behave, and they throw
light on why, what and how questions.
Observation
➢ Observation in qualitative research “is one of
the oldest and most fundamental research
methods approaches. This approach involves
collecting data using one’s senses, especially
looking and listening in a systematic and
meaningful way”. The subjective nature of
qualitative observation acknowledges that the
researcher’s interpretations and biases shape
the data collection and analysis process.
Strengths:
➢ Allows for insight into contexts,
relationships, and behaviors.
➢ Can provide information previously
unknown to researchers that are
crucial for project design, data
collection, and interpretation of other
data.
Limitations:
➢ Not suited to all research inquiries
since not all phenomena can be
observed.
➢ Time -consuming.
➢ Documentation relies on memory,
personal discipline, and diligence of
researchers.
➢ Requires conscious effort at
objectivity because method is
inherently subjective. Critics
maintain that different observers will
make different observations of the
same phenomena so that no single
account can be held up as the source
of truth.
Examination of Documents and Media
➢ Document analysis is a systematic procedure
for reviewing or evaluating documents —
both printed and electronic (computer -based
and Internet -transmitted) material. Like
other analytical methods in qualitative
research, document analysis requires that
data be examined and interpreted in order to
elicit meaning, gain understanding, and
develop empirical knowledge. Textual Data
Refers to all empirical materials that exist in
textual form, be they produced through
writing or through transcription from speech.
1. Clinical notes in electronic health records
2. Policy Manuals
3. Annual Reports of an Organization
4. Newspaper Articles
5. Written Narratives
Media
The use of technologies that document events.
1. Photographs
2. Recordings
3. Photovoice
DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS
Data Organization
➢ Qualitative data analysis occurs concurrently
with data collection and requires planning
because qualitative studies generate a large
amount of data.
➢ When qualitative researchers prepare to
conduct a study, their plan includes multiple
locations where data will be stored.
➢ Frequently, one of the locations is an online
service or electronic network.
➢ The amount of data may be copious because
a 1-hour interview may result in electronic
(computer) files for the transcript, field notes,
journaling related to codes or analysis, and a
demographic form.
NCM 111: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ASA || BSN 3G || MR. AMIT || MIDTERM
➢ Experienced researchers develop a standard
way to name files before data collection
begins
Transcribing Interviews
➢ The most commonly used textual data in
qualitative studies are transcripts of recorded
interviews and focus groups.
➢ Transcription is at the heart of the qualitative
research process, because a "verbatim
transcript captures participants' own words,
language, and expressions" and allows the
researcher to "decode behavior, processes,
and cultural meanings attached to people's
perspectives"
➢ Transcripts from such recordings can result in
copious data for analysis. In a study report,
researchers should describe how data were
recorded during the interview, focus group, or
observations, and the strategies that were
used to ensure the accuracy of the
transcriptions.
Codes and Coding
➢ Coding is the process of reading the data,
breaking text down into subparts, and giving
a label to that part of the text.
➢ These labels provide a way for the researcher
to begin to identify patterns in the data
because sections of text that were coded in
the same way can be compared for
similarities and differences.
➢ A code is a symbol or abbreviation used to
classify words or phrases in the data. Codes
may be handwritten on a printed transcript. In
a word -processing program or CAQDAS,
you code by highlighting a section of text and
making a comment in the margin or side - bar.
Codes may result in themes, processes, or
examples of the phenomenon being studied.
✓ According to Bowen (2009), the advantages
and limitations of Document Analysis are:
Advantages:
Efficient method:
➢ Document analysis is less time consuming
and therefore more efficient than other
research methods. It requires data selection,
instead of data collection.
Availability:
➢ Many documents are in the public domain,
especially since the advent of the Internet,
and are obtainable without the authors’
permission.
Cost-effectiveness:
➢ Document analysis is less costly than other
research methods and is often the method of
choice when the collection of new data is not
feasible. Lack of obtrusiveness and
reactivity: Documents are “unobtrusive” and
“non -reactive” —that is, they are unaffected
by the research process.
Stability:
➢ As a corollary to being non -reactive,
documents are stable. Exactness: The
inclusion of exact names, references, and
details of events makes documents
advantageous in the research process.
Coverage:
➢ Documents provide broad coverage; they
cover a long span of time, many events, and
many settings.
Limitations:
Insufficient detail:
➢ Documents are produced for some purpose
other than research; they are created
independent of a research agenda.
Irretrievability:
➢ Documentation is sometimes not retrievable,
or retrievability is difficult.
Biased selectivity:
➢ An incomplete collection of documents
suggests “biased selectivity”.
✓ According to Lucas (2017), the phases of
Data Analysis are:
Structural Coding
➢ The first step of qualitative analysis is
structural or open coding. Codes and
subsequent sets are created in a separate file
from data. Structural codes are associated
with responses to specific interview
questions or general analytic themes of your
research.
Selective Coding
➢ In the next phase, selective coding,
hypotheses related codes are created for
independent variable domains, dependent
variable domains and controlled lines of
analysis.
Axial Coding
➢ Axial coding, the third phase of qualitative
analysis, specifies dimensions of selective
NCM 111: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ASA || BSN 3G || MR. AMIT || MIDTERM
codes. These sub-codes assign properties
based on observed response patterns.
Hypothesis Testing
➢ Finally, a search function is performed across
all data files of fully coded text to test
hypothesized relationships.
RIGOR IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
➢ Scientific rigor is valued because the findings
of rigorous studies are seen as being more
credible and of greater worth. Studies are
critically appraised as a means of judging
rigor.
➢ Rigor is defined differently for qualitative
research because the desired outcome is
different from the desired out- come for
quantitative research.
➢ Rigor is assessed in relation to the detail built
into the design of the qualitative study,
carefulness of data collection, and
thoroughness of analysis When the
"purposes, questions, and methods of
research are interconnected and interrelated,"
and the researcher describes the study as a
"cohesive whole," the study has
methodological congruence.
➢ A thorough understanding of the research
study is especially needed in order to
determine the strengths and weaknesses of
the methodology, to evaluate the quality or
strength of the study’s evidence, and to
identify the appropriateness for use in the
reader’s practice. This understanding is
achieved by critically appraising the research
publication.
CONCEPTS OF CREDIBILITY,
CONFIRMABILITY,
TRANSFERABILITY AND
DEPENDABILITY IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
The study by Dr. Adu (2023) involves in-depth
interviews with healthcare providers to
understand their experiences of burnout
1. Credibility – refers to the trustworthiness and
believability of the research findings
• Researchers ensured credibility by
establishing rapport with the
participants and conducting member
checks.
2. Confirmability – ensures that the findings are
grounded in the data and not influenced by
the researcher’s biases.
• To confirm the findings, multiple
researchers analyzed the data
independently and reached a
consensus.
3. Transferability – examines the extent to
which the findings can be applied to other
contents or population.
• The study’s findings were shared
with other healthcare settings to
assess their transferability.
4. Dependability – focuses on the consistency
and stability of the research process and
findings.
• To ensure dependability, the research
process was documented thoroughly,
allowing for replication and
verification.
➢ By applying these concepts, the study
provides valuable insights into the experience
of burnout among healthcare providers.
✓ In addition to credibility, some of the
effective strategies are Abbas (2023):
Triangulation
➢ Triangulation is a powerful and effective
strategy that significantly enhances the
credibility of qualitative research.
➢ This technique involves using multiple
sources or methods to collect and analyze
data, thereby increasing the rigor and
trustworthiness of the research findings.
➢ By combining different sources of
information, such as interviews,
observations, and focus groups, you can
cross-check your results and ensure that your
findings are consistent and reliable.
Peer Debriefing
➢ Peer debriefing involves enlisting the help of
other researchers, who are experts in the field,
to review and provide feedback on the
research process and findings.
➢ This process of critical evaluation helps to
strengthen the research by identifying any
weaknesses, biases, or limitations that may
exist.
Saturation
➢ Is a crucial strategy in qualitative research to
establish that the data collected is thorough
and complete. In this strategy, you continue
to collect data until you reach a point where
no new information or insights are being
revealed, indicating that you have reached
saturation.