Lesson 7: CHALLENGES TO SPANISH AUTHORITY

Early resistances in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao The early uprisings were from Luzon. These were
attempts to regain lost freedom and authority over their kingdom and territory. Manila was probably the
earliest to stage an uprising. Lakan Dula was friendly with Legazpi and his men and he helped Martin
de Goiti in the conquest of Central Luzon provinces. As repayment, Legazpi exempted him and his
descendants from the payment of tribute and polo y servicio. Gov. Gen. Guido de Lavezares lifted the
exemption. Lakan Dula resented this. In the attack of Limahong on Manila, Lakan Dula revolted against
the Spaniards and they retreated to Navotas. Juan de Salcedo, grandson of Legazpi and Father Geronimo
Marin persuaded Lakan Dula to lay down arms in exchange of his and his descendants’ exemption from
tribute and polo y servicio. Lakan Dula believed them and ordered his men to return to their homes in
peace. They were even given gifts of silk and gold.

The Tondo Conspiracy

A group of Filipinos in Tondo formed a secret society whose purpose was to regain their freedom. Magat
Salamat, Agustin de Legazpi, Juan Banal, Pedro Balingit and many others plotted to have a Christian
Japanese ally bring Japanese weapons and soldiers to the Philippines to drive away the Spaniards to
make Agustin de Legazpi King of the Philippines. This may be a good plan but it was aborted because
of spies who reported it to Spanish authorities. Leaders were arrested and executed while those
implicated were banished to Mexico.

The Revolt of Magalat

Magalat led natives of Cagayan against the Spaniards. Spanish soldiers were sent but the Ilocanos fought
bravely. Spaniards hired a Filipino assassin to murder Magalat. The plan succeeded. Cagayan became
quiet.

Ladia’s Conspiracy
Pedro Ladia, claiming to be a descendant of Lakan Dula, instigated a revolt in 1643 against the Spaniards
of Malolos, Bulacan. He wanted to be the King of the Tagalogs. The friar curate of Malolos learned of
the plan and dissuaded the town people from believing Ladia. He urged them to remain faithful to the
Catholic Church and the King of Spain. He also notified the authorities of Ladia’s activities. Ladia was
arrested, sent to Manila where he was executed.

The Revolt of Maniago (1660)

Francisco Maniago, leader of the Kapampangans, declared war against the Spaniards. He sent an
emissary to the governor general in order to make peace and make the following demands:

1. Governor general to pardon all those who participated in the revolt

2. Kapampangans to receive ₱200,000 as payments for rice which the Spaniards seized from them; ₱14,000
as down payment and remainder to be paid in installment; and
3. Kapampangans to continue to cut timber as required by forced labor but would be given sufficient time.
The governor general acceded and Maniago laid down his arms. It was considered a success in the sense
that Maniago was able to air his people’s grievances and get what they wanted.

The Revolt of Malong

In 1660, Andres Malong, a native of Binalatongan, led the people of Lingayen against the Spaniards for
their maltreatment with regard to polo y servicio. Malong was so successful that he proclaimed himself
King of Pangasinan. He appointed officials under him and urged people of surrounding provinces to take
up arms against Spaniards. He sent soldiers to Ilocos, Cagayan and Pampanga thus weakening his
position. He was pursued, defeated, captured and executed. In 1762, Juan dela Cruz Palaris, led the
people of Binalatongan, Dagupan, Calasiao, Santa Barbara, Mangaldan, San Jacinto, Malasiki, and
Paniqui over the imposition of tribute. This lasted for a year and came to be known as the Palaris Revolt.

Revolt of Bancao (1622)

Bancao was befriended by Legazpi, became a Catholic and served a loyal subject of the Spanish King.
Later, he returned to the religion of his forefathers. He convinced a lot of natives to go back to their
original faith. The natives stopped going to church. The friar curate hated Bancao for this and sought the
help of the governor of Cebu. This led Bancao to incite his people to rise in arms. Hundreds of Filipino
soldiers under Spanish officers defeated Bancao, who died fighting.

The Revolt of Sumuroy

The people of Palapag, Samar gathered under Agustin Sumuroy to revolt against leaving their homes
and being separated from their families. The friar curate of Palapag was killed and the revolt spread to
Mindanao, Camarines and Albay. Sumuroy fought bravely against the forces sent by the governor
general. He chose the mountains as a natural fortress and withstood the enemy attacks. In 1650, a strong
army contingent was sent. He was defeated, captured and executed. Tapar led uprisings in Oton, Panay.
Dagohoy, who just like Tapar, wanted to return to the religion of their ancestors. Dagohoy’s rebellion
proved to be one of the longest rebellions in our history lasting from 17441829. He had his own
government in the mountains with some 20,000 followers obeying his orders and practicing their own
faith.

More Rebellions in Luzon

The succeeding rebellions were clearly economic in nature. Diego and Gabriela Silang led a widespread
revolt in Ilocos Sur on the issue of the right to engage in the galleon trade by Indios. Likewise, in 1807,
the Basi revolt in Ilocos Norte erupted over the issue of government monopoly on the production, pricing,
and sale of basi, a favourite local wine among the Ilocanos.
 Resistance in the Interior and Mountainous Parts
In the Cordillera region, a maingel (warrior-leader and expert in headhunting) leads the tribal
communities. Trade and commerce with the lowlanders existed but on a limited basis among the locals.
Attempts at expeditions failed due to the fierce resistance by the taong bundok. Lumads – another term
for those who remained nonChristian and non-Muslim long after the colonization.

The Moro Wars in the South

The colonization and Christianization of the Muslim (called Moros by the Spaniards) was the longest,
bloodiest and also the most frustrating for the Spaniards. They remained unconquered and unconverted
until the end of Spanish rule. The first encounter took place in Cebu between Martin de Goiti and a
group of Bornean traders in 1569. Manila in 1571-1572 could hardly be called a Muslim kingdom. The
connection between Islamized Brunei and Manila was more by ties in marriage and economic or
commercial transaction rather than religious. Thus, no sultanate ever evolved in Manila or in the Visayas.
Islam penetrated the South early and spread throughout Mindanao.
It was logical therefore, that ties between Brunei and the sultanates would continue despite the Spanish
conquest of Manila. Troops had to be sent three times to Borneo to stop their trading activities and
military aid to Manila. However, succeeding military expeditions by the Spaniards at Sulu and
Maguindanao failed. Sultan Kudarat united Maguindanao and Sulu as a confederacy forcing the
Spaniards to finally withdraw from the place and instead focus on Luzon. Muslims even carried out raids
in the Visayas and Luzon for slaves or bihag they needed. After Sultan Kudarat’s death in 1671, these
raiding activities slackened. The two sultanates again engaged each other in battles over the issue of
trade and supremacy in the area. By 1716 to 1747, Spain came back in steamboats equipped with more
powerful cannons thus allowing them to build forts in Iligan and Cagayan de Oro. They also brought
Jesuits for mission work in Mindanao.
Muslims entered into a treaty with Gov. Gen. Urbiztondo in 1851. They made some compromises in the
treaty but with no actual surrender of territory within the realm of the sultanate. They continued to resist
the Spaniards. The Moros may have been forced to give up part of Palawan and Sabah on a lease basis
during the brief British occupation of the Philippines but until the end of Spanish rule in 1898, they
remained sovereign. How were the Muslims able to do this?
1. The Spanish force lacked the number and military capacity to break through the Moro kuta (defense
forts);
2. Mindanao is far from Manila, the center of power and governance;
3. Spaniards were more preoccupied in several fronts with wars or resistances from other places; and
4. All followers of Islam united against the Spaniards.
Reasons for the General Failure of the Revolts
(1) The revolts lacked coordination.
(2) (2) The Filipinos had no leader of great ability.
(3) (3) The Filipino rebels had insufficient arms.
(4) (4) There was no feeling of unity and nationalism among Filipinos.
(5) (5) Many Filipinos were more loyal to the Spaniards especially the friars than to their countrymen.

Chinese Presence
Among the early foreign contacts of the ancient Filipinos, the Chinese appeared to be the most constant
and steady visitors. They interacted with the Filipinos, adapted to the local ways, and eventually married
native women.

To the Spaniards, the Chinese were Sangleys (traders who came and went with no intention of conquest
and colonization). They started to get alarmed by the Chinese presence in 1574, when the famous
Chinese commander Limahong came with his ships and bombarded Intramuros and Malate. Martin de
Goiti died. Limahong was forced to leave and headed to Lingayen, Pangasinan because of the combined
forces of Lakan Dula and the Spaniards. He was pursued by Spanish Filipino forces but they managed
to escape.
Despite the Chinese threat on the Spaniards, the Chinese merchants remained inside Intramuros because
their wares and goods like chocolates, candles, shoes, and bread as well as services like carpentry were
in great demand. The Sangleys rapidly grew in number
so they were forced to stay on a limited space called parian. In a sense, this is the precursor of the
country’s Chinatown. The government also passed laws allowing the Chinese to live in the provinces to
spread them out.
All sorts of taxes were imposed on the Chinese which became abusive and oppressive. These provoke
them to rebel. Chinese uprisings erupted in Tondo and Quiapo but these were easily quelled by the
SpanishFilipino force. To scare the Chinese, their leader Eng Kang was beheaded and his head was put
on public display. This only caused the revolts to spread from Manila to Makati, Taytay, Antipolo and
the provinces. Again, SpanishFilipino force stopped these rebellions at the cost of 23,000 Chinese lives
and great loss to their properties and businesses.
Several decrees were passed for their expulsion but these too failed because the Chinese had controlled
the source of livelihood and even the daily needs of both Spaniards and Filipinos. Their presence became
a necessity for everyone’s comfort and convenience. Thus, from 150 Chinese living around Manila upon
the arrival of Legazpi in 1571, the Chinese reached 100,000 during the Revolution of 1896.
Lesson 9: THE BEGINNINGS OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM

Certain events and developments in the 1800s to 1900s led to a further awakening of the people’s
consciousness as a nation with common grievances against Spanish colonial rule. These events
included (1) the British invasion in the colony that exposed Spain’s vulnerability; (2) the Silang
and Palaris revolts that demonstrated the capability of the regions to unite and expel the Spaniards
from their territory; (3) the united Basi revolt in the north against Governor-General Basco’s
tobacco and wine monopolies; (4) the opening of foreign ports and the Suez Canal that allowed
entry of advanced technology and liberal ideas from the Americas and Europe; and (5) the
secularization movement led by Indio and mestizo secular priests to fight for the right to administer
parishes that were held by Spanish regular priests.

BRITISH INVASION AND OCCUPATION

In 1761, Spain and France entered into a treaty of alliance against England’s ambition for
supremacy. During the Seven Years’ War in Europe between France and England, Spain was
naturally drawn into the conflict. The British sent an expedition from India, which at that time was
a colony of England, to the Philippines to occupy and seize it from Spain. Archbishop Manuel
Rojo was acting governor-general when the British, with 6,000 men including Sepoys (Indian
soldiers) from Bombay, bombarded Intramuros, Malate, Ermita, and Bagumbayan (now Luneta)
on September 22, 1762. Unprepared from such a decisive attack, the Spaniards with their Filipino
soldiers tried desperately to defend Intramuros, particularly the walls of San Diego and San
Andres. Their cannons were no match to the superior cannons and weapons of the English.
Archbishop Rojo surrendered Manila and Cavite while Simon Anda, a magistrate of the Audiencia,
escaped to Pampanga to continue the resistance. The British took over the reins of the government
and guaranteed the safety of Spanish officials, the community, and property.

THE SILANG AND PALARIS REVOLTS

The Spanish defeat in the hands of the British opened the eyes of the Filipinos to the impermanence
of Spanish rule in the country and to the fact that it could be challenged by force of arms. In the
same year, 1762, Diego Silang, an Ilocano from Ilocos province rose in revolt. He demanded the
expulsion of Spaniards and Spanish mestizos from Ilocos. He was successful at first and was able
to expel the Spanish provincial governor and many Spaniards from Vigan. He then declared
himself ―King of the Ilocos.‖ The British, impressed by Silang’s victories, tried to win him over
to their side by sending him gifts and promising to make him governor of the province if he
conspired with the British against the Spaniards. Silang accepted their offer but the alliance ended
when he was killed by an assassin. His wife, Gabriela, took over the leadership and carried on the
fight courageously but she was later captured and hanged, along with 100 followers.
That same year, 1762, Juan de la Cruz Palaris led a widespread revolt in Pangasinan, demanding
for the end to the payment of tributes and countless abuses by the Spanish officials. The revolt,
which started in Binalatongan, spread to the towns of
Bayambang, Paniqui (then a part of Pangasinan), Dagupan, Calasiao, Santa Barbara, Mangaldan,
San Jacinto, and Malasiki. Palaris, having been inspired by the recent success of the British
invasion of Manila, succeeded in inciting the people to revolt. He ignored the friar-curates who
tried to pacify him. For more than a year, Palaris dominated the province. Upon the conclusion of
the war with France and Spain, the British left in 1764. Spain, now rid of Gabriela Silang, sent
3,000 Ilocano troops to Pangasinan to quell the revolt. Palaris was defeated and died in battle.

BASI REVOLT

These widespread revolts alarmed the Spanish authorities. Not long after, economic reforms were
introduced. In 1807, some 10,000 rebels in Ilocos revolted against the government monopoly of a
locallyproduced wine from sugarcane called basi. The Basi revolt, as it was called was among the
bloodiest uprisings ever recorded during this time.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE AND THE OPENING OF PORTS

Laissez-faire or ―let-alone policy‖ in commercial and trading venture by the Europeans soon
caught the interest of the Spanish king. This policy gave full freedom to private individuals and
firms to engage in economic activities without much interference from the government. This also
allowed for the entry of foreign firms into the country. The King opened Manila to foreign traders.
With the coming of foreign products and businessmen, the economic isolation of the Philippines
was ended.

THE RISE OF THE FILIPINO MIDDLE CLASS

It was inevitable that with material progress, social changes would follow. Somehow, the fruits of
the developments in trade and commerce benefitted the mestizos, particularly the Spanish and
Chinese mestizos. The inquilinos or the tenants in the haciendas and their families began to
accumulate wealth. Together, they constituted the middle class – a group below the aristocratic
Spanish officials, families and religious orders but higher or above the masses, the Indios.
As members of the middle class, they were able to send their children to colleges and universities
in Manila and even to Europe. The ilustrados (wealthy and highly-educated Filipinos) composed
the middle class. The term Filipino, needs to be clarified at this stage. The term actually applied
only to insulares (Spaniards born in the Philippines). Españoles or peninsulares are the Spaniards
born in Spain but working and residing in the country. The rest were either mestizos or Indios.
Belonging to the middle class also meant changing their former lifestyle, clothing, houses, forms
of amusement and cultural activities to those that were similar or closer to what Spaniards and
Europeans did and maintained, which were comfortable and expensive. By contrast, the Indios
lived in poverty and ignorance, and suffered more discrimination.

Two events foreshadowed the developing consciousness of the masses as a different race and class
in society.
1. Tagalog publication of Florante at Laura in 1838 by Francisco Baltazar or Balagtas. There
was reference for the first time to the country as oppressed and in need of freedom as expressed in
the following lines: Sa loob at labas ng bayan kong sawi Kaliluha’s siyang nangyayaring hari
Kagalinga’t bait ay nalulugami Ininis sa hukay ng dusa’t pighati.
2. 2. Revolt of Apolinario dela Cruz or Hermano Pule (King of the Tagalogs) in Tayabas in
1841. He started the Confradia whose aim was to revive the ancient catalonan teachings within the
Catholic Church. Only Indios were admitted to the confraternity whose membership spread fast to
nearby Laguna province. The government lost no time in suppressing their activities. Pule and his
followers won some of the encounters. However, with Filipino soldiers as reinforcements coming
from Manila, the rebels were overwhelmed. Pule was captured and shot. His body was quartered.
His head was hung in front of his house in Lucban and the legs and arms were put in cages and
hung in the town of Tayabas (Quezon).

THE EDUCATION OF SOME FILIPINOS

The Spaniards founded many colleges for men and women exclusively for the
Spaniards and the Spanish mestizos. These included San Juan de Letran, San Jose, San
Felipe and others. Schools for women included College of Santa Potenciana, Santa Isabel College,
and the Santa Rosa College. It was not until the second half of the 19th century that these colleges,
including the University of Santo Tomas, admitted natives. As a result, many well-to-do Filipinos
were able to send their children to these schools. A good number of these children became lawyers,
physicians, pharmacists, teachers, land surveyors, and merchants. They later on asked for reforms
in the Spanish administration in the Philippines. As the Spaniards feared, it was the ilustrados who
asked for embarrassing questions about Spanish misdeeds, incompetence, inefficiency, greed and
corruption. Most dangerously, they pushed the idea of the Indios with equal rights as the Spaniards
in the country.

THE OPENING OF THE SUEZ CANAL

The Suez Canal was opened in 1869. This resulted in the shorter route and travel time between
Spain and the Philippines. As a result, many Spaniards with progressive ideas migrated to the
Philippines. Among them were exiled creoles (criollo; Spaniard born in Mexico or any part of the
Americas during the colonial period) whose subversive ideas and activities advocated freedom and
liberties. Later on, they influenced some educated Filipinos and soon both were asking the
government to introduce changes in the administration of the colony. Another effect of the shorter
distance was the influx of progressive books and periodicals to the country. Filipino intellectuals
learned Locke’s theory of revolution, and Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory. They learned that
people could overthrow a government that is not working for their good of the governed (Locke’s
Theory of Revolution).
Likewise, they realized that a government is an agreement between the ruler and the ruled to
govern for the welfare of the ruled (Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory). Other liberal ideas that
Filipinos learned included the following: equality before the law, freedom of speech, freedom of
religion, freedom of assembly, protection of human rights, representation in the legislature, and
sovereignty of people. As a result, many Filipino intellectuals started to wonder at the deplorable
conditions of the country. They began discussing potential issues and started clamoring for reforms
in the government.
LIBERALISM IN THE PHILIPPINES

In 1868, a revolution took place in Spain. Revolutionists were against the autocratic reign of Queen
Isabel II. When they won, Queen Isabel was forced to flee to France and the Republic of Spain
was born.
The fall of Queen Isabella and the triumph of liberalism in Spain in 1868 resulted in the
appointment of Carlos Maria Dela Torre as governor-general in 1869. With his assumption into
office as the chief executive of the country, Dela Torre put into practice the liberal principles of
the revolutionists in Spain. He lived simply and avoided luxury by dismissing the halberdiers
(guards) of his palace. He walked the streets of Manila in civilian clothes. This was something new
at that time, because in the past, governors wore their military uniforms, complete with medals
and ribbons on most occasions. To express satisfaction and joy for the leadership of Dela Torre,
some Filipinos serenaded him on the night of July 12, 1869 (Liberty Serenade of 1869). This
development was something the friars then did not like. For the first time, the Filipinos were
allowed to talk about freedom and democracy openly.
During his term of office, freedom of speech and of the press as guaranteed by the Spanish
Constitution was recognized. He abolished the censorship of the press, abolished flogging as a
punishment, and he solved the agrarian unrest in Cavite. He was considered to be the best governor
general the Philippines ever had. As a consequence of his liberal policy, Father Burgos and other
Filipino clergy were motivated to work for the Filipinization of parishes throughout the country.

THE RETURN OF AUTOCRACY

With the restoration of the Spanish monarchy in 1870 and the return of conservatism in Spain,
Dela Torre was removed from office and replaced by the reactionary (opposed to progress or
reform) Rafael de Izquierdo, who boasted that he came to the Philippines with a cross in one hand
and a sword in the other. This boast was not an empty promise. Immediately, he reversed the
reforms of Dela Torre. The friars and the monarchists among the Spaniards became his loyal
supporters.

THE SECULARIZATION CONTROVERSY

Priesthood during the Spanish period was composed of two classes:

1. Regular priests – those who belonged to the religious orders (Augustinians, Dominicans,
Recollects, and the Franciscans).
2. 2. Secular priests – not members of any religious order.
Regulars have a mission to fulfil, i.e., to convert non-Christian people to Christianity. After
fulfilling this, they would leave and go to another area to make converts. In the Christianized areas,
churches or parishes were built which the seculars administered. In the Philippines, friars not only
made converts but they also occupied parishes. As such, they were called friar-curates. This is
because there were very few seculars during the 1st century of Spanish rule. Later on, when some
natives studied priesthood and became seculars, the friar-curates refused to vacate the parishes.
This refusal led to a controversy between the seculars and regulars. This started when the seculars
asked for their right to administer the parishes. At first, the Spanish archbishop and some governors
supported their demand and a few Filipino seculars became parish heads. Later, however, they
remained neutral. Early 19th century, the controversy became more heated when a decree was
passed denying the native clergy the right to administer the parishes occupied by the regulars
The government even gave the parishes run by Filipino seculars to Spanish regulars. This led to
the campaign called secularization. Later, it was called Filipinization because of its racial overtone.
The seculars felt that the position as parish head was being denied to them because they were not
Spaniards and thus considered to be inferior to the regulars. Initially, the leader of the
secularization was Father Pedro Pablo Pelaez, a Spanish mestizo. After his death, he was
succeeded by another Spanish mestizo, Father Jose A. Burgos.

CAVITE MUTINY The relationship between regulars and seculars grew from bad to worse. The
regulars blamed the seculars by saying that the latter were not ready to administer parishes. This
caused greater enmity between them. At the height of the secularization controversy, the Cavite
mutiny occurred on January 20, 1872, involving a number of workers and some marine
detachment. This mutiny was caused by the revocation of the privilege of shipyard workers to be
exempted from forced labor and from paying tribute by Gov. Gen. de Izquierdo. The mutineers
included Indios, mestizos, and criollos. They were led by La Madrid. They killed some Spanish
soldiers and officers in the fort. An expedition to Cavite was sent to put down the rebellion. The
leaders and participants were arrested and later shot to death. The government, believing it to be a
rebellion ordered the arrest of Filipinos and mestizo who were allegedly behind it. Among those
arrested were Fathers Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez, Jacinto Zamora, Pedro Dandan, Toribio del
Pilar, Mariano Sevilla, Agustin Mendoza, Jose Guevara, and others.

THE EXECUTION OF GOMBURZA

The priests Gomez, Burgos and Zamora were jailed in Fort Santiago before they were tried for
rebellion. Priests, both regular and secular, were allowed to see them. During the trial, the
government failed to prove convincingly that the accused were really connected with the January
Cavite mutiny. The governor general promised to present documents to prove that the three priests
were guilty of rebellion which to many was actually a mutiny (open revolt against authority,
especially by servicemen against officers). But he never presented any document and to this day,
no document had been found to show that Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were, in any way,
connected with the mutiny. Nevertheless, they were sentenced to death by garrote.
On February 17, 1872, the three priests marched from Fort Santiago to Bagumbayan Field
(Luneta). It is said that Zamora lost his mind and silently accepted to be garroted. He, together
with Burgos and Gomez maintained their innocence until the end. While they were being executed
one by one – first, Zamora, then Gomez, and lastly Burgos, – the witnesses of the event took off
their hats and knelt to pray for the souls of the innocent priests. The Spaniards who were present,
thinking that the Filipinos were preparing to rise in revolt, fled towards the city. The importance
of the execution of the three priests rested on the fact that the Filipinos who witnessed the execution
began to think and feel as Filipinos, not as Ilocanos, Tagalogs, Visayans, Bicolanos, and others.
They suspected that because they belonged to a different race, the Spaniards, who had always felt
superior over the Filipinos, took them for beasts of burdern. From this day forward, they began to
feel the necessity for unity.
Rizal who was eleven years old that time, would later dedicate his second novel, El
Filibusterismo (The Rebel) to the memory of the three martyred priests. He wrote:

―The church, by refusing to degrade you, has placed in doubt the crime that has been imputed to
you; the Government, by surrounding your trials with mystery and shadows causes the belief that
there was some error, committed in fatal moments;
and all the Philippines, by worshipping your memory and calling you martyrs, in no
sense recognizes your culpability. In so far, therefore, as your complicity in the Cavite
Mutiny is not clearly proved, as you may or may not have been patriots, and as you may or may
not cherished sentiments for justice and for liberty, I have the right to
dedicate my work to you as victims of the evil which I undertake to combat…..‖ The execution of
Gomez, Burgos and Zamora may have halted the secularization movement but not its advocacy
for Filipinization of the parishes. The Spanish
government with its cruel measures, continued to frighten the Filipinos into submission.
Nevertheless, the seeds of Filipino nationalism had been planted on fertile ground.
Lesson 11: BONIFACIO AND THE KATIPUNAN

The failure of the reform movement led even a reformist like Marcelo H. Del Pilar to think of
revolution. ―Insurrection,‖ Del Pilar wrote in La Solidaridad, ―is the last remedy, especially
when the people have acquired the belief that the peaceful means to secure the remedies for evils
prove futile. Upon Rizal’s arrest and exile at Dapitan, an unknown member of the Liga, Andres
Bonifacio, saw the futility of continuing the campaign for reforms. He would teach the people to
depend on themselves for their salvation.

THE FOUNDING OF THE KATIPUNAN

After the news about the arrest of Rizal circulated, a small group of patriotic Filipinos met at the
house on Azcarraga Street, Manila (now Claro M. Recto Avenue), and decided to create a new
society. These men were Andres Bonifacio, Teodora Plata, Valentin Diaz, Ladislao Diwa, Deodato
Arellano, and one or two others. All of them belonged to the lower class of society.
They organized a society called Kataastaasan Kagalanggalang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng
Bayan (KKK or Katipunan) or Supreme and Venerable Association of the Sons of the People. The
founders of the Katipunan performed the blood compact ritual to show their patriotism and love
of things that were Filipino. It was to seal friendship or brotherhood (kapatiran). The members, at
first, agreed that they would recruit members through the method called triangle system. For
example, member Jose would recruit Pedro and Juan to become members. These new members
knew Jose but they did not know each other. This method was used to minimize the danger of
discovery by the Spanish authorities. Later, a new system of recruiting members similar to
masonry was adopted to speed up the process of enlisting members. It was also agreed that each
member would pay a membership fee and monthly dues.

THE AIMS AND STRUCTURE OF THE KATIPUNAN Bonifacio laid down three primary
objectives of the Katipunan:
1. Civil – principle of self-help and the defense of the weak and the poor;
2. 2. Political – separation of the Philippines from Spain: secure the independence of the
colony; and
3. 3. Moral – focused on the teaching of good manners, hygiene, and good moral character.
Katipuneros were urged to help sick comrades and their families. In case of death, the Society paid
the funeral expenses. Hence, there was damayan among its members.

The Katipunan Government Bonifacio

took note of La Liga Filipina’s structure and when he founded
the Katipunan, he borrowed the structure of the Liga. The Katipunan had three governing bodies:
1. Kataastaasang Sanggunian (Supreme Council) – highest; central government
2. 2. Sangguniang Bayan (Provincial Council) – provincial government
3. 3. Sangguniang Balangay (Popular Council) – municipal government There was a Judicial
Council, called Sangguniang Hukuman, which passed judgment on members who violated the
rules of the Society.

The Katipunan Assembly, on the other hand, was composed of the members of the
Supreme Council and the presidents of the Provincial and Popular Councils. There was also Secret
Chamber, composed of Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and Pio Valenzuela. The Chamber sentenced
members who exposed the secrets of the Katipunan. Usually, expulsion from the Society was the
punishment meted out to erring members who could not keep secrets.

The Katipunan Elections

The triangle method was slow and ineffective resulting to only about 100 new members by the end
of 1892. It was then agreed that all members should be allowed to get as many new members as
circumstances permitted. The membership increased in a few months that it was thought that the
set of officers would be elected. The elected officers of the first Supreme Council were the
following: Deodato Arellano – president or supremo
Andres Bonifacio – comptroller (title of a financial officer)
Ladislao Diwa – fiscal (legal official in the treasury)
Teodoro Plata – secretary Valentin Diaz – treasurer

As months passed, Bonifacio observed that Arellano, being a very busy man, was not very active
in the Society. Bonifacio, through an election moved to replace Arellano. The officers of the
second Supreme Council were as follows:
Roman Basa – supremo
Andres Bonifacio – fiscal
Jose Turiano Santiago – secretary
Vicente Molina – treasurer

The elected councilors were Briccio Brigido Pantas, Restituto Javier,

Teodoro Plata, Teodoro Gonzales, and Ladislao Diwa. Early in 1895, Bonifacio was not contented
with the performance of Basa as supremo of the Katipunan. Hence, he had himself elected to
replace Basa. He remained the Supremo of the Katipunan until the establishment of a revolutionary
government in Tejeros, Cavite.

Membership The following are the three kinds of Katipunan members together with their
passwords: First Grade: Katipon (member) – Anak ng
Bayan Second Grade: Kawal (soldier) – GomBurZa Third Grade: Bayani
(patriot) – Rizal
In order to recognize each other in the streets, a member, upon meeting another member, would
place the palm of his right hand on his breast, and as he passed the other member he would close
his hand and bring his index finger and his thumb together.
The Katipunan Codes Because the danger of discovery of the Society was always present,
Bonifacio invented a system of writing which would make it difficult for the Spaniards to read the
Katipunan letters or any written communication. The first secret code invented by Bonifacio was
the following:
Three more Katipunan alphabets were devised by Bonifacio, the last of which was made in Cavite
in March 1897. The changes in the codes of the Katipunan were necessitated by the discovery of
the previous codes by the Spaniards and, later, by people considered as enemies by the Katipunan.
The Katipunan Flags Aside from the secret codes, Bonifacio also wanted a flag to be used as a
symbol of their unity. He requested Benita Rodriguez to make a flag for the Katipunan. With the
help of his wife, Gregoria de Jesus, a flag was made. It is consisted of a rectangular piece of cloth
with three white letter K’s arrange horizontally in the middle. This was declared as the official flag
of the Katipunan. However, it was changed a few weeks after the revolution broke out in August
1896. The new official flag consisted of a red rectangular piece of cloth with a white sun and eight
white rays in the middle. Inside the circle representing the sun was the letter K in the ancient
Tagalong script. Bonifacio had his own personal flag. It consisted of a red rectangular piece of
cloth with a white sun with an indefinite number of white rays in the center. Below the sun were
the three K’s arrange horizontally.

THE WOMEN OF THE KATIPUNAN

Bonifacio wanted to involve the women of the Katipunan without putting it in danger of discovery.
He suggested that women be taken in as members of the Katipunan. To minimize the danger of
exposing the Society to women who could not be relied upon, Bonifacio decided that only the
wife, sister, daughter of a Katipunero, and a few selected women could be eligible for membership.
This strict requirement is to compel women members to keep the secrets of the Katipunan.
Aside from propagating the ideas and ideals of the Society, the Katipunera’s duty is to make the
police authorities believe that no Katipunan meeting was being held in a house. The women are
engaged in dancing and singing in full view of the people on the street while the male members
were holding a meeting in a room behind the sala. Among the prominent women members of the
Katipunan were:
Josefa Rizal (President)
Gregoria de Jesus (Vice President)
Marina Dizon (Secretary)
Angelica Lopez Rizal (Fiscal) – Rizal’s niece

THE KALAYAAN

Bonifacio and Jacinto believe that they could easily propagate their revolutionary ideas by having
a printing press. However, the organization has no money to purchase a printing machine.
Fortunately, two Visayan patriots from Kalibo, Capiz gave the money to purchase a printing press.
They were Candido Iban and Francisco del Castillo, who one thousand pesos in a lottery. The
printing press was purchased for four hundred pesos and transferred to Bonifacio’s house. Jacinto
purchased some templates to be used in printing the Katipunan newspaper. Other templates were
stolen from a Spanish printing press. Two experienced printers, Ulpiano Fernandez and Faustino
Duque, both Katipuneros, managed the press. Dr. Pio Valenzuela suggested the name of the
newspaper, Kalayaan. The newspaper, written in Tagalog, came out in the middle of March 1896.
Kalayaan contained articles written by Bonifacio, Jacinto, and Valenzulela. To mislead the
Spaniards, they put Yokohama as the place of publication and Marcelo H. Del Pilar as the editor.
Jacinto’s Pahayag (Manifesto) and Bonifacio’s poem, Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (Love of
Country) were published in the only issue of the Kalayaan.
They did not use their true names to prevent discovery. They used pen names: Jacinto – Pingkian,
Dimas-Ilaw Bonifacio – Agapito Bagumbayan Valenzuela – Madlang-Away
The Kalayaan easily influenced many Filipinos to be members of the Katipunan. In January 1896,
the total membership did not exceed 300 but after the distribution of the Kalayaan, membership
reached about 30,000. The Kalayaan had done its duty before it was destroyed by Fernandez and
Duque to prevent the Spanish authorities form confiscating it. The fiery pen, revolutionary spirit
and political will of the tandem BonifacioJacinto in the Kalayaan proved effective in unifying
people towards freedom and independence.

TWIN SOULS OF THE KATIPUNAN

Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto Bonifacio and Jacinto believed that it was time to change
strategy and tactics. The Katipunan aimed to make the Philippines a free country by force of arms.
Its founder, Andres Bonifacio, was born on November 30, 1863 in a small nipa hut on what is now
called Azcarraga Street near the present Manila Railroad station. His parents, Santiago Bonifaco
and Catalina de Castro, belonged to the lower middle class. Bonifacio’s parents died while he was
just in his teens. As such he had to support himself, his brothers Ciriaco, Procopio and Troadio,
and his sisters, Espiridiona and Maxima. He sold canes and paper fans in his early years. Because
of poverty, he was not able to finish the equivalent of grade four today. He worked as a messenger
for J.M. Fleming and Co., an English trading firm; and later, as an agent of the German trading
firm, Fressel and Co. At night, he read newspapers and books written in Spanish. He taught himself
to read and write in this language and in time, he became literate in Spanish. One of the books he
read was the original Spanish version of Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. He also
read books about the French Revolution of 1789. When Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896,
he felt sad because a great Filipino was executed and angry because of what they did to Rizal and
his cause to fight for justice and liberty.
Bonifacio was anti-friar and anti-Spanish. He hated all Spaniards. To him they were all greedy,
immoral, cruel and lazy. The Revolution of 1896 was, therefore, the Katipunan Revolution for it
was the Katipunan that sowed the seeds of national independence in the minds of the masses.
Bonifacio may be rightly regarded as a leading thinker of the Revolution of 1896. Bonifacio found
a twin soul in the Katipunan--- the young and intelligent Emilio Jacinto. Born in Tondo, Manila
on December 15, 1875, Jacinto also lived a hard life. His father died early which compelled his
mother to send him to his uncle’s house for support. He first studied at San Juan de Letran and
later transferred to University of Santo Tomas where he studied Law. As a young man of about
eighteen, Jacinto heard about the Katipunan and immediately joined it living his studies. Bonifacio
came to love this young man who was serious-minded, humble, intelligent, and industrious. Jacinto
also wrote in Tagalog except for one poem in Spanish, A Mi Patria (To My Country). He and
Bonifacio believed that the people, the masses, could only be reached only through their own
language, so they both wrote in Tagalog. It is for this reason that Bonifacio and Jacinto were able
to unite the people behind them.
Jacinto also wrote pieces as the Kartilla, Liwanag at Dilim, Pahayag, Sa Mga Kababayan, and
others. He served as an adviser to the Supremo. When the revolution broke out, he fought side by
side with Bonifacio. After the death of Bonifacio, Jacinto continued the fight. He was wounded in
a battle in Laguna and captured but he was released after he convinced the Spanish soldiers he was
a spy in their service when he showed them a military pass issued to a man he killed several months
ago. He went into hiding and he planned to continue his law studies at the Literary University of
the Philippines. This plan was discontinued when
he was assigned to lead the rebels in Laguna against the Americans. He established his
headquarters in the town of Majayjay, Laguna where he unfortunately, contracted malaria. He died
on April 6, 1899, at the young age of twenty-four.

THE TEACHINGS OF THE KATIPUNAN

To guide the Katipuneros in leading a highly moral life, Bonifacio prepared some sort of
Ten Commandments for the members. He called these ―commandments‖, Katungkulang
Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Duties of the Sons of the People).
These teachings may be described as a Decalogue.
(1) Love God with all of your heart.
(2) (2) Bear always in mind that the love of God is also love of Country, and this, too, is love
of one’s fellowmen.
(3) (3) Engrave in your heart that the true measure of honor and happiness is to die for the
freedom of your country.
(4) (4) All your good wishes will be crowned with success if you have serenity, constancy,
reason, and faith in your acts and endeavor.
(5) (5) Guard the mandates and aims of the K.K.K. as you guard your honor.
(6) It is the duty of all to defend, at the risk of their own lives and wealth, anyone who runs
great risk in the performance of his duty.
(7) Our responsibility to ourselves and the performance of our duties will be the example set
for our fellowmen to follow.
(8) Insofar as it is within your power, share your means with the poor and the unfortunate.
(9) Diligence in the work that gives sustenance to you is the true basis of love—love for your
own self, for your wife and children, and for your brothers and countrymen.
(10)Punish any scoundrel and traitor and praise all good work. Believe, likewise, that the aims of
the K.K.K. are God-given, for the will of the people is also the will of God.

*THE KARTILYA OF THE KATIPUNAN

Emilio Jacinto wrote the Kartilya which consisted of thirteen ―teachings.‖ It is the ―best known
of all Katipunan texts‖ and it is the ―only document set in print by the Katipunan prior to August
1896 that is known to be still extant(existing)‖. The Kartilya was printed as a small pamphlet that
was distributed to the members of the Katipunan. It was derived from the Spanish cartilla which
was the primer used for grade schools during Spanish period. Hence, it served as the primary
lessons of the members of the Katipunan.
Mga Aral nang Katipunan ng mga A.N.B.
1. Ang kabuhayang hindi ginugugol sa isang malaki at banal na kadahilanan ay kahoy na
walang lilim, kundi damong makamandag
2. 2. Ang gawang magaling na nagbubuhat sa pagpipita sa sarili, at hindi sa talagang nasang
gumawa ng kagalingan, ay di kabaitan.
3. 3. Ang tunay na kabanalan ay ang pagkakawang gawa, ang pagibig sa kapua at ang isukat
ang bawat kilos, gawa’t pangungusap sa talagang Katuiran.
4. 4. Maitim man at maputi ang kulay ng balat, lahat ng tao’y magkakapantay; mangyayaring
ang isa’y higtan sa dunong, sa yaman, sa ganda…; ngunit di mahihigtan sa pagkatao.
5. 5. Ang may mataas na kalooban inuuna ang puri sa pagpipita sa sarili; ang may hamak na
kalooban inuuna ang pagpipita sa sarili sa puri.
6. 6. Sa taong may hiya, salita’y panunumpa.
7. 7. Huag mong sasayangin ang panahun; ang yamang nawala’y magyayaring magbalik;
nguni’t panahong nagdaan na’y di na muli pang magdadaan. Value of time
8. 8. Ipagtanggol mo ang inaapi, at kabakahin ang umaapi.
9. Ang taong matalino’y ang may pagiingat sa bawat sasabihin, at matutong ipaglihim ang
dapat ipaglihim.
10. Sa daang matinik ng kabuhayan, lalaki ay siyang patnugot ng asawa’t mga anak; kung ang
umaakay ay tungo sa sama, ang patutunguhan ng iaakay ay kasamaan din.
11. Ang babai ay huag mong tignang isang bagay na libangan lamang, kundi isang katuang at
karamay sa mga kahirapan nitong kabuhayan; gamitan mo ng buong pagpipitagan ang kaniyang
kahinaan, at alalahanin ang inang pinagbuhata’t nagiwi sa iyong kasangulan.
12. Ang di mo ibig na gawin sa asawa mo, anak at kapatid, ay huag mong gagawin sa asawa,
anak, at kapatid ng iba.
13. Ang kamahalan ng tao’y wala sa pagkahari, wala sa tangus ng ilong at puti ng mukha, wala
sa pagkaparing kahalili ng Dios wala sa mataas na kalagayan sa balat ng lupa; wagas at tunay na
mahal na tao, kahit laking gubat at walang nababatid kundi ang sariling wika, yaong may
magandang asal, may isang pangungusap, may dangal at puri; yaong di napaaapi’t di nakikiapi;
yaong marunong magdamdam at marunong lumingap sa bayang tinubuan.
ENGLISH TRANSLATION (Agoncillo)

Teachings of the Katipunan of the Sons of the People

(1) Life which is not consecrated to a lofty and sacred cause is like a tree without a shadow, if
not a poisonous weed.
(2) (2) A good deed that springs from a desire for personal profit and not from a desire to do
good is not kindness.
(3) (3) True greatness consists in being charitable, in loving one’s fellowmen and in adjusting
every movement, deed and word to true Reason.
(4) (4) All men are equal, be the color of their skin black or white. One may be superior to
another in knowledge, wealth, and beauty, but cannot be superior in being.
(5) (5) He who is noble prefers honor to personal gains; he who is mean prefers personal profit
to honor.
(6) To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate.
(7) Don’t fritter away time; lost riches may be recovered, but time lost will never come again.
(8) Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
(9) An intelligent man is he who is cautious in speech and knows how to keep the secrets that
must be guarded.
(10) In the thorny path of life, man is the guide of his wife and children; if he who guides moves
to evil, they who are guided likewise move towards evil.
(11) Think not of woman as a thing to while away time with, but as a helper and a partner in the
hardships of life. Respect her in her weakness, and remember the mother who brought you into
this world and who cared for you in your childhood.
(12) What you do not want done to your wife, daughter and sister, do not do to the wife, daughter
and sister of another.
(13) The nobility of a man does not consist in being a king, nor in the highness of his nose and
the whiteness of the skin, nor in being a priest representing God, nor in the exalted position in this
earth, but pure and truly noble is he who, though born in the woods, is possessed of an upright
character; who is true to his words; who has dignity and honor; who does not oppress and does not
help those who oppress; who knows how to look after and loves the land of his birth. *The
teachings are followed by a form to be filled out with name, hometown, age, occupation, status
and address. The Kartilya concludes with a brief undertaking to be signed by the person who
intends to join the association.
Lesson 13: PRELUDE TO AMERICAN REGIME

THE RELIEF OF PRIMO DE RIVERA Primo de Rivera’s success in stopping the bloodshed
was highly praised in Spain. The Queen of Spain, who was reigning for her son, rewarded him
with the Grand Cross of San Fernando and a pension of ₱ 10,000. When armed hostilities
occurred in mid- February 1898, many Spaniards blamed the Filipinos for violating the Truce of
Biak-na-Bato. Meanwhile in Spain, the elections resulted in the triumph of the Conservative
Party. It sent General Basilio Augustin as governor-general to succeed Primo de Rivera. This
was unfortunate because Primo de Rivera has good intentions, which he thought, would make the
Filipino rebels return to Spain as faithful subjects. At that time there was a rumor that the
Spaniards and the Americans were drifting towards a war. With the possibility of a war, Primo
de Rivera would have been a wise choice to govern the archipelago since he knew the Filipinos
well. The newlyappointed governor-general had never been to the Philippines and did not know
the problems confronting the country. But the new Spanish Prime Minister insisted on Primo de
Rivera’s relief. On April 9, 1898, General Augustin arrived in Manila.

The Spanish American War (1898)

Factors:
Cuban struggle for independence
Efforts of the Americans to extend influence overseas
Sinking of the warship MAINE
Jose Marti – leader of the Cubans; they rejected Spain’s offer of autonomy because they wanted
complete independence.
New York Journal and New York World – published stories about the alleged atrocities of the
Spanish people and they called for US to intervene.

Manifest Destiny – belief that the US has the divinely ordained duty to help troubled countries.
Enrique Dupuy de Lome – Spain’s ambassador to the US; his letter to a friend in Cuba was
stolen. It stated that US Pres. William McKinley was a weakling and a low politician. This
created a national feeling among the Americans to support war against Spain.

Maine – docked at Havana harbor; blown up allegedly by the Spaniards in which 266 men died;
according to Randolf Hearst, it was actually blown up and sank not by the Spaniards but by the
American spies stationed in Cuba to provoke the war. “REMEMBER THE MAINE”.
On April 24, Spain declared war and on April 25, US declared war and the SpanishAmerican war
began.

BATTLE OF MANILA BAY Commodore George Dewey – upon orders of President

McKinley, proceeded immediately to the Philippines with a squadron of four armored cruisers
(Olympia, Baltimore, Boston and Raleigh), two gunboats (Concord and Petrel) and a revenue
cutter (McCulloch).
Admiral Patricio Montojo – he headed the Spanish fleet of 12 ships (with Reina Castilla as the
flagship) in the battle which lasted for only a few hours (started at 5:40 am and ended at noon). ♪
After the battle, there was no fatal casualties and no ship was heavily damaged on the side of the
Americans whereas, 160 men were killed and 210 were wounded on the side of the Spaniards. ♪
Because of the battle, Commodore Dewey became an instant hero. He was promoted to rear
admiral and later admiral. ♪ Dewey blockaded Manila because he had no land forces to back
them up in besieging the city.
ATTEMPTS AT GAINING FILIPINO SUPPORT Basilio Augustin – successor of Primo de
Rivera; he was demoralized by the defection of the Filipinos from their side to
Aguinaldo’s side and Dewey’s victory in Manila Bay; he appealed to Filipino people to assist
Spain; he issued decrees creating a Filipino Volunteer Militia and Consultative Assembly to win
over ilustrados whom he appointed to both bodies. Filipino
Volunteer Militia – they all sided with Aguinaldo. Consultative Assembly – headed by Pedro
Paterno, accomplished nothing.

FILIPINO-AMERICAN COLLABORATION Isabelo Artacho – sued Aguinaldo in Hong Kong

court because the latter did not want to apportion the money (₱400,000) among themselves.
Because of this, Aguinaldo secretly went to Singapore. Howard Bray – an Englishman in
Singapore, informed Aguinaldo that Pratt wanted to confer with him. E. Spencer Pratt –
American consul; he gave Aguinaldo the impression that the Americans would not colonize the
Philippines; he said that if they were going to leave Cuba alone after driving the Spaniards away,
why would the Americans want the Philippines, which was 10,000 miles away. Aguinaldo
consented to go back to the Philippines with Dewey to once more lead the revolution. Dewey,
however, had already sailed for Manila. Rounseville Wildman – American consul in Hong Kong,
told Aguinaldo that Dewey had left instructions for his return to the Philippines; he suggested
that Aguinaldo establish a dictatorial government; he (together with
Pratt) assured Aguinaldo that the American government sympathized with the Filipinos’
aspirations for independence but they did not make any formal commitment.
Aguinaldo – consulted the Hong Kong Junta on what course of action to take and it was decided
that he should go back to the Philippines. He gave Wildman ₱117,000 to be used in purchasing
guns and ammunitions but only the first shipment of ₱50,000 arrived promptly. The second
delivery NEVER happened.

AGUINALDO’S RETURN TO THE PHILIPPINES Aguinaldo – returned to the Philippines

aboard the McCulloch; upon arriving in Cavite, he boarded Olympia where he was accorded
honors due to a general; he stated that in his conference with Dewey, he was given the assurance
that the US would recognize Philippine independence which Dewey denied. He mistakenly
thought that Dewey was speaking for the American government.

Four Major Forces on the Historical Stage:

Spanish colonialism [trying to ward off its impending end]
2. American imperialism [waiting for such time when it had gathered sufficient military strength
in the Philippines before showing its real motives]
3. Filipino ilustrados [ main concern was to place themselves in a jockeying position whatever
political setup was to emerge]
4. The masses [who still believed and fought for the revolutionary objectives of the Katipunan]
When news of Aguinaldo’s return spread, a number of Filipino volunteers in the Spanish army
defected to the Filipino side. They occupied Dalahikan, the Cavite shipyard.
By the end of May, 5,000 Spaniards were captured.
Within a week, Imus, Parañaque, Las Piñas, San Fernando, and Macabebe were seized from
Spanish control. Cavite was surrendered to the Filipinos.
The Filipino Siege of Manila
While the Americans waited for reinforcements, they treated Aguinaldo with the courtesies
befitting a head of state. They took care not to make any commitment at the same time,
continuing to let the Filipinos think they meant well. Their motive was to use the Filipinos to
fight the Spaniards until reinforcements arrived.
When the Spanish navy was destroyed, many Spaniards took refuge at Intramuros or Walled
City.
Aguinaldo besieged the city and cut off its food and water supply to force the Spaniards out.
Aguinaldo offered the option of surrender three times, with generous terms, but these were
rejected by Gov. Gen. Augustin as he was also waiting for reinforcements which never came.

THE AGUINALDO DICTATORSHIP

Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista – adviser of Aguinaldo; convinced Aguinaldo to establish a
dictatorial government to prosecute the war against Spain.
May 24, 1898 – Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing a dictatorial government.
Having this government, Aguinaldo deemed it necessary to declare the independence of the
Philippines.
Apolinario Mabini [Sublime Paralytic] is the unofficial adviser of Aguinaldo. He objected to the
plan and stressed the need to reorganize the government first into one that could prove to foreign
powers its independence and stability before declaring independence. But Aguinaldo prevailed
over Mabini.
PROCLAMATION OF PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE June 12, 1898 – Philippine
independence was proclaimed in the presence of a huge crowd at the ancestral home of General
Emilio Aguinaldo between four and five in the afternoon in Cavite El Viejo [now known as
Kawit]. This was highlighted by the following:
Official Unfurling of the Philippine National Flag [The Philippine flag war first unfurled in the
Battle of Alapan. It was sewed in Hong Kong by Doña Marcela Mariño Agoncillo, her daughter
Lorenza Agoncillo and the niece of Rizal, Mrs. Delfina Herbosa de Natividad].
[The eight rays of the sun signifies the eight provinces: Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga,
Nueva Ecija, Bataan/Tarlac, Laguna and Batangas] Governor Ramon Blanco placed under
martial law.
Playing of the Marcha Nacional Filipina [formerly Marcha Filipina Magdalo] by the San
Franciso de Malabon marching band as the country’s national anthem.
[Marcha Nacional Filipina was composed by Julian Felipe. The anthem remained without words
until toward the end of 1899, Filipinas by Jose Palma was adopted as lyrics.] [In 1896, Bonifacio
favored Julio Nakpil’s Marangal na Dalit ng Katagulagan to be the himno nacional.]
Reading of the Act of the Declaration of Philippine Independence which was also written by
Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista
From Dictatorial to Revolutionary Government
♪ June 18 – Aguinaldo issued a decree reorganizing local governments in areas liberated.
♪ The most distinguished persons in each province were asked to take over local governments.
♪ The chiefs of the towns were to elect delegates to the Congress and military commanders who
liberated towns became their commissioners.
♪ Mabini became Aguinaldo’s liberal advisor.
♪ By virtue of Decree of June 23, dictatorship was changed to revolutionary government. ♪
Aguinaldo appointed delegates for those provinces not yet pacified. They controlled all of Luzon
except Manila.
♪ Aguinaldo chose his cabinet most of whom were ilustrados who had been on the Spanish side.
Surrender Negotiations and the Mock Battle of Manila
Aguinaldo achieved a complete tight land siege around the Walled City.
For the 4th time, Aguinaldo made another demand for the Spanish general to surrender.
Augustin was ordered that if it was inevitable to surrender, he should surrender to the Americans,
not to the Filipinos.
Dewey started negotiating with Augustin with Belgian Consul Andre mediating.
Augustin was replaced by Fermin Jaudenes.
Dewey and Jaudenes agreed to stage a mock battle on one condition – no Filipino troops would
be allowed to enter Manila, clearly an act of betrayal of the Filipinos on the part of the
Americans.
All along, Aguinaldo and his forces guarded the city, waiting for the Spaniars to give in to
hunger and thirst.
General Merritt – decided to conduct the “offensive” against Manila.
Gen. Francis Greene – commander of the 2nd reinforcement, told Aguinaldo that he and his
troops should leave the area free for the foreigners to occupy.
Although Aguinaldo showed caution by demanding that this request be made in writing, he
gullibly withdrew his troops when Greene promised to grant that request after evacuation but
Greene did not fulfill his promise.
Aguinaldo and his generals considered the presence of the Americans unnecessary as the
Filipinos already have the situation well in hand. However, they did not do anything about it so
the Americans were able to place themselves in place.
Gen. Anderson – commander of the 1st reinforcements, telegraphed Aguinaldo warning him not
to let his troops enter Manila without permission from the American commander or else, they
would be shot.
Filipinos fought on the right side of Gen. Arthur MacArthur.
Americans started their mock attack with the Filipinos unsuspectingly fighting with all their
might.
11:20 a.m. the Spaniards raised the flag of surrender but it was only noticed at noon.
By 5 p.m., surrender negotiations were completed.
August 14 – the document stating the terms of the surrender was formally signed.
Gen. Merritt announced the establishment of Military Government.
August 12 – US Pres. McKinley issued a proclamation directing the suspension of all military
operations against the Spaniards. This was received by Dewey on August 16.
End of Filipino-American Collaboration and Spanish Rule
Surrender of Manila – ended the Filipino-American collaboration.
Gen. Diego delos Rios – last Spanish Governor General in the country.
November 1899 – all Spanish forces in the South were shipped to Spain. The Treaty of Paris of
1898 The Treaty of Paris was concluded on December 10, 1898 and provided for the following:
Spain agreed to remove all soldiers from Cuba
Spain ceded Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States
The US compensated Spain for its losses with a payment of $20 million
Ratification of this treaty was not a foregone conclusion in the US Senate. A great debate ensued,
pitting imperialists against anti-imperialists. The point of friction is the Philippines, which was
deemed by many not to be an area of vital interest to the US.
Proponents argued that other powers, probably Germany, would move into the Philippines if
America did not. Further, the US had a duty to export its superior democratic institutions to this
region – a revival of the old manifest destiny argument.
In February 1899, the treaty received the necessary 2/3 ratification approval by a single vote.
Finally, the US emerged as a world power.

THE MALOLOS CONGRESS

By virtue of the Decree of June 18, 1898, Aguinaldo called for the election of delegates to the
revolutionary Congress which Mabini envisioned to be a mere advisory body of the president.
The historic Malolos Congress was convened by Aguinaldo at Barasoain Church in Malolos.
Aguinaldo gave his due respect to the people for their patriotism and heroism and briefed them
on their task of writing a constitutiton for the country.
An election of officers was held and Pedro A. Paterno became the president.
The Philippine Independence proclaimed in Cavite El Viejo was ratified.

THE DRAFTING OF THE HISTORIC MALOLOS CONSTITUTION Congress – proposed that

constitution be drafted, overruling Mabini’s objections. Mabini meritoriously argued that the
constitution had to be framed under peaceful conditions but he was outvoted by the majority
under Paterno.
Proposed Constitutional Plans:
Mabini’s Constitutional Programme of the Philippine Republic
Paterno Plan [based on the Spanish Constitution]
Calderon Plan [based on the constitutions of France, Belgium, Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala,
Nicaragua and Brazil]
The Calderon Plan was finally used as basis in drafting the Malolos Congress after deliberation.
The most controversial provision was the Union of the Church and State.
Delegates strongly opposed the proposal of making Catholicism a state religion.
November 29, 1898 – the Malolos Congress approved the constitution.
Malolos Constitution was promulgated on January 21, 1899; Aguinaldo proclaimed it as the
fundamental charter of the land.

THE FIRST PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC

On January 23, 1899, the first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos with Aguinaldo
as the first president.
There are three branches: executive, judicial and legislative.
Executive was vested in the President and assisted by the Cabinet called Council of the
Government
Legislative was exercised by the unicameral Assembly of Representatives. When the law-making
body is not in session, legislative was exercised by a Permanent Commission (7 assemblymen).
Judicial power was vested in the Supreme Court of Justice. A chief justice selected by the
Assembly of Representatives headed this branch.
Law-making body was more powerful than the executive branch.
THE MALOLOS REPUBLIC AT WORK
Education was one of the concerns. Schools were opened and ₱35,000 was set aside to finance
the educational needs of the Malolos Republic. o Primary schools and higher education were
established.
War tax was imposed to Filipinos [age of 18 to 60].
They solicited donations from rich Filipinos and Chinese.
Armed forces were organized but it was ill-trained and ill-equipped o Gaceta de Filipinas [first
called El Heraldo de la Revolucion] – newspaper of the Republic.
La Independencia – most famous of private-owned newspapers.
DIPLOMATIC ACTIVITIES OF THE FIRST PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
Philippines did not become a member of the family of nations. This is because no country in the
world recognized the Philippines despite diplomatic efforts.
Felipe Agoncillo – tasked to persuade the US government to recognize the Malolos Republic.
His efforts proved futile as the United States then had decided to make the Philippines an
American territory.
With the outbreak of the Filipino-American War, the Malolos Republic was destined to die a
natural death.

Lesson 14: THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR ROOTS OF THE CONFLICT The

Filipinos became suspicious of the true motives of the United States in coming to the Philippines.
In fact, they were prevented by the Americans from entering Manila after its fall. Their
suspicions were confirmed by the Treaty of Paris under which Spain ceded the Philippines to the
United States. Felipe Agoncillo, Aguinaldo’s special envoy, was not even given the chance to air
the wishes of the Filipinos at the Paris Peace talks. Suspicions turned to hostility, and war
between the two sides became inevitable. The Filipinos were outraged when they learned that
Spain, which no longer controlled the Philippines, had ceded the country to the United States. On
December 21, 1898, President William McKinley announced his decision to keep the Philippines
as an American colonial possession.
Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation – announced in the Philippines on January 4, 1899.
Through this proclamation, the US made clear its intention of imposing its sovereignty over the
Philippines. In the same proclamation, General Elwell Otis was named the commander of
American ground forces in the Philippines which was to “extend by force American sovereignty
over this country.” On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation. He warned
that his government was prepared to fight any American attempt to forcibly take over the
country. Aguinaldo’s proclamation sounded like a declaration of war to the American military
although Aguinaldo had no wish to get into a war with the United States. He knew that war
would only cause untold suffering to the Filipino people. He was still hopeful that the situation
could be saved by peaceful negotiations between him and the American military leaders in the
Philippines. Aguinaldo wrote General Elwell S. Otis calling for peaceful negotiations.
Aguinaldo’s offer was ignored as Americans wanted to use the Philippines to develop business in
Asia, to provide naval and military bases and to open it to Protestant missionaries.

THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR

The tension between the Americans and the Filipinos precipitated an inevitable war. On the night
of February 4, 1899, an American sentry, Private William W. Grayson, with another soldier,
encountered three armed Filipinos in Silencio corner Sociego St. in Sta. Mesa, Manila. Recalling
the incident, Grayson said: About eight o’clock, Miller and I were cautiously pacing our district.
We came to a fence and were trying to see what the Filipinos were up to. Suddenly, near at hand,
on our left, there was a low but unmistakable Filipino outpost signal whistle. It was immediately
answered by a similar whistle about twenty-five yards to the right. Then a red lantern flashed a
signal from blockhouse number 7. We had never seen such a sign used before. In a moment,
something rose up slowly in front of us. It was a Filipino. I yelled “Halt!” and made it pretty
loud, for I was accustomed to challenging the officer of the guard in approved military style. I
challenged him with another loud “halt!” Then he shouted “halto!” to me. Well, I thought the
best thing to do was to shoot him. He dropped. If I didn’t kill him, I guess he died of fright. Two
Filipinos sprang out of the gateway about 15 feet from us. I called “halt!” and Miller fired and
dropped one. I saw that another was left. Well I got my second Filipino that time….
The Filipino troops fired back at the American lines and before the night was over, fighting had
broken out between Filipino and American forces. Most of the Filipino commanders at that time
were attending a dance in Malolos, Bulacan. When told of the outbreak of the hostilities, they
rushed back to their units, which were already shooting it out with American troops. When war
finally came, Aguinaldo still tried to stop it by sending an emissary to General Otis to appeal for
an end to the fighting. But Otis responded, “Fighting, having begun, must go on to the grim end.”
The American people, however, received a different version of how the war started. Newspaper
reports made it appear that the Filipinos had started the fighting. This was the time when the
Treaty of Paris was pending ratification in the US Senate. Previously, because of strong public
opinion against the US Annexation of the Philippines, ratification of the treaty was uncertain.
But the distorted news that reached the US, specifically, that the Filipinos were the ones who
started hostilities, changed the minds of several US senators to vote for ratification. On February
6, 1899, the US Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris.

THE FILIPINO-AMERICAN WAR ESCALATES

After the refusal of General Otis to end hostilities, General Arthur MacArthur ordered the
advance of American troops toward Filipino positions in Manila and the suburbs.
Regiments from Kansas and California captured Santa Ana and Makati.
Troops from Nebraska and Utah occupied the San Juan Bridge
Volunteers from Idaho and Washington massacred hundreds of Filipinos who were then trying to
cross the Pasig River.
The coastlines were pounded continuously by Admiral Dewey’s naval guns capturing Manila
and the Suburbs.
Major Jose Torres Bugallon – one of the bravest Filipino soldier; killed in the Battle of La Loma.
Caloocan fell to the Americans because they were superior in arms.
General Antonio Luna fought bravely but were forced to retreat to Bulacan.
American cruelty was clearly demonstrated in their siege of Malabon as men, women, and
children in the area were killed by the Americans.
When reinforcements arrived in late February and early March, 1899, Americans advanced
towards Bulacan, capturing other towns on their way.
THE WAR IN THE VISAYAS
The Americans then decided to invade the Visayan provinces.
General Miller – was directed to invade and captrure Iloilo Province.
General Martin Delgado – fought the Americans. They burned Iloilo City to prevent the
Americans from making it as their base of operations.
Cebu surrendered to the Americans
American flag was hoisted in Negros – February 23, 1899.
Negrenses voluntarily offered their services for the maintenance of peace in the island. They
were allowed to draft their constitution which was submitted to Pres. McKinley on July 20, 1899.
It was called the Constitution of Negros. It was not approved by the Pres. Nonetheless, it served
as basis for the administration of the island’s civil affairs.

ON TO CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN LUZON

By March 30, the Americans were already near Malolos, Bulacan, where the Philippine
government was headquartered.
Gen. Aguinaldo evacuated Malolos and moved his headquarters to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.
MacArthur was given the order not to pursue Aguinaldo but rather to temporarily stay in
Malolos.
The Americans captured Bacoor, Zapote and Dasmariñas, all in Cavite, Parañaque, Las Piñas,
Morong, Paete, Santa Cruz, and other towns in Laguna.
Gregorio del Pilar (boy general) defeated the American cavalry in Plaridel Bulacan.
Gen. Licerio Geronimo overpowered the Americans under General Lawton in San Mateo.
Gen. Luna was waiting in Calumpit for Gen. MacArthur but when the Americans were about to
attack, Luna, together with his foot soldiers, cavalry and artillery left Calumpit to punish Gen.
Tomas Mascardo [who was in Pampanga] for his insubordination.
It was too late when Luna and his soldiers came back at nightfall. The Americans had already
broken through the Filipino defensive lines. Thus, the Filipinos lost the fight.
By the end of 1899, the Philippine army was no longer a regular fighting force. It was dissolved
by Aguinaldo and formed into guerilla units to carry on the war.
One by one, towns and provinces throughout the archipelago fell to the US forces. Many
civilians and military officials surrendered to or were captured by the Americans.
Many of them, including Mabini were captured and deported to Guam.

DISUNITY AMONG FILIPINOS

One very crucial factor that led to numerous Filipino reverses during the FilipinoAmerican
hostilities was the lack of unity among their military and political leaders.
Among Aguinaldo’s top officials, there was a serious rivalry between Apolinario Mabini, and
Pedro Paterno and Felipe Buencamino. This power struggle led to the resignation of Mabini on
May 7, 1899. Such rivalry weakened their unity at the time that they are fighting a life and death
struggle against the Americans. Even the military was affected by this disunity. A classic
example of this was the case of Antonio Luna. He is the best military tactician of the Malolos
Republic. Some military officers refused to recognize his authority. When he ordered Mascardo
to send him troops from Pampanga at the time that he was preparing for the defense of Calumpit,
Mascardo refused to comply. Luna, of course, became very angry and immediately confronted
Mascardo leaving the frontlines.
THE ASSASSINATION OF LUNA
General Antonio Luna was the most brilliant among the Filipino military officers. He had one
defect, he was short tempered. Aguinaldo recognized his brilliance and appointed him to a high
position in the army. Luna saw that the army has no discipline. He tried to instill discipline in the
army, but the common soldiers particularly the Kawit regiment did not like him for it. They
refused to take orders from him. When the Philippine-American War broke out, Luna was chief
of the military zone that included many provinces of
Central Luzon. He made many enemies because of his short temper. He slapped Felipe
Buencamino, Aguinaldo’s Secretary of Foreign Affairs, who disagreed with his (Luna’s) strong
opposition to any negotiation with the Americans. He also slapped soldiers due to their
inefficiency or failure to meet his standards.
While he was in Bayambang, Pangasinan inspecting the defenses against the advancing
Americans, he received a telegram from Cabanatuan saying that he was wanted there. He went
there with his aide, Colonel Francisco Roman, and some soldiers. When he reached Aguinaldo’s
headquarters in Cabanatuan on June 5, 1899 and did not find Aguinaldo there, he got angry.
Then he heard a rifle shot, rushed downstairs, cursed the soldiers, and slapped one of them. A
captain named Pedrong Kastila from Cavite, hacked Luna with a bolo. The other soldiers started
hacking him as well with their bolos, some even fired gunshots at him. Luna drew his revolver
but fell outside the convent and died saying, “Cowards! Assassins!” He died with more than
forty wounds in his body and head.
ON TO MINDANAO AND SULU
American military forces continued their offensive strategy in Mindanao. On May
19, 1899, two battalions of American soldiers landed in Jolo and other parts of Mindanao for the
purpose of brining Muslim Filipinos into the fold of American rule. Instead of using warfare with
the Muslims, the Americans resorted to the use of diplomacy in the process. To win the Muslims
to the American side, the American authorities designated General John C. Bates to negotiate a
treaty with Sultan Jamalul Kiram II to ensure peaceful coexistence between the Muslims and the
Americans. After the negotiations, the treaty was approved, which came to be known as the
Bates Treaty. The significant provisions of this agreement were the following:
The sovereignty of US over the whole archipelago and Jolo and its dependencies is declared and
acknowledged; The rights and dignities of His Highness, the Sultan and his datus shall be fully
respected; The Muslims shall be allowed to practice their religion, without interference from the
American government; No one shall be persecuted on account of his beliefs; and The domestic
products of the archipelago of Jolo, when carried on by the Sultan and his people within any part
of the Philippine Islands and when conducted under the American flag, shall be free, unlimited
and free of duty. In addition to the foregoing provisions, the American government agreed to pay
the Sultan and his datus monthly salaries in Mexican dollars. As a result of the forging of this
agreement, Muslim resistance was neutralized, thereby allowing the Americans to concentrate
their efforts on pacifying Christian Filipinos in the archipelago.

THE BATTLE OF PASONG TIRAD

While fleeing the Americans, Aguinaldo reached the Mountain Province. He ordered his trusted
general, Gregorio Del Pilar (Goyong; Boy General), to remain behind as they continued to
advance. Del Pilar was to intercept the Americans who were tracking them. This would give
Aguinaldo sufficient time to widen the distance between him and the pursuing Americans. Del
Pilar chose to delay the enemy at Pasong Tirad, a narrow pass of 4,500 feet high. There is only
one trail leading to it. So narrow was the trail that only one man at a time could climb. It was in
this place that Del Pilar and 60 loyal soldiers positioned themselves. The American troops under
Major Peyton March pursued Aguinlado. In the morning of December 2, March and his well-
armed men proceeded toward Del Pilar’s position. The Filipino troops guarding the narrow pass
fired at the Americans who had no recourse but to retreat. They held off for more than 5 hours.
Unfortunately, Januario Galut, an Igorot, guided the Americans. The Americans slowly and
quietly went up a secret trail and surprised the Filipino troops. A fierce battle ensued and Del
Pilar was killed by a bullet that passed through his neck. The Americans looted his personal
belongings for souvenirs. The Americans left the body there and for two days it remained
unburied. On the third day, the Igorots buried his remains in a shallow grave.

THE CAPTURE OF AGUINALDO

Aguinaldo was finally captured on March 23, 1901, in Palanan, Isabela Province, by means of a
trick planned by Brigadier General Frederick Funston. A party of proAmerican Macabebe scouts
marched into Palanan pretending to be the reinforcements that Aguinaldo was waiting for. With
the Macabebes were two former Filipino army officers, Tal Placido and Lazaro Segovia, who
had surrendered to the Americans, and five Americans, including General Funston, who
pretended to be captives. Caught by surprise, Aguinaldo’s guards were easily overpowered by
the Macabebes after a brief exchange of shots. Aguinaldo was seized by Tal Placido and placed
under arrest by General Funston. He was brought to Manila and kept a prisoner at Malacañang.
There he was treated by General MacArthur more as a guest than as a prisoner. On April 1, 1901,
convinced of the futility of continuing the war, Aguinaldo swore allegiance to the United States.
On April 19, 1901, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation calling on the Filipino people to lay down
their arms and accept American rule. His capture signaled the death of the Frist Philippine
Republic but the war continued.

BRUTALITIES DURING THE WAR

During the war, torture was resorted to by American troops to obtain information and
confessions. The water cure was given to those merely suspected of being rebels. Some were
hanged by the thumbs, others were dragged by galloping horses, or fires were lit beneath others
while they were hanging. Another form of torture was tying to a tree and then shooting the
suspect through the legs. If a confession was not obtained, he was again shot the day after. This
went on until he confessed or eventually died. Villages were burned, townfolk massacred and
their professions looted. In Samar and Batangas, Brigadier General Jacob H. Smith and General
Franklin Bell, respectively, ordered the mass murders in answer to the mass resistance. On the
other hand, Filipino guerrillas chopped off the noses and ears of captured Americans in violation
of Aguinaldo’s orders. There were reports that some Americans were buried alive by angry
Filipino guerrillas. Brutalities were perpetrated by both Filipino and American contingents.

THE BALANGIGA MASSACRE

The Balangiga Massacre took place in 1901, a few weeks after a company of American soldiers
arrived in Balangiga, Samar, upon the request of the town mayor to protect the inhabitants from
the Muslim and rebel raids. How the massacre happened is best described below (Schott, 1964).
On the night of September 27, the sentries on the guard posts about the plaza were surprised by
the unusual number of women hurrying to church. They were all heavily clothed, which was
unusual, and many carried small coffins. Sergeant Scharer, sergeant of the guard vaguely
suspicious, stopped one woman and tried to open her coffin with his bayonet. Inside he found the
body of a dead child. “El calenturon! El colera!” the woman said. The sergeant, slightly abashed
by the sight of the dead child, nailed down the coffin lid again with the butt of his revolver and
let the woman pass on. He concluded that cholera and fever were in epidemic stage and carrying
off children in great numbers. But it was strange that no news of any such epidemic had reached
the garrison. If the guard sergeant had been less abashed and had searched beneath the child’s
body, he would have found the keen blades of cane-cutting knives. All the coffins were loaded
with them.

The night passed and morning came. At about 6:20 a.m., a sergeant was at the door of his squad
hut. At that time, the unarmed Americans were going to breakfast. Some of them, of course, had
finished their breakfast. The sergeant saw Pedro Sanchez, chief of police of the town, line up
prisoners for work. Then Sanchez sent all the workers to work in the plaza and in the streets.
After that, Sanchez went to a hut and even talked with a corporal who knew pidgin Spanish and
Visayan. After speaking with the corporal, Sanchez walked behind Private Adolph Gamlin, the
sentry on the area. All of a sudden, Sanchez grabbed Gamlin’s rifle, and smashed the rifle’s butt
on the American soldier’s head. The Filipino fired a shot and shouted a signal. Then
pandemonium broke loose. The church bell ding-donged crazily and conch shell whistles blew
shrilly from the edge of the jungle. The doors of the church burst open and out streamed the mob
of bolo men who have been waiting inside. The native laborers working about the plaza suddenly
turned on the soldiers and began chopping at them with bolos, picks and shovels. As the church
bells were being rung, Sanchez fired upon the Americans at the breakfast table. He then led the
Filipinos in attacking the American soldiers. Members of C Company were almost all massacred
during the first few minutes of attack. The main action took place around the plaza and tribunal
building. There, Filipino bolo men attacked the soldiers. They boloed to death the Americans
who tried to escape; other soldiers were hacked from nose to throat.
Due to the public demand in the U.S. for retaliation, President Theodore Roosevelt ordered the
pacification of Samar. Within six months, General “Jake” Smith transformed Balangiga into a
“howling wilderness.” He ordered his men to kill anybody capable of carrying arms, including
ten-year old boys. Smith particularly ordered Major Littleton Waller to punish the people of
Samar for the deaths of the American troops. His exact orders were: “I want no prisoners. I wish
you to kill and burn, the more you kill and burn, the better you will please me.”

THE RESISTANCE CONTINUES

After taking over the leadership of Aguinaldo, General Miguel Malvar of Batangas, continued
the fight. He was commanding general of all forces south of Pasig River. The Americans
committed barbaric acts because of the population’s support to the guerrillas. All men, women,
and children of the towns of Batangas and Laguna, were herded into small areas within the
poblacion on December 25, 1901 of their respective towns and were kept prisoners for months.
The Americans troops burned their houses, carts, poultry, animals, etc. The people were
prisoners for months. These acts parallel the early version of the concentration camps used by
American soldiers in Vietnam War. The same tactics were perpetrated by the American army
against noncombatants from March to October 1903 in the province of Albay and in 1905 in the
provinces of Cavite and Batangas. Many Filipino soldiers and military officers surrendered to the
Americans, but there were some who refused to give up the fight. On February 27, 1902, General
Vicente Lukban, who resorted to ambushing American troops in Samar, was captured in Samar.
General Malvar surrendered to General J.
Franklin Bell in Lipa, Batangas, on April 16, 1902.
Lucio San Miguel, who revived the Katipunan in 1886 in Zambales, sustained the guerilla war
against the Americans in 1902. He died in a battle with Philippine Constabulary and Philippine
scouts in the District of PugadBaboy in Morong. Faustino Guillermo, took over the leadership of
the new Katipunan movement when San Miguel was killed. Others who took part in the guerrilla
warfare were Macario Sakay, who had been with Bonifacio and Jacinto during the initial
struggles of the Katipunan, and Julian Montalan and Cornelio Felizardo.
The Philippine Constabulary, Philippine Scouts, and elements of the United States Army
combined their forces to go after the guerrillas. In the province of Albay, General Simeon Ola
launched guerrilla raids on U.S.- occupied towns until his surrender on September 25, 1903. He
was the last Filipino general to surrender to the Americans. Sakay, leader of a band of patriotic
Filipinos and whom the Americans branded as a bandit, continued to fight. He even established
the Tagalog “Republic”. He surrendered on July 14, 1906. Sakay and his men were tried and
convicted as bandits. Sakay was hanged on September 13, 1907.

THE END OF THE FILIPINO-AMERICAN WAR

On July 4, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt declared that the Philippine-American War,
which Americans called the Philippine insurrection, was over. He made the declaration after the
Philippine Commission reported to Roosevelt that the recent “insurrection” in the Philippines
was over and a general and complete state of peace existed. With the end of the war, the United
States started concentrating its attention and efforts towards establishing the machinery for
governing the country as an American colony. It took the United States more than three years to
defeat the army of the first Philippine Republic. However, the outcome of the war was
undoubtedly in favor of the Americans because of the tremendous military advantages enjoyed
by the United States. The US was superior in terms of the number of enlisted men and officers it
employed in the struggle, together with the superior weapons it used on Aguinaldo and his men.
Filipinos, on the other hand, were at a disadvantageous position. Most of their cannons were
captured from the Spaniards. Many Filipino soldiers did not even have guns, but used spears,
lances and bolos in fighting. Filipino soldiers also lacked military training. They did manage to
win some small battlefield encounters, but these only delayed the ultimate victory for the
Americans. Nonetheless, the United States paid a very high price in winning the war as more
than 4,000 American soldiers’ lives were sacrificed. One of them was Major General Henry C.
Lawton, who was killed in the battle of San Mateo on December 23, 1899. He was the highest-
ranking U.S. military officer to be killed in action in the Philippine- American War. The U.S.
government likewise spent about $600 million to quell the Filipino resistance to the imposition
of American sovereignty in the archipelago.

Lesson 15: AMERICAN COLONIAL RULE – POLICY AND GOVERNANCE

Having pacified the Philippines, the US commenced her work of exporting her own
governmental system in this newly colonized territory. Gradually, the Filipinos became
immersed in the basics of good government and the tenets of democratic governance. Side by
side with political transformation, the Filipino way of life was soon changed. This chapter
centers on these changes in the Philippines under American tutelage. UNDER MILITARY
GOVERNMENT Right after the surrender of Manila in August 1898, the Americans established
military government in the country which lasted from 1898 to 1901. Under this set-up,
Philippines was governed directly by the President of the United States in his capacity as
Commander-in-Chief of the US armed forces. The powers of the US president were exercised in
the country by an American military governor. The commander of American forces in Manila,
Major General Wesley Meritt was appointed as the first military governor of the country. He was
succeeded by Major General Elwell Otis who served as military governor until 1900. The last,
military governor, however, was Major General Arthur MacArthur.
Notable among the accomplishments of the US military government from 1898 to 1901 were the
following: Establishment of a Supreme
Court composed of 6 Filipinos and 3 Americans, with Cayetano Arellano as First Chief Justice;
Organization of towns and provincial governments in pacified areas; Holding of elections for
local officials in areas under American control; and The introduction of the American public
school system and the teaching of the English language.

THE FIRST PHILIPPINE COMMISSION

On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission (the
Schurman Commission), to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations. It
was Dr. Jacob Schurman as head, and the following members:
Admiral George Dewey; Major General Elwell Otis; Charles Denby; and Dean C. Worcester.
In the report that they issued to President McKinley on January 31, 1900, the commission came
up with the following recommendations:
The US should remain in the Philippines since the country was not yet ready for independence.
The military government should be abolished and replaced by a civil government in areas firmly
under American control.
A territorial government had to be established in the country, with a bicameral legislature.
Autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels had to be organized.
There was a need to protect the civil rights of the people and promote their welfare.
The American public elementary school system had to be introduced in the country.
THE SECOND PHILIPPINE COMMISSION

To facilitate the implementation of the recommendations of Schurman Commission, President

McKinley created the Second Philippine Commission which was popularly known as the Taft
Commission on March 16, 1900. This Commission was chaired by William Howard Taft, with
the following as members: Dean C. Worcester, Luke E. Wright, Henry C. Ide, and Bernard
Moses. It was tasked to establish a civil government in the country and to train Filipinos in self-
government.
In fulfilling its mandate, the Commission was guided by the Instructions prepared by Elihu Root,
the then Secretary of War. These guidelines made clear that the government to be designed
should be for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands. The
Commission commenced its work on June 3, 1900. The first law enacted allocated one million
dollars for the construction and repair of road and bridges. By August 1902, it had legislated
more than 400 laws dealing with the organization of government bureaus, establishment of local
governments, creation of the civil service and the organization of the public school system in the
archipelago.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AMERICAN CIVIL GOVERNMENT

On March 2, 1901, the military government in the Philippines ceased to exist when the
United States Congress enacted the Army Appropriations Act. This law implemented the
Spooner Amendment written by Senator Jon Spooner of Wisconsin. According to the
amendment, all military, civil, and judicial powers needed to govern the Philippines, until
otherwise provided by Congress shall be vested in such person or persons as the President of the
United States would direct. Thus, the Spooner Amendment removed from the US president the
final authority to govern the Philippines. This power was to be exercised by the United States
Congress through the president. Consequently, a civil government was established in the
Philippines which was inaugurated on July 4, 1901, with Judge William H.
Taft as the first civil governor. The title, however, was changed to Governor-General in 1905,
since Taft was also the head of the Philippine Commission which was the lawmaking body then.
Taft was described by some historians as a well-loved governor who did his best to promote the
welfare of the Filipinos through his adoption of the policy The Philippines for the Filipinos. It
was during his tenure that many of the “foundations of a stable and democratic government”
were laid. One of his greatest achievements, however, was supposedly the purchase of 410,000
acres of friar lands which were resold to landless Filipino tenants on easy installment terms.
Commenting on Taft’s policy which made him popular to the people, Constantino asserts that it
was not an endorsement of Philippine independence but good business. Improvements in the
standard of living and education for the Filipinos could rebound to a creation of taste for
American products resulting in a potential market for American products. Taft was succeeded by
equally able men. His successors were Luke E. Wright (1904-1906), Henry Ide (1906), James
Smith (1906-1909), W. Cameron Forbes (1909-1913). THE PHILIPPINE BILL OF 1902 The
enactment of the Cooper Act or the Philippine Bill of 1902 on July 1, 1902, was the next step in
the institutionalization of civil government in the Philippines under American rule. This piece of
legislation was the first organic law for the Philippines enacted by the United States Congress
and named after its sponsor, US Representative Henry A. Cooper of Wisconsin.
Among its salient provisions were the following:
A bill of rights for the Filipino people;
2. Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners to represent the country in the US
Congress without voting rights
3. Establishment of the Philippine Assembly to be elected by the Filipinos two years after the
publication of a census and only after peace had been restored completely in the country;
4. Exercise of executive power by the civil governor who would have several executive
departments; and
5. Conservation of natural resources for the Filipinos.

PERIOD OF SUPPRESSED NATIONALISM

Prior to the establishment of Philippine Assembly, the American civil government suppressed
the spirit of Filipino nationalism. In Cebu, American censors suspended the newspaper El Nuevo
Dia by Sergio Osmeña. Osmeña and his associates were threatened by with deportation for
publishing patriotic articles. Meanwhile, there were numerous newspapers that appeared in
Manila advocating Filipino nationalist sentiments. Notable among them were the following: El
Renacimiento, edited by Rafael Palma; and El Grito, edited by Pascual H. Poblete. The local
writers continued criticizing individual Americans committing offenses against Filipinos by
using talinghaga or symbolism as a literary device to elude detection of censors. Criticism of
American aggression in the country was portrayed on stage, reflecting nationalistic sentiments of
Filipino playwrights. Among these nationalistic plays were the following: Walang Sugat by
Severino Reyes; Malaya by Tomas Remigio; Tanikalang Ginto by Juan Abad; and Kahapon,
Ngayon, at Bukas by Aurelio Tolentino. The period from 1905 to 1930 was the golden age of the
zarzuela in the country. With the introduction of the Hollywood talkies (talking pictures, the
zarzuela gradually vanished as a popular theatrical art. The Americans became alarmed by the
rising tide of nationalism among the Filipinos. Thus, they implemented strict censorship of the
press and the stage.
The Sedition Law was passed by the Philippine Commission which declared treasonable the
advocacy of independence during the entire duration of the Filipino-American War. It imposes
death penalty or a long prison term to anyone who advocated separation from the United States
even by peaceful means. Sedition was defined as action pro-independence, meant to inculcate a
spirit of hatred and enmity against the American people and the Government of the United States
in the Philippines and to incite the people to open an armed resistance to the constituted
authorities.
The Flag Law was subsequently passed six years after, which prohibited the public display of the
Filipino flag and other symbols used by the resistance against the United States.
Brigandage Act or Ley de Bandolerismo – punishes with death or with a prison term of not less
than 20 years for members of an armed band. Persons aiding brigands were to be given prison
terms of not less than 10 years.
Reconcentration Act – gave the governor general the power to authorize any provincial governor
to reconcentrate in the towns all residents of outlying barrios if ladrones or outlaws operated in
these areas. This law was passed to facilitate the arrest of guerrillas who were being protected by
the people.
EMERGENCE OF POLITICAL PARTIES

The first political party in the Philippines was the Federal Party. It was founded by a group of
pro American Filipinos headed by Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera in December 1900. Its basic
platform was that of making the Philippines a state of the United States. Owing to its pro-
American leaning, many of those given high positions in the US colonial government in the
Philippines came from this party. As the party was unacceptable to many Filipinos then, leaders
of the Federal Party changed its name to the Progressive Party or Partido Progresista. The Partido
Nacionalista, however, came into being when Henry Ide lifted the ban on political parties
advocating separation from the United States in 1906. This party was actually formed out of the
union of the Partido Independista Immediata and Union Nacionalista. The reason behind the
merger of these two nationalist parties was for them to have a better chance of fighting the
wellorganized Partido Progresista.

THE PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY

The elections for the Philippine Assembly were set on July 10, 1907, after the conditions set
forth by the
Philippine Bill of 1902 were satisfied, namely: complete restoration of peace in the country, and
publication of a census of Philippine population. It can be recalled that President Roosevelt
proclaimed the ending of the FilipinoAmerican War on July 4, 1902. A census was undertaken in
the country on March 2, 1903, results of which were published in 1905. Accordingly, elections
for the Philippine Assembly were set on July 30, 1907. This political exercise gave the people
the opportunity to express their sentiments. Two major political parties fielded their candidates in
this exercise: the Partido Nacionalista which advocated immediate independence from the US
and Partido Progresista which was pro-American in its platform.
Out of the 80 seats in the First Philippine Assembly, 59 seats were won by the Partido
Nacionalista, while 16 seats were won by the Partido Progresista. The remaining 5 seats,
however, were won by Independent candidates. The landslide victory of the Partido Nacionalista
could be attributed to their advocacy of immediate, absolute, and complete independence from
the United States which the Filipino people supported.
The formal inauguration of the First Philippine Assembly was held on October 16, 1907, at the
Grand Opera House. Elected as a speaker was Sergio Osmeña of Cebu, while Manuel L. Quezon
was elected as Majority Floor Leader. The first legislation enacted by this body was the
Gabaldon Act, which allocated one million pesos for the establishment of barrio schools
throughout the Philippines. As an all Filipino lawmaking body, the Philippine Assembly served
as the lower house of the Philippine Legislature, while the Philippine Commission was its upper
house. With the Philippine Assembly in place, Filipinos were able to participate in in the framing
of laws to be implemented in the country. The relation between those two chambers of the
Philippine Legislature was not always harmonious. This was understandable considering that the
Philippine Assembly was pro-Filipino while the Philippine Commission was pro-American. The
conflict between these chambers was finally ended when the Philippine Commission was
abolished by the Jones Law of 1916 and replaced by an all-Filipino Philippine Senate.

RESIDENT COMMISSIONERS
As provided by the Philippine bill of 1902, The Filipinos were represented in the US Congress
by two resident commissioners. On this basis, the Philippine Assembly elected Pablo Ocampo
and Benito Legarda as first resident commissioners to the US Congress. They could even speak
for or against any bill being debated by which affected the Filipino people but had no voting
rights.

FILIPINIZATION OF GOVERNMENT

As a part of the thrust of the US government to train the Filipinos in self-government, it pursued
a policy of appointing qualified Filipinos to government positions. As earlier pointed out, pro-
American Filipinos were designated to high positions during the early years of American
occupation. It can be recalled that Cayetano Arellano was appointed then as Chief Justice of the
Philippine Supreme Court. By 1908, four Filipinos were able to have seats at the Philippine
Commission. Gregorio Araneta became the Secretary of Finance and Justice in the same year,
making him the first Filipino to head an executive department under the American colonial
government.
Filipinization was evident at the local government levels as key government positions were
occupied by Filipinos. Town residents elected directly the town president, vice-president, and
councilor. By 1907, even the provincial governor and the three-man provincial board were
elected directly by the people. The Filipinization of the government gained much headway when
the Democrats emerged victorious in the 1912 elections in the United States. A direct effect on
the Philippines was President Woodrow Wilson’s appointment of Francis Burton Harrison as
governor-general of the Philippines. Harrison served as governor-general of the Philippines from
1913 to 1921. Under his administration, President Wilson appointed the following Filipinos to
the Philippine Commission: Rafael Palma, Jaime C, De Veyra, Victorino Mapa, Vicente Ilustre,
and Vicente Singson Encarnacion. For the
first time, the Filipinos gained control of the Commission. He also worked for the replacement of
American employees in the government service by deserving and qualified Filipinos. To achieve
this program, he went to the point of persuading Americans either to retire or resign from their
post. His move was brought about by his implementation of the policy of broadening
Filipinization of the civil service. At the end of his term, there were only 641 Americans in the
civil service against 2,623 when he assumed his post in the colonial government. While the
Americans worked for the Filipinization of the American colonial government there were
limitations to its enjoyment in Filipino society. One of these was the restraint of elitism. In the
other words of Agoncillo, Filipinization involved only those who belonged to the national and
local elite. Confirming participation to the elite ensured the success of American colonial
administration. THE JONES LAW OF 1916 A very significant step toward self-government and
ultimately independence of the country from the US was the passage of the Jones Law of 1916 or
Philippine Autonomy Act, Which was sponsored by William Atkinson Jones of Virginia. This
Act was signed by President Wilson on August 29, 1916. This piece of American legislation was
significant to the Filipinos at that time. It documented the American promise to grant the country
its independence as soon as a stable government could be established. Moreover, Filipinos were
given greater participation in government, something they never enjoyed during the Spanish Era.
Basically, this law can even be considered a fundamental charter for the Filipino people as it
defined the structure of the government, the powers and duties of government officials, and
provided for a bill of rights for the people.
Executive power was vested in the governor-general whose appointment by the US President
was subject to the approval of the US Senate. The governor-general was given the power to
appoint members of his cabinet, who shall all be Filipinos, subject to the concurrence of the
Philippine Senate. Nonetheless, only the Secretary of Instruction in the cabinet had to be an
American. Under the Philippine Autonomy Act, legislative power was fully given to the
Filipinos. This enactment created the Philippine Legislature composed of the Philippine Senate
as upper chamber and the House of Representatives as lower chamber. Members of both
chambers were elected directly by the Filipino people. Judicial power of government was vested
in the Supreme Court which was composed of a Filipino chief justice and Filipino as well as
American associate justices and judges of the lower courts, notably the courts of first instance
and justice of the peace courts. Members of the Philippine Supreme Court, however, were to be
appointed by the US president with the stamp of approval of the US Senate.

THE PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE

Pursuant to the provisions of the Jones Law of 1916, the Philippine Legislature was soon created.
On October 3, 1916, elections were held for the new law-making body of the country. For the
second time, the Nacionalista Party fielded its candidates against the Progresista Party. Majority
of those who won in these elections came from the ranks of the
Nacionalista Party. Thus, the Nacionalistas dominated both chambers of the Philippine
Legislature. Thirteen days after these elections, the new law-making body of the Philippines was
formally inaugurated. Manuel L. Quezon was elected Senate President, while Sergio Osmeña
was elected Speaker of the House of Representatives. Council of State – created to ensure a good
working relationship between the executive and legislative branches of the government;
established for the purpose of advising the Governor-General on matters of national significance;
it was dominated by Filipinos.

THE WOOD-FORBES MISSION

Sent by President Warding to know the true state of the Philippines.

It was constituted by Major General Leonard Wood and W. Cameron Forbes.
After 4 months of data gathering, it came out with the recommendation of deferring the granting
of Philippine independence due to the poor financial state of the country, bankruptcy of the
Philippine National Bank and the instability of the government.
Leonard Wood
He replaced Francis Burton Harrison as the country’s Governor-General.
He antagonized the Philippine Legislature.
Cabinet Crisis of 1923 – members of the Council of State resigned en masse.
He was not moved by the protests, he even abolished the Board of Control in 1926.
The animosity between Wood and the Filipino leaders stirred the nationalistic sentiments of the
people. The National Supreme Council coalition was founded. Unfortunately, Wood died on
August 7, 1927 while on vacation in the United States.

RESTORATION OF FILIPINO COOPERATION After Wood, Henry I. Stimson, Dwight Davis

and Theodore Roosevelt Jr., took turns in governing the Philippines. Unlike Wood, they blended
Harrison’s liberalism and Wood’s conservatism. As a result, there was a good working
relationship between them and the Philippine Legislature was restored.

EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

Americans gave priority to education.

Americans started opening schools in Manila.
The Philippine public school system was established by virtue of Act No. 74 enacted by the Taft
Commission in January 1901. This provided for free primary education and the establishment of
a school for the training of Filipino teachers.
Other provisions: teaching of English in school, recruitment of trained teachers in the US and the
abolition of compulsory religious instruction.
Thomasites – first American teachers; taught the rudiments of the English language and the
American way of life.
University of the Philippines was created in 1908.
HEIs were established: Centro Escolar University and the Philippine Women’s University.
On February 17, 1905, the Philippine Constabulary School was established. Later, it became the
Philippine Military Academy, the first military officer’s school in the country.
From Intramuros, it was moved to Baguio.
Pensionados – promising Filipinos whose education in the US was shouldered by the Philippine
government.
The country was able to have a breed of future political, civic and business leaders from them.
RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS
Notable among the Protestant sects were Presbyterians, Baptists, Disciples of Christ and
Methodist Episcopalians.

Philippine Independent Church – Aglipayan Church; founded by Isabelo delos Reyes.

Democratic Labor Union – first labor union in the Philippines; also founded by delos Reyes.
Gregorio Aglipay – Supreme Bishop of the Aglipayan Church.
Other Christian denominations were also allowed to practice their faith.
Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) was founded in 1914 by Felix Manalo. The members reject
the doctrine of Trinity and argue the duality of Christ’s nature.
The Seventh-Day Adventists (SDA) bears the Christian Old Testament doctrine of worshipping
on the Sabbath (Saturday).
The Jehovah’s Witnesses is another fundamentalist group. Like the INC, the
Jehovah’s Witnesses rejects the concept of Trinity. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Agriculture was developed; production of sugar, coconut and abaca was promoted.
Modern farm machinery and other farm equipments were introduced.
More land areas were cultivated.
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act – all Philippine exports except rice can freely enter US ports within
quota limits.
Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act – US products could freely enter the Philippines duty-free in
unlimited quantities.

IMPROVEMENTS IN TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION

Roads and bridges were constructed; motor vehicles and airplanes were introduced.
In 1903, Charles M. Swift established the MERALCO (Manila Electric Company). Its original
name was Manila Electric Railroad and Lighting Company, the first company given the franchise
to operate electric cars called tranvia and supply electricity to Manila.
Communication likewise improved with the creation of the Philippine Long Distance Telephone
by virtue of Act No. 3436 in 1928.
Radio was introduced.

PROMOTION OF SOCIAL WELFARE

Victims of natural calamities during those times were provided relief goods by both private and
American government organizations.
Charitable institutions like mental hospital, correctional for juvenile delinquents, school for the
deaf and blind were established to assist the handicapped and less fortunate in life.
Hospitals and clinics throughout the archipelago were established to promote public health and
this lowered the death rate of the Filipinos. In 1910, the Philippine General Hospital (PGH)
located at Taft Avenue, Manila was established by the government to attend to indigent patients.

AMERICAN INFLUENCES ON THE FILIPINO CULTURE

American rule in the Philippines for nearly 50 years undoubtedly influenced many phases of the
Filipino way of life:
Propagation of the use of the English language
English was made the medium of instruction in all schools, colleges, and universities in the
country. It was made the language of business and the medium of communication in the
government.
Filipinos became expert in both oral and written English
Many Filipino writers gained prominence in literature
Local newspapers were published using English as its medium
Bounding Billow – first American newspaper to appear in the Philippines.
American Soldier – first American daily newspaper.
The Americans exported their democratic ideas and institutions to the country in their desire to
train the Filipinos in the art of self-government.
Filipinos learned the principles and concepts of equality, due process of law, human rights,
political party system, suffrage, separation of powers, civil service, etc.
Filipinos adopted and practiced many customs and traditions of the American colonizers.
Halloween, Valentine’s Day (February 14) and Christmas celebrations were imitated by the
Filipinos.
Filipinos were permitted to honor and celebrate the anniversaries of the Filipino national heroes.
The country came to commemorate the Bonifacio Day (November 30) and Rizal Day (December
30).
The Filipino people adopted the American mode of dressing. Men started wearing pants with
belts or with suspenders. For casual wear, polo shirts became popular. Coat-and-tie became the
typical formal attire. The women began to wear skirts, high-heeled shoes, nylon stockings,
artificial eyelashes, make-up and even perfumes.
Mr., Miss or Madam as salutations became conventional. Women were granted more rights in
education, in places of work, and even in politics. Coeducational schools were also instituted.
The American era also marked the improvement of infrastructure as well as community services.
Manila and other population centers had modern buildings constructed along American
architectural lines resembling Greek or Roman temples with entryways.
The architectural plan for the City of Manila and the Quezon Memorial Circle (with eight main
roads encircling from the rotunda) were done by the Americans. It was David Burnham, noted
Chicago architect and town planner who designed Baguio City.
Filipino sculptors were given remarkable recognition in the middle of the 19th century.
Guillermo Tolentino – best known for his masterpiece, the Bonifacio Monument. It is a group
sculpture composed of several figures gathered around a central obelisk. The principal figure is
Andres Bonifacio, the leader of the Philippine revolution in 1896. Behind him stands Emilio
Jacinto. The monument was completed in 1933.
In 1912, two American entrepreneurs made a film about Jose Rizal’s execution. This became a
big hit and greatly inspired the making of the first Filipino film in 1919.
The credit of being the first Filipino to make a film goes to Jose Nepomuceno dubbed as the
Father of Philippine Movies. Nepomuceno’s first movie was based on a highly acclaimed
musical play, Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden) by Hermogenes Ilagan and Leon Ignacio.
Filipinos began to prefer American food, music, recreation and sports.
Basketball and baseball became very popular.
The Americans also trained the Filipinos in various physical activities. Outdoor games such as
softball, calisthenics, football and volleyball and indoor games like bowling, billiard, table
tennis, poker, black jack and other card games became increasingly famous.
The Americans emphasized the importance of sport activities to improve physical fitness and
ease tension arising from work.
They also inculcated in the minds of the players the notion of sportsmanship.
Filipinos became little brown Americans.

NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF AMERICAN OCCUPATION

Development of colonial or stateside mentality among the Filipinos.

2. Filipinos lost their sense of values owing to their exposure to American movies.
3. As materialistic view of life came to be imbibed by the Filipinos, many of their good customs
and traditions came to be discarded, like kissing the hands of the elders and praying together
during the Angelus.
4. Native literature declined as American-educated Filipinos opted to read works of American
authors.
Lesson 16: THE COMMONWEALTH REGIME

Although the Filipinos accepted the American imposition of her sovereignty and had imbibed her
political system and cultural influences, they never forgot their aspiration to become independent
from foreign rule. Their failure to drive the Americans out of the country by force of arms in the
Filipino-Americano war made them realize the need to work for it in a peaceful manner.
Independence missions were, therefore, sent by the Philippine Legislature to the United States
from 1929 to 1934to campaign for

independence. One concrete result of these campaigns was the establishment of the
Commonwealth Regime. This Chapter centers on the Commonwealth Regime and how it prepared
the way for the country’s transition to independence. EARLY AGITATIONS FOR
INDEPENDENCE Agitations manifested their desire to become independent from American rule
during the early years of the American occupation of the country. This desire to become
independent was expressed by the people through their nationalistic writings during the period. As
American colonial leaders viewed these writings as threat to their imposition of sovereignty in the
country, the Philippine Commission legislated two controversial laws to suppress Filipino
nationalism at that time, namely: the Sedition Law, and Flag Law. Under the Sedition Law,
Filipinos were prohibited from advocating independence orally or in writing and threatened
Filipinos with imprisonment and other stiff penalties for violating this law. The Flag Law, on the
other hand, criminalized the display of the Filipino flag.

Nonetheless, Filipino nationalists continued expressing their anti-American sentiments and

aspiration for independence despite the implementation of the Sedition Law and the Flag Law.
Some newspaper boldly published articles clamoring for freedom from American rule. Some
journalists, however, were sued and tried in court and eventually convicted for publishing seditious
and anti-American write-ups. Prior to the lifting of the ban on political parties, only the Federal
Party founded by Pardo de Tavera was allowed to exist in the Philippines. This was because of the
party’s advocacy of American statehood for the country. Pro-independence parties, however,
emerged when Governor Henry Ide lifted the ban on these nationalist parties. Thus, the
Nacionalista Party whose platform was anchored on absolute independence of the country won the
majority of the seats in the Philippine Assembly in the elections of 1907. The establishment of the
Philippine Assembly, dominated by the members of the Nacionalista Party, further gave impetus
for the call among Filipino lawmakers to work for independence from the United States. This was
even echoed by Filipino resident commissioners in the US Congress. One proof of this was that
during the time of Manuel L. Quezon’s stint as resident commissioner in Washington D.C. Quezon
was able to have Jones Law enacted in 1916 which stated the US commitment to grant the
Philippines its independence as soon as a stable government is established therein. As a
consequence of Quezon’s success in securing the aforementioned legislation for the country, he
was able to secure a seat in the Philippine Senate and became its First President.
The campaign for independence, however, was temporarily halted owing to the American
involvement in World War I on April 6, 1917. Filipino leaders set aside their independence
agendum and supported US war efforts against Germany. It organized a national militia to be
trained for service in the war. The people contributed one million pesos to the funds of the US Red
Cross and even purchased about forty million US liberty bonds. A submarine and destroyer were
even donated by our people to the American government. Filipino nationalist leaders, however,
resumed their campaign for Philippine independence right after the end of the World War I. The
Philippine Legislature, therefore, passed a resolution known as Declaration of Purposes on March
17, 1919, pressing for the granting of Philippine independence as the conditions set forth in the
Jones Law of 1961 had been satisfied. This resolution was officially certified by Governor-General
Francis Burton Harrison.
Two American missions were sent by the US government to look in the political conditions of the
country in the view of clamor for independence among its political leaders. The Wood-Forbes
Mission in 1921 made clear in its report to President Warren Harding that the Philippines was not
ready for independence. A similar mission headed by Colonel Carmi A. Thompson was sent to the
Philippines in 1926 by President Calvin Coolidge. Colonel Thompson also asserted in his report
that the US should not yet grant the Philippines its independence as the Filipinos were not prepared
for it. To convince the American government that it was timely to grant independence to the
Philippines, a bill was enacted by the Philippine Legislature calling for a plebiscite in 1927 on the
independence issue. This move was undertaken by Filipino legislators to belie the claim of anti-
Philippine independence groups in the US. President Calvin Coolidge, however, did not put his
stamp of approval on this bill. An independence congress was called by Filipino nationalist leaders
in Manila in 1930. This convention was attended by about 2 000 delegates from the various sectors
of Philippine society. One concrete result of this assembly was the resolution manifesting the
Filipino aspiration to be independent from the United States.
The Independence Missions In order to attain the goal of attaining Philippine Independence in an
efficient and effective manner, a Commission of Independence was created by the Philippine
Legislature. The commission recommended the sending of independence missions to the US. The
first independence mission was sent to the US on February 28, 1919. It was composed of 40 men
representing the various sectors of Philippine society. Heading this mission was Manuel L.
Quezon. This mission was a failure as Congress did not act on the case presented to it by Quezon
and his group. Three years later, a second independence mission was sent to the US. Heading this
mission were Quezon and Osmeña. This mission was sent by the
Philippine Legislature to refute the report submitted by the WoodForbes Mission to President
Harding and reaffirm the Filipino clamor for independence. This also failed as Harding explicitly
pointed out that the time was not yet ripe for the granting of independence to the country. A year
later, the Philippine Legislature dispatched his third independence mission to the United States.
This time, the mission was headed by Manuel A. Roxas. This mission also ended up as a failure
as President Calvin Coolidge just reiterated the position taken by President Harding in 1922. This
was followed by another independence mission in 1927, with Quezon as head. This mission was
sent to the US by the Philippine Legislature for the purpose of disproving the Thompson report
that the country should not be granted independence at this time due to the people’s lack of
preparedness for it.
The OSROX Mission While Quezon was being treated for tuberculosis in
California, Osmeña and Roxas led the ninth independence mission to Washington in December,
1931. Its main task was to secure an independence law for the Philippines from the US Congress.
Osmeña and Roxas were fortunate enough to have an ally in the person of Senator Harry B. Hawes
who had been in Manila to probe into the existing conditions of the Philippines. Thus, Senator
Hawes, together with Senators Hare and Cutting, sponsored an independence bill for the
Philippines, which came to be known as the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill. The bill was approved by
the US Congress in December, 1932. This bill was, however, vetoed by President Hoover. Through
the effective lobbying done by Osmeña and Roxas, the US Congress overrode the presidential veto
and passed the bill on January 17, 1933. This independence law came to be called the HareHawes-
Cutting Act. The act was a fulfillment of the vague pledge in the Jones Law of 1916. It was the
American response to the demands of a series of independence missions sent to Washington by
the Philippine legislature. But this unprecedented transfer of sovereignty was decided upon in the
dark days of the Great Depression of the 1930s – and with the help of some incongruous allies.
The Depression had caused American farm interests to look desperately for relief, and those who
suffered real or imaginary hurt from the competition of Philippine products sought to exclude those
products. They had already failed in a direct attempt to amend the tariff on Philippine imports but
found that the respectable cloak of the advocacy of independence increased the effectiveness of
their efforts. Tied to independence was the end of free entry into American markets of Philippine
sugar, coconut oil, rope, and other less important items. That those economic interests were able
to accomplish what they did is partly explainable by the fact that their political clout was great
compared with that of the small group of American traders and investors in the Philippines. In
May, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt informed Quezon, Osmeña, and Roxas that Filipinos had
to act on the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act before he would consider changes. Quezon wanted to
maintain his leadership and, therefore, accused Roxas and Osmeña of capitulating to unfair trade
terms and accepting the American military and naval bases. The revolutionaries Ricarte,
Aguinaldo, and Bishop Aglipay also opposed this independence law. Nonetheless, the Philippine
Legislature needed to ratify this independence law first before it could take effect. The
Nacionalistas divided into those favoring (Pros) and those opposing (Antis) the HareHawes-
Cutting Act. The bill was rejected on October 17, 1933. Quezon emerged victorious in the
controversy as the majority of the members of the Philippine Legislature were convinced that the
Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act was unfair to the
Filipinos.
Tydings McDuffie Law After the rejection of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law, Quezon went to the
United States to get another law which, in his view, would be better than the HareHawes-Cutting
Law. Late in 1933, Quezon realized that the chances of having a better law passed were nil
(nothing). Faced with embarrassment, Quezon worked with Senator Millard Tydings and
Representative John McDuffie to have the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law reenacted with practically
little change. The Tydings-McDuffie Act was signed by President Roosevelt on March 24, 1934
with one revision: “the retention of naval reservations and fueling stations instead of “the retention
of military and other reservations.” The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for a ten-year transition
period to independence, during which the
Commonwealth of the Philippines would be established. The Commonwealth would have its own
constitution and would be self-governing, although foreign policy would be responsibility of the
United States. Laws passed by the legislature affecting immigration, foreign trade, and the
currency system had to be approved by the United States president. The Framing of the Philippine
Constitution Pursuant to the provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie
Law, a constitutional convention was called to frame a constitution for the Philippine
Commonwealth. An election for the delegates to this convention was held on July 10, 1934, by
special proclamation of Governor-General Frank Murphy. There were 202 delegates who were
elected to this convention. The convention proceeded with its work after its inauguration on July
30,1934, at the hall of the House of Representatives, Legislative Building in Manila.
The session was formally opened by Senate President Manuel L. Quezon. This was followed by
an election of the officers of the convention. Among those elected were the following:
President …………………………………………………………………….. Claro M. Recto; First
Vice-President …………………………………………………..… Ruperto Montinola
Second Vice-President ………………………………………………... Teodoro Sandiko;
Secretary …………………………………………………………………….. Narciso Pementel;
and
Sergeant-at-Arms ……………………………………………………….. Narciso Diocno
The draft of the constitution was prepared by the so-called Seven Wise Men of the convention, a
subcommittee of seven delegates chaired by Filemon Sotto. After completing its task on October
20, 1934, this committee submitted the draft constitution to the Convention for discussion and
deliberation. Debates on each of the provisions of the draft proposed by the members of the
Convention, the same was submitted to the Committee on Style for the finalization of the draft to
be presented to each of the members of the Convention. By a vote of 177 to 1, the draft constitution
was approved by the Convention on February 8, 1935. The proposed constitution was submitted
to President Roosevelt for his approval. This was one of the requirements set forth by the Tydings-
McDuffie Law. A constitutional mission was sent to the US for the purpose composed of Manuel
L. Quezon, Claro M. Recto, and Delegate Roxas. After the stamp of approval from the US
President was obtained on March 23, 1935, the constitution was submitted to the people for
ratification in a plebiscite held on May 14, 1935. Apparently, the people ratified the proposed
constitution, which revealed their zeal to become independent from the United States. This charter
came to be known as the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines.
The 1935 Constitution This Constitution was drafted not for the Philippine
Commonwealth alone but for the future Republic of the Philippines. Under this charter, a
republican government, modeled after that of the US, was established in the country. Three co-
equal branches of government were created under the Constitution of 1935. The executive power
was vested in the President of the Philippines to be elected directly by the people for the term of
six years. The legislative power of the government was vested in a unicameral National Assembly.
Members of the legislature, just like the President of the Philippines, were to be elected directly
by the people. On the other hand, the judicial power of the government was vested in the Supreme
Court and lower courts that may be created by Congress. It also contained a bill of rights which
listed the basic rights Filipino citizens should enjoy and to be safeguarded by the government. The
Establishment of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines After the people’s ratification of the Constitution of 1935, the first elections under this
charter were held on September 17, 1935, for the purpose of the selecting the president, vice-
president and members of the National Assembly. Three political parties fielded their candidates
for the various elective positions at stake then: the Coalition Party, the National Socialist Party;
and the Republican Party. Shown below are the names of the candidates who competed for the
presidency and vicepresidency of the land.
Political Party Presidential Candidate Vice-Presidential
Candidate
 Coalition Party Manuel L. Quezon Sergio Osmeña

National Socialist Emilio Aguinaldo Reymundo Melliza

Republican Party Bishop Gregorio Aglipay Norberto Nabong

The Philippines During the Commonwealth Era Upon the assumption into office, Quezon
proceeded with his work of building the foundations of the future Republic of the Philippines. One
of the problems confronted by Quezon was the peasant unrest in some parts of the country even
before the inauguration of the Philippine Commonwealth. Other problems that the Commonwealth
tried to address were the following: national security, political stability, and economic
development. Agrarian Unrest in Central Luzon Tensions were highest in Central Luzon, where
tenancy was most widespread and population pressures were the greatest. The 1931 Tayug
insurrection north of Manila was connected with a colorum sect and had religious overtones, but
traditionally messianic movements gradually gave way to secular, and at times revolutionary ones.
One of the first of these movements was the Association of the Worthy Kabola (Kapisanan
Makabola Makasinag), a secret society that by 1925 had some 12 000 followers, largely in
Nueva Ecija Province. Its leader, Pedro Kabola, called for liberation of the
Philippines and promised the aid of the Japanese. The Kapatiran Tangulan ng Malayang
Mamamayan or Association for an Offensive for Our Future Freedom movement founded in 1931
was both urban and rural based and had as many as 40 000 followers.

The most important movement, however, was that of the Sakdalistas. Founded in1933 by Benigno
Ramos, a former Nacionalista Party member and associate of Quezon who broke with him over
the issue of collaboration, the Sakdal Party fielded its candidates in the 1934 election on a platform
of complete
independence by the end of 1935, redistribution of land, and an end to caciquism. Sakdalitas were
elected to a number of seats in the legislature and to provincial posts, and by early 1935 the party
may have had as many as 200 000 members. Because of poor harvests and frustrations with the
government’s lack of response to peasant demands, the Sakdalistas took up arms and seized
government buildings in a number of locations on May 2-3, 1935. The insurrection, suppressed by
the Philippine Constabulary, resulted in approximately 100 dead; Benigno Ramos fled into exile
to Japan.
Through the 1930s, tenant movements in Central Luzon became more active, articulate, and better
organized. In 1938 the Socialist Party joined in a united front with the Communist Party of the
Philippines
(Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas – PKP), which was prom
inent in supporting the demands of tenants for better contracts and working conditions. As the
depression wore on and prices for cash crops collapsed, tenant strikes and violent confrontations
with landlords, their overseers, and the Philippine Constabulary escalated.
In response to these deteriorating conditions, President Quezon launched the “Social Justice”
program,
which included regulation of rents – but achieved only meager results. There were insufficient
funds to carry out the program, and implementation was sabotaged on the local level by the
landlords and municipal officials. In
1939 and 1940, thousands of cultivators were evicted by landlords because they insisted on the
enforcement of the 1933 Rice Share tenancy Act, which guaranteed larger shares for tenants.
The Accomplishments of the Philippine Commonwealth
Despite the numerous challenges that Quezon’s Commonwealth Regime confronted, was able to
accomplish the following:
Reorganization of the government. Government was reorganized through the creation of new
government departments and offices like the Department of National Defense, Institute of
Natinal
Language, the National Council of Education, Census Commission, and Commission of Mindanao
and
Sulu. The reorganization was done to comply with the requirements of the Constitution.
Filipinization of the Judiciary. All positions in the judicial branch of government were given
to Filipino
justices. In addition, two new courts were created, namely: the Court of Appeals and the Court of
Industrial Relations.
Granting of Women Suffrage. The 1935 Constitution provided that women suffrage or the
right to vote would be granted if no less than 300 000 qualified women were to vote affirmatively
for the grant of the right within two years after the adoption of the Constitution. In a plebiscite
held on April 30,
1937, a
total of 447 725 women voted for the grant. Thus, by conditional mandate, Filipino women
acquired right of suffrage – to vote and be voted upon.
Creation of New Chartered Cities. The chartered cities created were Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod,
Davao,
Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon City, Cavite, and Tagaytay.
The Adoption of National Language. In his desire to have a common language that would
identify the
Filipino people after its independence from the US, Quezon proclaimed Filipino, based on
Tagalog, as the national language of the country by virtue of Executive Order No. 134 in June,
1940.
Promotion of Social Justice. In recognition of the worth of and dignity of the common tao, which
to
Quezon, was social justice, the following measures were implemented: enactment of the Eight-
Hour Labor Law, the creation of the National Relief Administration, the democratization of access
to education, and the appointment of government lawyers to defend the rights of poor workers in
court. Promotion of the Education of the Filipinos. To promote the education of the Filipinos,
President Quezon created the National Council of Education in 1936 as advisory body on
educational matters. Its first chairman was Dr. Rafael Palma. The council made vital
recommendations for the further improvement of the system of education in the Philippines.
Vocational and adult education were given emphasis under the Commonwealth; in 1938, the
National Assembly passed a law providing for the establishment of national vocation schools in
various parts of the country. An adult education program was started with the creation in 1936 of
the office of Adult Education. By the end of 1940, there were 6 000 school for adults with an
enrollment of more than half a million.
Compulsory Military Training of Able-Bodied Filipino Youths. To ensure the national security
of the country in the event of war, Commonwealth Act No. 1 or the National Defense Act was
enacted; it drafted the defense system of the Philippines. Compulsory military training of all able-
bodied Filipino youths was implemented.
Creation of the JPCA. The JPCA or the Joint Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs
recommended
the granting of Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, and the extension of PhilippineAmerican
preferential trade to December 31, 1960.
Agricultural development. By the end of 1935, there were 4,017,880 hectares of land under
cultivation.
This figure increased to 6,690,539 hectares in 1939. This growth was made possible through
infrastructure development like irrigation systems. Soils surveys were made and local plant
nurseries were
established. More public lands were opened for cultivation as a result of the enactment of the
Public Land
Law, which granted Filipino citizens the right to apply for a homestead of not more than 24
hectares of public agriculture lands. Through this law, many landless Filipinos were able to acquire
their own farmlands.
Enhancement of Domestic Trade. Domestic trade was enhanced by the “Buy
Philippines!” slogan of the National Economic Protectionism Association (NEPA) in 1934. The
NEPA popularized the use of native products like the barong tagalog for men and the balintawak
for women.
Passage of Three Amendments to the 1935 Constitution. These amendments, which were
ratified by the Filipino people on June 18, 1940, were the following: change in the term of the
President and VicePresident to 4 years with reelection for another year; the establishment of a
bicameral Congress of the Philippines, with the Senate as upper house and the House of
Representatives as the lower house; and the creation of an Independent Commission on Elections
[composed of three members] to supervise all elections in the country.
THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1941
November 11, 1941 – the first national election under the amended 1935 Constitution was held.
Presidential Aspirants (they competed with Quezon): 1. Pedro Abad Santos (Socialist Party) 2.
Juan Sumulong (Popular Front) 3. Hilario C. Moncado (Modernist Party) President Quezon and
VP Osmeña were re-elected by the people for a second term. Because of the block voting system
implemented in the elections of 1941, all 24 seats in the newly-created Senate were won by the
Nacionalista Party. In the House of Representatives, all but three seats were won by the minority
parties. Elected officials were inaugurated on December 30, 1941. However, the Commonwealth
Regime was interrupted when the Japanese occupied the Philippines in January 2, 1942:
Commonwealth government went into exile in the US. Quezon died of tuberculosis while in exile
and Osmeña took over the presidency of the Commonwealth. Japanese forces installed a puppet
government in Manila headed by Jose P. Laurel. This came to be known as the Second Philippine
Republic.

Lesson 17: JAPANESE ERA IN THE PHILIPPINES THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC
The preparations of the Commonwealth for an independent Philippines was interrupted when the
war in the Pacific broke out in 1941. The fear of Filipino political leaders, especially Claro M.
Recto, that Japan was a menace to the security of the Philippines, came true. On December 7,
1941, Hawaiian time, Japanese bombers attacked the American fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
Provoked by the attack, President Roosevelt spoke before the joint session of the American
Congress and urged it to declare war against Japan. Immediately, the Congress declared war
against Japan. On December 8, British time, England also declared war against Japan and the war
in the Pacific was on.

THE OCCUPATION OF MANILA

The Japanese naval, military, and air forces took the offensive against the United
States, Britain, and Holland. Their colonies in Asia were attacked – the Philippines,
Malaya, and Indonesia. On December 8 and the succeeding days, the Japanese bombed many
places, including Manila and the suburbs. In order to save Manila from destruction, General
Douglas MacArthur declared it an open city. All guns and other defenses were withdrawn from
Manila. But the Japanese did not honor the declaration of the open city. They continued bombing
it. Meanwhile, Japanese forces landed simultaneously in Northern and Southern Luzon. Both
forces knifed through the Filipino-American defenses, and on January 2 the Japanese forces
entered and occupied Manila.
THE FALL OF BATAAN AND CORREGIDOR
Quezon was very sick when the war broke out. His illness became serious when he learned that
thousands of Filipinos died as a result of Japanese bombing in Bataan and other places. In order to
save him from
the Japanese who were driving toward Manila, MacArthur suggested that Quezon, his family,
together with VP
Osmeña and his family, as well as a few others, should go to Corregidor. In Corregidor, on
December
30,
Quezon took his oath of office to mark the beginning of his second term as President of the
Commonwealth.
With Manila and other parts of Luzon in the hands of the Japanese, Bataan and Corregidor began
to take
heavy beating from the enemy. The help that MacArthur and the Filipinos were expecting from
the United States
did not come. Food was scarce in Bataan and as a result, Filipino and American soldiers suffered
from hunger and diseases. Realizing that Bataan would soon fall, President Roosevelt ordered
Quezon to be transferred to Australia. In March, he also ordered MacArthur to fly to Australia,
from where he would direct military operations against Japan.
Having suffered not only from hunger and diseases but also from enemy bombs and cannon fire,
the American commander in Bataan surrendered on April 9, 1942. Hundreds were killed during
the transit of Filipino and a few American prisoners of war to Capas, Tarlac. This atrocious event
was referred to as the “Death March.”
The Japanese were now free to devote their entire offensive against Corregidor. This tiny island
suffered from the almost ceaseless bombing attacks of the enemy and on May 6, General Jonathan
Wainwright surrendered the Philippines to the Japanese.

GOVERNMENT REORGANIZATION
Shortly after the occupation of Manila by the Japanese forces, General Masaharu Homma, the
Japanese commander-in-chief, ordered the reorganization of the central government. This was
renamed Central Administrative Organization composed of six executive departments – Interior,
Finance, Justice, Agriculture and Commerce, Education, Health and Public Welfare, and Public
Works and Communications. In each department, Japanese “advisers” were installed. The advisers
were actually spies or agents of the Japanese military. All appointments to the headship of
departments had to be approved by the Japanese military authorities. On the provincial and
municipal levels, however, nothing was changed.
EDUCATIONAL POLICY OF THE JAPANESE To gain the sympathy of the Filipinos, the
Japanese military authorities declared that Japanese educational policy would be based on the
spiritual rejuvenation of the Filipinos; the propagation of Filipino culture; the propagation of the
Japanese language and culture; the encouragement of vocational and elementary education; and
the promotion of love of labor. To implement this policy, the Japanese military authorities ordered
the opening of schools, especially those giving courses in agriculture, fisheries, medicine and
engineering. Even if Filipinos were encouraged to go to school, the uncertainty of war conditions
discouraged schooling and other activites.

THE SECOND REPUBLIC

To win the trust of the Filipinos, the Japanese authorities in Japan decided to give Philippines its
independence. This was to show that they were better than Americans because they offered
independence in just a short time. A commission created for the purpose of framing a constitution
was headed by Jose P. Laurel as president. This constitution was approved by a convention on
September 4, 1943. Then on September 5, the National Assembly elected Jose P. Laurel as
President of the
Second Republic and inaugurated on October 14. Despite the efforts exerted by Laurel’s
administration, the prices of commodities, especially foodstuff, increased daily until it was almost
impossible for most Filipinos to eat three times a day. At such times, the Filipinos ate substitutes
such as mango and avocado leaves for tea, papaya leaves for tobacco, corn and kangkong. Rice
was very scarce because the Japanese army either brought all the rice or confiscated it. Thousands
died of hunger. Brutalities and rape were also recorded.
GUERRILLA WARFARE The Filipinos, with very few exceptions, were antiJapanese. Many of
the soldiers who escaped Bataan and Corregidor joined or founded guerrilla organizations.
Guerrilla outfits sprang like mushrooms. Patriotism was at its height. The guerrillas harassed
Japanese army units, ambushed, and killed them. Filipino spies in the employ of the Japanese sent
reports to their guerrilla units. These in turn sent the reports to General MacArthur in Australia.
Among the most famous guerrilla leaders were
Governor Tomas Confesor of Iloilo; Colonel Macario Peralta of Panay; Colonel
Ruperto Kangleon of Leyte; Tomas Cabili, Salipada Pendatun, and Wendell
Fertig of Mindanao; Wenceslao Q. Vinzons of Camarines Norte; Miguel Ver and Eleuterio
Adevoso, who headed the Hunters R.O.T.C. Guerrillas; Marcos Agustin or Marking, who headed
the Marking’s Guerrilla; and Luis Taruc, who led the Hukbalahap. Their guerrilla warfare tactics
made the Japanese conquest of the Philippines very difficult. Because of the Filipino guerrillas,
MacArthur’s return to the Philippines was facilitated. When MacArthur and his forces returned,
the ground was ready for clearing operations.

THE GOVERNMENT-IN-EXILE
Quezon and his party left Corregidor in February 1942. They were brought to Australia and from
there they took a boat to San Francisco, and then by train, reached Washington, D.C. It was in the
U.S. that Quezon reorganized the Commonwealth government. His Cabinet included General
Basilio Valdes,
Secretary of National Defense; Manuel Nieto, Secretary of Agriculture and
Commerce; Joaquin Elizalde, Resident Commissioner; Dr. Arturo B. Rotor, Executive Secretary;
and Jaime Hernandez, Secretary of Finance. Because of war conditions, the Commonwealth
government thought it wise to extend the presidency of Quezon beyond his term of office.
However, Quezon died on August 1, 1944 at Saranac Lake, New York because of tuberculosis. He
was succeeded by Vice President Sergio Osmeña.

THE RETURN OF MACARTHUR

In 1944, the United States began its offensive against Japan. Island after island in the Pacific,
which the Japanese had captured early in the war, fell into the hands of the Americans. In several
naval battles, the American navy won over the Japanese navy. MacArthur, feeling that it was time
to return to the Philippines, ordered all his naval, marine, and air forces to begin the attack on the
Japanese in the Philippines who had for the most part been defeated by the Filipino guerrillas.
Manila and other places were heavily bombed by American airplanes. On October 20, the
American air and naval forces bombarded the Japanese positions in Leyte. On the same day, the
Americans landed on Leyte and the battle for Philippine liberation began. In several encounters,
the Japanese navy was defeated by elements of the American navy which guarded Leyte. As the
Japanese military forces weakened, MacArthur landed in Lingayen, Pangasinan on January 9,
1945. From Lingayen, the American army sliced through Central Luzon and reached Manila at
twilight of February 3, 1945. The American and applied prisoners of war at the University of Santo
Tomas were freed.

THE COMMONWEALTH REESTABLISHED

When Leyte was liberated from the Japanese, MacArthur re-established the Commonwealth on
October 23, 1944, with Tacloban as the temporary capital. MacArthur was the military
administrator; but on February 2, 1945, he turned over the reins of government to President
Osmeña. Then, on July 4, MacArthur proclaimed the liberation of the Philippines from the
Japanese. THE END OF THE WAR With the Japanese defeated in the Philippines, MacArthur
now proposed to carry the war to Japan itself. Hundreds of huge bombers, called Superfortresses,
bombed Japan, particularly Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, and other Japanese cities. President Harry S.
Truman who had succeeded Roosevelt after his death and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of
England demanded for Japan to surrender unconditionally. At first, Japan refused to surrender.
The Americans then dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Faced with
threats of annihilation, Japan surrendered unconditionally. On September 2, 1945, Japan signed
the terms of surrender on board the battleship USS Missouri at Tokyo Bay. The war in the Pacific
was finally over.
*Annihilation – the act of destroying completely

Lesson 18: THE REPUBLIC CONDITIONS AFTER THE WAR

The end of World War II left the Philippines devastated. The Japanese had fought savagely, inch
by inch, and this led to bitter fighting and the destruction of farms, work animals, machinery,
buildings, roads, bridges, and more importantly, thousands upon thousands of Filipino lives. The
heavy bombing of Manila by the Americans to clear the city of Japanese hideouts destroyed
infrastructures needed for economic recovery. For many months, there was no production. There
was widespread unemployment. Food was scarce and thousands died of various diseases. The total
picture was discouraging and desperate. The problems that confronted the Commonwealth were a
challenge to the statesmanship of President Sergio Osmeña who took over after Quezon’s death.
The courage and spirit of cooperation among the people were again put to the test.

AMERICAN AID
Could a country so devastated rehabilitate itself and be ready for
independence? The American Army in the Philippines created an agency to extend immediate aid
to the Filipinos. The Philippine Civil Affairs Unit (PCAU) was set up to help the military
commanders in extending relief aid to the suffering people. Municipal officials and teachers were
paid their salaries by the PCAU. The American Government gave money to the Philippine
government for the purchase of foodstuff, medicine, and clothing for the
Filipinos. However, this money was to be paid back by the Philippine
Government in due time. Distributing centers in Manila and the provinces were established. Rice,
corn, sardines, salmon, and other American goods were distributed to the people. PCAU also
employed Filipino laborers in American military projects and thus, provided money for circulation.
Little by little, many people began to be preoccupied by selling American goods, cigarettes, and
even military clothing.
THE GOVERNMENT REORGANIZED
In order to make the government responsive to the immediate needs of the people, President
Osmeña, in March 1945, reorganized the government. The executive departments, as they existed
immediately before the war, were restored and a new department, the Department of Information
was created. On the insistent suggestion of General MacArthur, Osmeña called Congress to session
to pass laws designed to help solve the serious problems of the country.

AMERICAN FINANCIAL AID

Because in the recently concluded American war, the Filipinos suffered much more than the
Americans, the American Government decided to extend financial aid to the Philippines. After
conducting a survey of the damage done by the Japanese and by the Americans themselves, the
Congress of the United States appropriated 100m$ to be used by the Philippine Government for
its operating expenses and for the redemption of guerrilla notes issued during the war. Moreover,
American Army surplus materials with a sale value of 1m pesos were given to the Philippine
Government. The Philippines was given a loan of 60m$ for purposes of reconstruction.

PARITY RIGHTS TO AMERICANS

Moreover, on October 1945, the American Congress passed a bill into law, known as the Bell
Trade Relations Act, which provided that the free trade relations between the Philippines and the
United States should continue beyond the Commonwealth period or up to 1954. After that year,
Philippine products entering the United States would be taxed 5% each year until the full 100%
was reached in 1974. The law, however, had a questionable provision that required the Filipinos
to amend the Constitution in order to grant the Americans parity rights in the Philippines. This
meant that the Americans, like the Filipinos, would be given the right to dispose, exploit, develop,
and utilize “all agricultural, timber, and mineral lands” in the Philippines. This violated the
Constitution of 1935, which provided that after independence only corporations of which 60% was
owned by Filipinos were allowed to exploit, develop, dispose, and utilize the natural resources of
the country. Many patriotic Filipinos objected to this unjust provision of the Bell Trade Relations
Law, but the majority of the people were hungry and sick and, therefore, helpless. In order to get
the financial aid from the United States, an amendment to the Constitution was passed, to allow
for parity rights.

THE THIRD REPUBLIC PROCLAIMED

When Congress was convened by Osmeña, it proceeded to elect Manuel A. Roxas to the
presidency of the Senate. Roxas wanted to become President of the Philippines, and Osmeña, who
was not in good health, wanted to retire. In the election of April 23, 1946, Roxas was elected
President of the
Commonwealth and, at the same time, the first President of the Third Republic. On July 4, 1946,
a date chosen by the American Government, the proclamation of Philippine independence by U.S.
President Harry S. Truman was read by Paul V. McNutt, the last American High Commissioner to
the Philippines. In the proclamation, President Truman said that the United States was withdrawing
and surrendering “all rights of possession, supervision, jurisdiction, control, or sovereignty now
existing and exercised by the United States of America in and over the territory and people of the
 Philippines.” At the same time, Truman also said that the United States, through him, was
recognizing the “independence of the Philippines as a separate and self-governing nation.”
*The Third Philippine Republic was formally inaugurated on July 4, 1946 at the Luneta Park.
*First time that the Filipinos had a government recognized by foreign nations with the event
attended by guests from 27 countries.
• The Third Republic encountered many problems:
•Reconstruction and rehabilitation
•Peace and order situation
•Moral and spiritual degeneration
• * Six Presidents served the Third Philippine Republic, namely:
• 1. Manuel Roxas
• 2. Elpidio Quirino
• 3. Ramon Magsaysay
• 4. Carlos Garcia
• 5. Diosdado Macapagal
• 6. Ferdinand Marcos (issues for class discussion)
PEOPLE POWER REVOLUTION

- February 22-25, 1986

- Otherwise known as EDSA Revolution

- - Bloodless revolution that united the people in a prayerful, peaceful and successful uprising
against a dictator.

- - Cory Aquino became the new president and immediately, she restored democracy and set free all
political prisoners.
- AQUINO GOVERNMENT

- - Considered Revolutionary because the government of Aquino was not in accordance with the
existing constitution.

- - Had a de facto and de jure status as it is widely accepted by all people and recognized by
community of nations. - It was also claimed as a democratic process because it was installed by
the direct action of the people as an expression of their sovereign will.
June 2 – October 15, 1986

– a Constitutional Commission drafted a new constitution which was approved through a plebiscite
on February 2, 1987. *With this, the revolutionary government self-destructed and on May 11,
 1987, a new set of senators and congressmen were elected to the new Congress. This was followed
by elections in the local levels.
THE RAMOS PRESIDENCY May 11, 1992
– the country held its first general elections under the 1986 Constitution. These elections were
characterized by the presence of so many aspiring candidates representing so many parties.
Fidel V. Ramos
– also known as the Philippines’ Centennial President because the country celebrated the centennial
of Philippine Independence during his term.

– he introduced “Philippines 2000” campaign which aims to hasten the development of the
Philippines so that by the year 2000, it will be a newly industrialized country in Asia.

– he left a legacy of improved economic growth rate and increased investments in the Philippines.
THE ESTRADA ADMINISTRATION
Joseph Estrada

– main program is to alleviate the condition of the poorest Filipinos and to take firm action against
graft and corruption in government.

– his administration was riddled with scandals and setbacks, reason why he was ousted from power
halfway through his 6-year term by “People Power II”, a peaceful revolt on January 17- 20, 2001.

– principal accusation against him was that he was a corrupt president who allegedly accepted illegal
money

– 430 million pesos in payoffs from jueteng and 130 million in tobacco tax money from the province.

– thus, an impeachment complaint was filed against him.

– his impeachment trial lasted for two months but no verdict was given.
– reason: there was allegedly a secret 3 billion peso bank account held by Estrada in the name of
Jose Velarde. The record of this account was in an envelope that had to be shown during the
impeachment proceedings. However, when the senators finally decided to vote if they will accept
the damaging evidence, the majority chose to favour Estrada. The senators and the prosecutors
who wanted to present the evidence were indignant and walked out of the Senate hall. This resulted
to “People Power II” which toppled Estrada from power.
THE MACAPAGAL-ARROYO ADMINISTRATION Gloria Macapagal Arroyo – took her
oath as the 14th President of the Philippines in the presence of the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, Hilario Davide.

Teofisto Guingona Jr. – appointed as Vice-President.

GMA – in her first State of the Nation Address, she declared that the challenge before her was
clear: Sugpuin ang Kahirapan.
 – members of the opposition accused her of massive cheating during the 2004 presidential elections.

– numerous sectors have become disgruntled with the passing of the Expanded VAT
Law, which she pressured Congress into enacting, the Gloria-Gate [scandal], the Calibrated Pre-
emptive Response to suppress the opposition and other groups seeking her ouster and other
scandals allegedly involving the members of her family, like the Jose Pidal Case, involvement in
jueteng by Congressman Arroyo, the fertilizer scam, and the ZTE Broadband Deal, among others.
THE AQUINO III ADMINISTRATION Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III – 15th President
of the Philippines

– first president to be a bachelor, being unmarried and having no children. Jejomar C. Binay, Sr.

– Vice-President *Controversies – for class discussion

1. No wang-wang policy
2. 2. Manila Hostage Crisis

3. 3. PNoy’s Porsche
4. 4. Corona Impeachment
5. 5. Yolanda Aftermath
6. 6. Pork Barrel Scam
7. 7. DAP Controversy

8. 8. Mamasapano Encounter DUTERTE ADMINISTRATION (issues for class discussion) Rodrigo

Roa Duterte – 16th President Maria Leonor Gerona Robredo – Vice President
REFORM MOVEMENT WHAT IS A REFORM?
A reform is… ➢the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc.
➢An act of making changes in (something, typically a social, political, or economic institution
or practice) in order to improve it.

THE BACKLASH •

The death of the three martyred priests did not frighten the Filipinos instead it made them more
determined to fight the evils of Spanish rule. Following groups that caused the reforms:

ILUSTRADOS
➢Came from Spanish word that means “erudite,” “learned,” or the “enlightened ones.” ➢They
were middle classers who were educated in Spanish education and liberal arts. The Ilustrados

PRINCIPALIA
➢They are considered as noble class and educated in the towns of Philippines. ➢They are
usually destined to Spanish government positions like Gobernadorcillo and Cabeza de Barangay.

The Principalia

PROPAGANDISTS
➢were the members of the middle class intellectuals, principled and idealistic young men whose
faith in their motherland and their fellowmen is limitless.

THEY COULD BE DIVIDED INTO THREE GROUPS

 1 st – Filipinos who had been exiled to the Marianas Islands in 1872 after being
associated to the Cavite Mutiny.
 2 nd – Ilustrados in the Philippines who had been sent to Europe for their Education.
 3 rd – Filipinos who had fled their country to avoid punishment for a crime and could not
tolerate any longer the Spanish abuses.

La Solidaridad

➢La Solidaridad (The Solidarity) was an organization created in Spain on December 13, 1888.
➢It was composed of Filipino liberals exiled in 1872 and students attending Europe's
universities.
➢ The organization aimed to increase Spanish awareness of the needs of its colony, the
Philippines, and to propagate a closer relationship between the Philippines and Spain.
Antonio Luna (Taga ilog)
Juan Luna
Mariano Ponce
Dr. Pedro Paterno
Felix Hidalgo (Tignalang/Kapikulako)
Jose Maria Panganiban (Jomapa)

DR. JOSE PROTACIO RIZAL MERCADO Y ALONSO REALONDA BORN:

•June 19, 1861
•Calamba, Philippines

DIED:
•December 30, 1896 (aged 35) •Manila, Philippines

NOTABLE WORKS:
•“The Social Cancer”
•“The Reign of Greed”

FOUNDER OF:
•Liga Filipina
➢He is patriot, physician, and man of letters who was an inspiration to the Philippine nationalist
movement.
➢He wrote works that signified and opened the eyes of the majority of Filipinos.

GRACIANO LOPEZ JAENA

Born: December 18, 1856, Jaro, Iloilo.

Died: January 20, 1896, Barcelona, Spain. (aged 39)

Occupation: Writer, journalist, orator, propagandist.

➢He was a noted orator and pamphleteer, also known as the “Fiery Mouthpiece and Prince of
the Filipino Orators” in the Propaganda Movement.
Among his contributions were the following:
✓Fray Botod [Brother Fatso] ✓La Hija del Fraile [The Priest’s Daughter]
✓Esperanza [Hope]
✓La Solidaridad
MARCELO H. DEL PILAR Y GATMAITAN

Born: August 30, 1850 Bulakan, Bulacan, Captaincy General of the Philippines.
Died: July 4, 1896 (aged 45) Barcelona, Spain. Occupation:
Writer, lawyer, journalist, and freemason.
➢He helped the Propaganda Movement through his speeches and writings about the abusive
friars.
➢He was also the founder of Diariong Tagalog. On December 1889, he took over the
management of La Solidaridad from Graciano L. Jaena.

REFORMIST SOCIETIES

REFORMIST CIVIC SOCIETIES

1. Circulo Hispano-Filipino( Spanish Filipino Association)

✓ This association is composed of Filipino Patriots and Spanish Sympathizers.
✓It was founded July 12, 1888 and formally inaugurated on January 12, 1889 in Madrid.
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2. MASONIC LODGES
•Played an important role in the Reform Movement.
•It also became the “Heart of the Propaganda activities’’ in Spain
 A. Lodge Revolution- founded by Graciano Lopez Jaena in Barcelona on a April 1, 1889.
 B. Lodge Solidaridad- founded by M.H. Del Pilar with the help of Julio Llorante in
Madrid.
 C. Lodge Nilad- this was the 1st masonic lodge established in the Philippines by Serrano
Laktaw on January 6, 1892
 LA LIGA FILIPINA ( The Philippine League)

“ONE FOR ALL” “UNUS INSTAR OMNIUM”

3. LA LIGA FILIPINA
•Established on July 6, 1892.
• The organization was derived from La Solidaridad and the Propaganda Movement.
•Rizal wrote its constitution with the help of Jose Maria Basa, and Ambrocio Salvador became
the first president.
•It was founded at the house of the Doroteo Ong-Juco in Calle,Ilaya,Tondo.

THE AIMS OF THE LA LIGA FILIPINA WERE AS FOLLOWS:

•Unite the whole archipelago.
•Mutual protection to each other.
•Defend against all violence and injustice
•Encouragement of education, agriculture and commerce.
• Study and application of reforms.

THERE WERE VARIOUS REASONS OF THE SAID FAILURE, AMONG OF THESE

WERE:
•Lack of Funds
•Leadership crisis
•Failure of the Spanish Government to attend the problems in the colony.
•Reformists faced financial problem
•Amongst the efforts of the group however, the propaganda movement did not succeed in its
pursuit of reforms.
•The colonial government did not agree to any of its demands. Spain itself was undergoing a lot
of internal problems all that time, which could explain why the mother country failed to heed the
Filipino's petitions.