ANAPHY

CHAPTER 1
 CHAPTER 1: HUMAN ORGANISMS - Insulin level is okay, but the body does not respond
to the hypoglycemic hormone
Human body
- Solution: individual must have healthy eating
- A complex system lifestyle

Homeostasis GDM (gestational diabetes mellitus)

- Balance in the body’s internal environment - There is a high blood glucose during pregnancy
- The human body adjusts its balance among all its - It can disappear after giving birth, but the mother
parts through a process called homeostasis. and the child will have possibility to get type 2
- Pertains to the existence and maintenance of a diabetes after 5 to 10 years
relatively constant environment within the body
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
despite the fluctuation either in the external or the
internal environment Human anatomy and physiology
- HOMEO: THE SAME
- The study of structure and function of the human
- STASIS: TO STOP
body
Islets of the Langerhans
Anatomy
- Cell in the pancreas
- The scientific discipline that investigates the
- Responsible in response to blood sugar increase
structure of the body. (example: the parts and
- It secret/release chemical hormone which is the
chambers of the heart)
Insulin
- This means to dissect, or cut apart and separate the
Insulin body parts of the body for study
- It examines the relationship between the structure
- It is the only hypoglycemic hormone
of the body part
- HYPO: DECREASE
- Came from the Greek words: tomy (cut) and ana
- GLY: GLUCOSE
(apart)= to cut apart
- MIC: BLOOD
- = LOW GLUCOSE IN BLOOD Anatomy can be divided in to two:
- ROLES IN THE BODY:
Gross anatomy
 Regulate blood sugar level- after eating a
carbs, the carbs we ate will be break down - Study large and easily absorbable structure such as
into glucose. The glucose will enter the the hearts and bones
blood stream and the pancreas will
response by producing insulin that will Microscopic anatomy
allow the glucose to enter the body’s cells
- Study body structures that are too to see by the
to provide energy
naked eye (cells and tissues)
 Store excess glucose for energy- excess
glucose will be deliver in liver as glycogen
Two basic approaches to the study of anatomy
Glucose
Systematic anatomy
- A sugar that is the body’s primary source of energy
- Study of the body by systems, such as
3 TYPES OF DIABETES cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular
Type 1 systems.
- The approach taken in this textbook and most
- Can develop in any age but occurs more in children introductory textbooks
and adolescence
- The body has little or no insulin Regional anatomy

Type 2 - The study of organization of the body by areas.

Within each region, such as the head, abdomen or
- More common to adults arm, all systems are studied simultaneously
- One cause why people get this is because of their - This approach taken in most medical and dental
eating lifestyle/ not inborn schools
Anatomists
- Have to general ways to examine the internal
structures of a living person:
 Surface anatomy- the study of external
features, such as bony projections, which
serve as landmarks for locating deeper
structures
Example: the sternum (breastbone) is
issued by health professionals as a
landmark for listening to the heart sounds
 Anatomical imaging- it involves the use of x-
rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), and other technologies to
create pictures of internal structure, such as
when determining if a bone is broken or a
ligament is torn
Physiology
- Study of nature
- The scientific discipline that deals with the process or
functions of living things.
- It has two divisions:
 Physio- nature
 Ology- study
2 major goals in studying physiology:
1. Examining the body’s response to stimuli
2. Examining the body’s maintenance of stable internal
conditions
Subdivisions of Physiology
1. Neurophysiology- nervous systems
2. Cardiac physiology- study of heart
Heart- serves/ act as a muscular pump to keep blood flowing
throughout the body
Major goals of physiology (LECTURE)
1. To understand and predict the body’s response to
stimuli
2. To understand how the body maintains conditions
within a narrow range of values in the presence of
continually changing internal and external
environments
Human physiology
- The study of a specific organism, the human
Cellular physiology
- Focuses on processes inside cells such as the
manufacturing of substances, including proteins
systematic physiology
- Focuses on the functions of organ systems
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
Understand how the body:
- Responds to stimuli
 Environmental changes
 Environmental cues
 Diseases
 Injury
- Maintains stable, internal conditions despite
continually changing environment
Why does we have fever when we have infection
- because the bacteria and viruses in our body struggle to
survive.
*Fever can help kill bacteria in our body, and activate
immune system to produce anti-bodies that will help fight
infections
Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Body
Six structural levels
1. Chemical level
- Smallest level
- Chemical level of organization involves how atoms,
such as hydrogen and carbon, interact and combine
into molecules.
- for example, collagen molecules are strong, ropelike
fibers that give skin structural strength and
flexibility. With old age, the structure of collagen
changes, and the skin becomes fragile and more
easily torn.
Atom
- building blocks of matter
- atoms combined with each other to form molecules
such as water, sugar and proteins
2. cell level
- cells are the basic structural and functional units of
organisms, such as plants and animals.
- Most cells contain smaller structures inside them,
called organelles
- Organelles carry out particular functions, such as
digestion and movement for the cell
 - Molecules can combine to form organelles (or′gă- Spindle- smooth muscle tissue
nelz; little organs), which are the small structures
4. Organ level (organ- a tool)
that make up some cells.
- Organ is composed of two or more tissue types
- All cells have common functions but individual cells
acting together to perform functions
vary on their sizes and shape
- Examples: urinary bladder, skin, stomach, heart,
- For example, the nucleus contains the cell’s
liver, ovary, kidney
hereditary information, and mitochondria
manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a Small intestine
molecule cells use for a source of energy
- This organ digest and absorbs food
microbes in your body - Compose of four tissues: epithelial, connective
muscular, nervous
 Microbe is any life form that can only be seen with a
microscope (ex: bacteria, fungi, protozoa)
5. Organ system level
 Humans have more microbial cells than human cells
- Organ system is a group of organs that together
in our body
perform a common function or set of functions
3 domains of living organisms: - For example, the urinary system consists of the
kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra. The
1. Bacteria- have far fewer separate structures made of kidneys produce urine, which is transported by the
membrane for carrying out the cell’s metabolic ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is stored
process that eukaryotic cells until eliminated from the body by passing through
the urethra.
2. Archaea- constructed similarly to bacteria; however,
they share certain structures, called ribosomes, with Oxygenated blood- away from the heart, cherry red
eukaryotic cells
Deoxygenated blood- going to the heart, dark red
3. Eukarya- include human cells, have the most
structural complexity with many smaller structures eleven major organ systems:
called organelles, surrounded by membranes. These
smaller structures conduct the metabolic process of  integumentary,
the cell  skeletal,
 muscular,
Prokaryotic  lymphatic,
- used to describe bacterial and archaea cells  respiratory,
 digestive,
Microbiota  nervous,
 endocrine,
- the total population of microbial cells on the human
 cardiovascular,
body
- Includes so-called good bacteria, which do not cause  urinary, and
disease and may even help us  Reproductive
- Also includes pathogenic or bad bacteria
6. Organism level
Microbiome - is any living thing considered as a whole, whether
composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of
- the collection of all the microbial cell gens
trillions of cells, such as a human.
- Includes associated microorganisms such as
3. Tissue level
intestinal bacteria
- Tissues are the building blocks of cells
- Highest level of structure
- Tissue is a group of similar cells and the materials
surrounding them human organism
- Tissues four broad types:
 Epithelial - is a complex of organ systems that are mutually
dependent on one another
 Connective
 Muscular bacteria- unicellular
 Nervous
human- trillion of cells
 1. atoms combine to form molecules
2. molecules aggregate into cells
3. cells form tissues, which combine with other tissues to form organs
4. organs work in groups called organ system
5. all organ system work together to form an organism

Major organs of the body:

 brain
 lungs
 heart
 liver
 pancreas
 gallbladder
 large and small intestine
 urinary bladder
 urethra
 spleen
 stomach
 kidney
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

Integumentary System
- Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents
water loss, and helps produce vitamin D.
- Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands.
- Salt and urea help in body temp regulation
- Skin receptors: temp, pressure, pain

Skeletal System
- Provides protection and support, allows body
movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals
and adipose tissue.
- Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments,
and joints.

Muscular System
- Produces body movements, maintains posture, and
produces body heat.
- Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by
tendons
- Machines of the body (muscles)
- No. 1 function of MS- CONTRACT/SHORTEN

Lymphatic system
- Removes foreign substances from the blood and
lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid
balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive
tract.
- Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
thymus, spleen, and other lymphatic tissues.
Respiratory system
- Exhanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
blood and air andregulates blood Ph.
- Consists of lungs, diaphragm, and respiratory passages

Digestive system
- Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of
digestion, absoprion of nutrients and elimination of
wastes.
- Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other accessory
glands
- Role: breakdown food and deliver energy to the body
- Bile in the liver helps breakdown fats

Nervous system
- A major regulatory system that detects sensations and
controls movements, physiological processes, and
intellectual functions
- consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory
receptors
- sensory receptors can be able to detect changes
outside and inside of the body and send message
through nerve impulses
Endocrine system
- a major regulatory system that influences metabolism,
growth, reproduction, and many other functions
- consists of endocrine glands, including the
hypothalamus, pituary, thyroid gland, adrenal gland,
gonads, and other tissues that secrete hormone
- responsible for the release of hormones

Cardiovascular system
- transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and
hormones throughout the body
- plays a role in the immune response and the
regulation of the body temp.
- consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood

Urinary system
- removes waste products from the blood and regulates
blood pH, ion balance and water balance.
- Consists of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and urinary
bladder
- By product of protein metabolism (urea)

Reproductive system
- Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and
fetal development
- Produces milk for the newborn
- Produces hormonse that influence sexual function and
behaviors
- Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
mammary glands, and associated structures
- IMPORTANCE OF REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: to produce
off spring
- Ovaries= egg cell
 Male reproductive system (TETES= SPERM CELLS)
- Produces and transers sperm cells to the female and
produces hormones that influence sexual functions
and behaviors.
- Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and
penis
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Humans- organisms sharing characteristics with other
organisms
Life- the most important common feature of all organisms
6 ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
1. Organization
- Refers to the specific interrelationships among
individuals parts of an organism, and how those
parts interacts to perform specific functions.
- All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. Metabolism
- The ability to use energy to perform other vital
functions, such as growth, movement, and
reproduction.
- Human cells possess specialized proteins that can
break down food molecules to use as a source of
energy.
- Sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining
an organisms
- Uses oxygen and nutrients to produce ATP
- Found in digestive system and respiratory system
- One example hormone that is regulating the
metabolism is Thyroid hormone (T3, T4)
3. Responsiveness
- An organism’s ability to sense changes in the
external or internal environment and adjust to those
changes
- Responses include actions such as moving toward
food or water and moving away from danger or poor
environmental conditions such as extreme cold or
heat.
4. Growth
- Refers to an increase in the size or number of cells,
which produces an overall enlargement in all or parts
of an organism, cell size, or the amount of substance
surrounding cells
- For example, bones grow when the number of bone
cells increases, and bone cells become surrounded
by mineralized materials
5. Development
- Development of person begins during FERTILIZATION
OF EGG CELLS BY THE SPERM
- - development includes the changes an organism
undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization
and ending at death.
- Development usually involves growth, but it also
involves differentiation
- Differentiation involves changes in a cell’s structure
and function from an immature, generalized state to
a mature, specialized state.
- For example, following fertilization, immature cells
differentiate to become specific types of cells, such
as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These
differentiated cells form tissues and organs.
6. Reproduction
- Is the formation of new cells or new organisms.
 Generation of new individuals
 Tissue repair
- Reproduction of cells allows for growth and
development.
- Formation of new organisms prevents extinctions of
species
- Can occur in cellular level or organismal level. In
cellular level nagkakaroon ng cell division that result
 to the production of two daughter cells which we call  For example: 55 kls (body weight) x .60= 33
the mitosis. In organismal level this is where the job kls is water
of reproductive system occurs. This involves sexual  Temperature
intercourse of male and female only.  Normal temp: 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (F),
37 degrees Celsius (Celsius)
 Atmospheric pressure
HOMEOSTASIS

- Fluctuation in the external and internal environment

Negative feedback (to decrease)
are constant for living organisms. the body response
to this fluctuation by a process called homeostasis - Negative feedback is when any deviation from the
- The maintenance of a relatively constant set point is made smaller or is resisted.
environment within the body - Negative feedback does not prevent variation but
- To achieve homeostasis the body must actively maintains variation within a normal range
regulate body conditions that are constantly - One of the mechanisms by which homeostasis is
changing maintained
- Variables (these the changes in body conditions) - Receptors signal the control center, which regulates
- Example of variable: the action of the effectors.
 Body temp - Example: body temperature is too high, so sweating
 Heart rate occurs. Negative feedback stops the sweating when
 Blood pressure the body temperature returns to normal
 Blood glucose levels
Components of Negative Feedback:
 Blood cell counts
 Respiratory rate 1. Receptor
- Monitors the value of a variable, such as body
Normal rage: normal extent of increase or decrease around a
temperature, by detecting stimuli
set point
- Uses afferent pathway

Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted

2. Control center (brain)
depending on body activities, as needed:
- Such as part of the brain, which determines the set
Examples: point for the variable and receives input from the
receptor about the variable
Body temp (common cause of change: fever)

Hear rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate (common cause of 3. Effector (implementation)
change: exercise) - Such as the sweat glands, which can adjust the value
of the variable when directed by the control center,
usually back toward the set point.
- Uses Efferent pathway
Survival needs:

 Nutrients/ food
 Carbohydrates- major energy that provides
fuel for body cells
 Protein
 Fats- essential for building the structures of
the cell. It also cushions the body organs
and provides preserve fuel
 Oxygen
 20-21 % (oxygen)
 78% (nitrogen)
 1-2 % (other gases)
 Water
 Our body weighs 60-70% water

1. Receptors in the skin monitor body temp. if body
temp rises, the receptors send a message to the
control center
2. The control center compares the value of the
variable against the set point
3. If a response is necessary, the control center will
stimulate the effectors, the sweat glands, to produce
their response, which is secretion of sweat.
4. Once the value of the variable has returned to the
set point, the effectors do not receive any more
information from the control center. For body temp,
this means that secretion of sweat stops.
1. Body temp is within its normal range
2. Body temp increase outside the normal range, which
causes homeostasis to be disturbed
3. The body temp control center in the brain responds
to the change in body temp
4. The control center causes sweat glands to produce
sweat and blood vessels in the skin to dilate
5. These changes cause body temp to decrease
6. Body temp returns to its normal range, and
homeostasis is retored
Positive feedback (to increase)
- Occur when a response to the original stimulus
results in the deviation from the set point becoming
even greater
- Example of this is blood clotting. During blood loss, a
chemical responsible for blood clot formation, called
thrombin, stimulates production of even more
thrombin. In this way, a disruption in homeostasis is
resolved through a positive-feedback mechanism
- Another example is childbirth:
 Near the end of pregnancy, the baby’s large
size stretches the uterus
 This stretching, especially around the
opening of the uterus, stimulates
contractions of the uterine muscles
 The uterine contractions push the baby
against the opening of the uterus, which
results in additional stretching
 This positive-feedback sequence ends when
the baby is delivered from the uterus and
the stretching stimulus is eliminated
TWO PRINCIPLES ABOUT HOMEOSTASIS MECHANISM TO
REMEMBER ARE THAT:

1. Many disease states result from the failure of

negative-feedback mechanisms to maintain
homeostasis
2. Some positive-feedback mechanisms can be
detrimental instead of helpful

TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

Foramen- Latin word for hole

Magnum- large
Foramen magnum- large hole in the skull
Appendicitis- inflammation of the appendix

BODY POSITIONS

Anatomical position

- Refers to a person standing upright with the face directed forward, the upper libs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the
hands facing forward

Supine- when lying face upward (higa)

Prone- when lying face downward (dapa)

DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Superior- above
Inferior- below
Anterior- in front of (ventral)
Posterior- behind (dorsal)
NOTE: in four legged animals, the ventral (belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior and posterior in humans
Medial- close to midline/surface
Lateral- away from midline
Proximal- close to point of attachment (nearest)
Distal- far from point of attachment (fathest)
Superficial- structure close to the surface
Deep- toward the interior of the body

BODY PLANES
Planes
- Imaginary flat surfaces

1. Sagittal (cut lengthwise)

- Plante separates the body or a structure into right and left halves
 - Sagittal means “the flight of an arrow”

2. Median plane
- A sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves

3. Transverse (horizontal)
- Plane runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions

4. Frontal (coronal)
- Plane divides the body into front and back halves

Longitudinal section
- A cut along the length of the organ, similar to the cut along hot dog bun
Transverse section (cross section)
- Cuts completely through an organ, similar to cutting a hot dog or banana into round pieces
Oblique section
- Cut is made diagonally across the long axis

BODY REGIONS
Central region:
1. Head
2. Neck
3. Trunk
- Can be divided intro three regions:
 Thorax- chest cavity where the heart and lungs are located
 Abdomen-contains organs such as live, stomach, intestines
 Pelvis- contains the bladder and reproductive organs

Upper limbs:
1. Arm- extends from the shoulder to the elbow
2. Forearm- extends from the elbow to the wrist
3. Wrist-
4. Hand

Lower limb:
1. Thigh- extends from the hip to the knee
2. Leg- extends from the knee to the ankle
3. Ankle
4. Foot
SUBDIVISONS OF THE ABDOMEN
Four quadrants:
1. Right upper
2. Left upper
3. Right lower- appendicitis
4. Left lower
Regions
1. Epigastric- Gerd/ gastro esophageal reflux disease
2. Right & left hypochondriac
3. Umbilical
4. Right & left lumbar
5. Hypogastric
6. Right & left iliac
BODY CAVITIES
2 types of internal cavities
1. Dorsal body cavity
- Encloses the organs of the nervous system, the brain and spinal cord
2 subdivision of dorsal cavity
 Vertebral canal- houses the spinal cord
Meninges- membranes covered brain and spinal cord
2. Ventral body cavity
- Houses the vast majority of internal organs, collectively referred to as the viscera
2 Major Subdivisions
 Thoracic cavity
-more superior to the abdominopelvic cavity and houses primarily the heart and lungs, thymus glands, esophagus,
trachea
Subdivided in two sections:
1. Two lateral pleural cavities- each of which encloses a lung, and are surrounded by the ribs
2. Medial mediastinum- houses the heart and its major blood vessels, In addition to the thymus, the trachea and
the esophagus

 Abdominopelvic cavity
-the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity housed within the peritoneal cavity
-
-consists of:
o Abdominal cavity (superior)
-contains the majority of digestive organs, such as the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen
o Pelvic cavity (inferior)
-continues below the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, urethra, rectum of the large intestine,
reproductive organs

Other body cavity

 Oral and digestive cavity (mouth)- contains teeth and tongue
 Orbital cavity- located in the skull. Houses our eyes
 Middle ear cavity- lies medial to the ear drum
 Nasal cavity- located to the posterior to the nose (likod)
SEROUS MEMBRANES OF THE VENTRAL BODY CAVITY
Serous membranes
- the walls of the body cavities and the surface of internal organs are in contact with membranes called serous membranes
- this membranes are double layered
parietal serous membrane- layer that lines the walls of the cavities
visceral serous membrane- layer covering the internal organs

THORIACIC CAVITY MEMBRANES

1. pericardial Cavity
- containing the heart, housed in the mediastinum
- parietal serous membrane is called the parietal pericardium (thick, fibrous)
- visceral serous membraned is called the visceral pericardium (covers heart)
- space between the two pericardial membrane is called the pericardial cavity (reduces friction) and is fille with pericardial
fluid

2. pleural cavities
- each of two pleural cavities houses a lung.
- Parietal serous membrane lining the pleural cavities is called the parietal pleura (lines inner wall of thorax)
- Visceral serous membrane covering the lungs is called the visceral pleura 9covers lungs)
- The space between the two pleural membrane is called the pleural cavity (reduces friction, adheres lungs to thoracic wall)
and is filled with pleural fluid
 3. Peritoneal cavity
- houses many internal organs, such as the liver, the digestive organs, and the reproductive organs
- Parietal serous membrane in the peritoneal cavity is called parietal peritoneum (lines inner wall of abdominopelvic cavity)
- The visceral serous membrane is called visceral peritoneum (covers, anchors organs// double layers called mesenteries)
- The space between the two serous membranes is the specific location of the peritoneal cavity (reduces friction) and is filled
with peritoneal fluid

Mesenteries
- Covering organs, a double folded sheet of visceral peritoneum attaches the digestive organs at certain points to the
posterior abdominopelvic cavity wall
- Provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs

Retroperitoneal
- Some abdominal organs are tightly adhered to the posterior body wall and are covered by peritoneum only on their
peritoneal cavity side
- Location and include the kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, large portion of the pancreas, parts of the large intestine
- Urinary bladder

pericarditis- there is inflammation in pericardium

pleurisy- inflammation in pleura
peritonitis- inflammation in peritoneum