ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY FOR
CIVIL ENGINEERS

2019
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL GEOLOGY

Geology in Civil Engineering 6

Branches of Geology 7

Earth structure and Composition 15

Elementary knowledge on Continental drift and Plate tectonics 17

Earth Processes 25

Weathering 33

Work of rivers, wind and sea and their engineering importance 40

Origin, occurrence of earthquake 54

Mode of occurrence 63

Prospecting 65

Ground water 69

Importance of Civil Engineering 75

CHAPTER 2: MINERALOGY
Elementary knowledge on symmetry elements of crystallographic systems 79

Physical properties of minerals 82

 Study of following rock forming minerals

 Quartz family, fieldspar family, augite, hornblende, biotte, muscovite, calcite,
garnet
Properties, process of formation of all minerals 110

Coal and Petroleum 114

Their origin and occurrence in India 118

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3: PETROLOGGY
Classification of Rocks 122

Distinction between Ingenious, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks 124

Description occurrence, properties and distribution of following rocks:

a. Igneous Rocks 127

b. Sedimentary Rocks 132

c. Metamorphic Rocks 137

CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK

MECHANICS
Attitude of Beds 143

Outcrops 150

Geological Maps 151

Study of Structures folds, faults and joints 157

Rock Mechanics 160

Physical properties and mechanicals properties of: 166

a. Rocks

b. Porosity

c. Permeability

d. Density

e. Strength

f. Hardness

g. Elasticity

h. Plasticity

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dynamic property of rocks 185

Types of waves theory 187

Factors influencing wave velocity 190

Static and dynamics moduli of elasticity 195

CHAPTER 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL

INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Site investigations 201

Geological methods 206

Geophysical methods 208

Seismic and electrical methods 210

Core boring 213

Logging of cores 231

Geological condition necessary for construction of: 255

a. Dams
b. Funnels
c. Building
d. Road cutting

REFERENCES 268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

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 CHAPTER 1:

GENERAL
GEOLOGY

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LESSON 1: GEOLOGY IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING

Civil engineers who deals with foundations of a structure and works related to
dams and tunnels stability of earth slopes etc. should be knowledgeable of geography,
climate, type of soil and geology (rock formation) etc., of the place they are working in. But
to be exact it is not the job of the civil engineer to the whole details of geography of all the
places possible cause it is for professional geologist to do.

It is important to know that in those projects like dams or foundation of a bridge

where we are going to deal with rocks that the full geological details survey should be done
by an engineering geologist, not by a civil engineer. But the civil engineer should
understand the geologist’s report and the terms used. One of the most important point in
the report is the geological history of the rock formation in the site. Hence in this chapter
we will discuss historic geology to be familiarized with the terms and definitions as used in
a geological report.

Here is an example of a report where the construction site is describe. “The damsite
consists of cretaceous rocks underlying miocene deposits which are overlain by quaternary
deposits”. The geologist are not only concerned in lithological profile of the site, but also
about its history. This chapter objective is to define historical terms used in reports.

QUESTION:

1. How does geology helps in civil engineering?

2. Why is it important that the civil engineer should understand the geological
details of the soil in their project?

3. What is the importance of learning geology in civil engineering?

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LESSON 2: BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
Geology is the scientific study of the all constituents of planets, their internal and
external forms and processes. More precisely, it is the study of nature, structure and
history of the planet. Earth is the home to all life, well known to the humankind. Geology,
itself, is a major part of The Earth and atmospheric sciences, which were born as twins .
The subject of geology encompasses all aspects including the composition, structure,
physical properties, and history of a planets'( like Earth's) interrelated components and
the processes that are shaping the features on the surface. Geologists are the scientists
who study the origin, occurrence, distribution and utilities of all materials (metallic,
nonmetallic, inorganic, etc), minerals, rocks, sediments, soils, water, oil and all other
inorganic natural resources. It is a very vast subject covering a wide spectrum of scientific
principles and holding hundred and fifty plus scientific branches. This report enumerates
and highlights most of them, in a nutshell, for all those who intends to know for planning
their career path. Some more branches could be added as and when needed.

The Subject of Geology: The word "Geology" is derived from the Greek word "geo" means
globe and "logos" means logical discourse. Hence, geology is defined as the logical study of
all of the globe. Today, geology does not restrict its domain to the study of the planet earth
alone. It also includes the study of the other planets and moons of the entire solar system.
Geology is a very vast subject. It has several branches. In the olden days, people divided it
into two broad areas, as physical geology and historical geology. The subject of Physical
geology deals with the study of Earth's materials, such as minerals and rocks, as well as
the processes that are operating on and within the Earth and on its surface. The subject of
Historical geology focuses on the origin and evolution of life on the Earth, its continents,
oceans, atmosphere, and the life of all ecosystems. Historical geology is more than just
concentrating on the past events in geological history. It is the study of the sequential
changes that have happened and evolved continuously during the past 4.6 billion years on
the planet. Geology is a grand parent subject comprising four levels of grand children
branches.

Main Branches

Economic Geology Mineralogy

General Geology Paleonotology

Geotectonics Petrology

Historical Geology Structural Geology

Allied Branches

Engineering Geology Geophysics

Environmental Geology Hydro-geology

Geochemistry Marine Geology

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  ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Economic Geology is the scientific study of the Earth’s sources of mineral raw materials
and the practical application of the acquired knowledge. Economic geology is primarily
concerned with the earth's materials that are used for economic and/or industrial
purposes. These materials include precious stones and base metals, nonmetallic minerals,
construction-grade stones, petroleum minerals, coal, and water. These materials include
precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals, construction grade stone, petroleum
minerals, coal, and water. Economic geology is a sub discipline of the 17 geosciences. It is
“the application of geology”. It might also called as the scientific study of the Earth’s
sources of mineral raw materials and the practical application of the acquired knowledge
The term commonly refers to metallic mineral deposits and all other mineral resources.

The techniques employed by other branches of earth sciences (such as geochemistry,

mineralogy, geophysics, petrology and structural geology) are used to understand,
describe, and exploit an ore deposit. Economic geology may be of interest to other
professions such as engineers, environmental scientists, and conservationists because of
the far-reaching impact that extractive industries have on society, the economy, and the
environment. Economic geology focuses on the properties and characteristics of ores, ore
minerals and gangue minerals, gives an outline of the processes of formation and
classification of ore deposits, the mode of occurrence, origin, distribution (in India) and
economic uses of gold, ores of iron, manganese, chromium, copper, aluminum, lead and
zinc; mica, gypsum, magnesite and kyanite; diamond; coal and petroleum

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering study for the purpose
of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for.
Engineering geologists provide geological and geotechnical recommendations, analysis,
and design associated with human development and various types of structures. The
realm of the engineering geologist is essentially in the area of earth-structure interactions,
or investigation of how the earth or earth processes impact human made structures and
human activities. Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering
study for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location,
design, construction,

operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for.

Engineering geology studies may be performed during the planning, environmental

impact analysis, civil or structural engineering design, value engineering and
construction phases of public and private works projects, and during post-construction
and forensic phases of projects. Works completed by engineering geologists include;
geological hazard assessments, geotechnical, material properties, landslide and slope
stability, erosion, flooding, dewatering, and seismic investigations, etc. Engineering
geology studies are performed by a geologist or engineering geologist that is educated,
trained and has obtained experience related to the recognition and interpretation of
natural processes, the understanding of how these processes impact

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 human made structures (and vice versa), and knowledge of methods by which to
mitigate against hazards resulting from adverse natural or human made conditions. The
principal objective of the engineering geologist is the protection of life and property
against damage caused by various geological conditions. The practice of
engineering geology is also very closely related to the practice of geological
engineering and geotechnical engineering. If there is a difference in the content of the
disciplines, it mainly lies in the training or experience of the practitioner.

 GEOTECTONICS
Geotectonic has a special place among the geological disciplines. Geotectonic is a
subject of earth science which deals with the phenomena of solid earth on a global scale
and the timescale of the earth’s history. It is the subject relating to the shape, structure,
and arrangement of the rock masses resulting from structural deformation of the earth's
crust. It encompasses the aspects like radioactive dating, isotope analysis, and
deformation mechanisms of fault rocks. The research methods are mainly concerned with
the observations and measurements during field work, indoor analyses and
experiments using rock samples, employing modeling and theories to support them. In
trying to discover the deep-lying causes of tectonic processes, geotectonic has to unite the
results of all the Earth sciences. This field also emphasis on the plate geometries,
geodynamical processes, and sedimentary products. Origin and history of major tectonic
elements of the earth, especially their interaction through time are discussed in detail.
Geotectonic deals with solid earth phenomena on a global scale and the timescale of the
earth’s history.

 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
The planet earth has undergone several changes during each geologic period. Great
mountain ranges have been folded up in one period and eroded away in the following one.
Many of them have been uplifted more than once. Some of them often got washed off into
the adjacent depressed zones like basins and seas. Historical geology is the discipline that
uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the past
geological history of Earth. It is a major branch which deals with the records of events of
earth history and with the historical sequence and evolution of plants and animals of past
ages. Its object is to arrange the events of earth history in the regular chronological order
of their occurrence and to interpret their significance. Fortunately, the historical records
are preserved in the layered rocks of the crust. Historical Geology is , sometimes , called as
Stratigraphical Geology. It brings together all collated details of other Branches of Geology
like Paleontology, petrology and structural geology, pertaining to age-wise correlated beds.

 MINERALOGY
The history of mineralogy is as old as humankind. Minerals have been an
important part of our society since the time of prehistoric man. Mineralogy is the branch
of geology concerned with the study of minerals. The early writings on mineralogy were
devoted to gemstones, mostly seen in the records of ancient Babylonia, the ancient
Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India

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and the ancient Islamic World. The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the
principles of crystallography. It is the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure,
and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy
include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their
geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. There are several different branches
to mineralogy

 PALEONOTOLOGY
Paleontology (US spelling) or palaeontology (UK spelling) is the scientific study of
the developing history of life on earth. It is the study of ancient plants and animals based
on their fossil record. It is a fact that the evidence of existence of all life on earth, since the
origin, are mostly preserved in rocks. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks,
burrows, cast off parts, fossilized faeces ("coprolites"), and chemical residues. Body fossils
and trace fossils are the principal types of evidences that help to know about the ancient
life. In addition, the geochemical evidences also help to decipher the evolution of primitive
life existed before. The subject of Paleontology helps to determine the organisms' evolution
and interactions with each other and their environments (their paleoecology). It also
heavily relies on the two subjects such as biology and geology. It differs from archaeology
in that it excludes the study of anatomically modern humans. It uses techniques drawn
from a wide range of allied sciences like biochemistry, mathematics, and engineering. Use
of all techniques from other sciences, has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the
evolutionary history of life, almost all the way back to the origin of Earth. As the
knowledge level has increased, paleontology became a specialised subject with more and
more sub-divisions. Some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms , while the
other branched out and orients towards the ecology and environmental history of ancient
climates. On several fronts, paleontology overlaps with geology (the study of rocks and
rock formations) as well as with botany, biology, zoology and ecology. Today, paleontology
has become a very big subject with its own branches. These branches are unique in their
applications.

The major subdivisions of paleontology include paleozoology (animals), paleobotany

(plants) and micropaleontology (microfossils) and palynology. Paleozoologists may
specialise in invertebrate paleontology, which deals with animals without backbones or in
vertebrate paleontology, dealing with fossils of animals with backbones, including fossil
hominids (paleoanthropology). Micropaleontologists study microscopic fossils, including
organic-walled microfossils whose study is called palynology. There are many developing
specialties such as paleobiology, paleoecology, ichnology (the study of tracks and burrows)
and taphonomy (the study of what happens to organisms after they expire). Major areas of
study include the correlation of rock strata with their geologic ages and the study of
evolution of life forms.

 PETROLOGY
Petrology is the scientific study of rocks, their composition, texture, and structure,
their occurrence, distribution and origin in relation to physicochemical conditions and
geologic processes of formation. It is concerned with all three major types of rocks—

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igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses
on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a
petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are
described in detail. Petrologic, petrographic, and petrogenetic studies can be applied to
igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks. The classification of rocks is based on the
information acquired during the petrographic analysis. Petrographic descriptions start
with the field notes at the outcrop and include all macroscopic description of hand
specimens. The most important tool for a petrographer is the petrographic microscope. The
detailed analysis of minerals by optical mineralogy in thin section and the microtexture
and structure are critical to understanding the origin of the rock. EPMA- Electron
microprobe analysis of individual grains as well as the whole rock chemical analysis by
atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescence, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, are
used for understanding the genesis and distribution. Analysis of microscopic fluid
inclusions, within the mineral grains, with a heating stage on a petrographic microscope,
provides clues to the temperature and pressure conditions existent during the mineral
formation.

 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural geology is the scientific study of the three-dimensional distribution of
rock units with respect to their deformational genesis and histories. The primary goal of
structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover the
information about their origin and history of deformation (strain) in the rocks. It helps to
understand the stress field that resulted in the observed features of strain and geometries.
This understanding can also be linked to important events in the geologic past. These can
also help to find out the date of events. Once the nature of these rocks are determined,
petroleum geologists can discover if petroleum, natural gas, or other natural resources
that are trapped within the rocks. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other
metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas. Structural Geology aims to
characterise deformation structures (geometry), to characterize flow paths followed by
particles during deformation (kinematics), and to infer the direction and magnitude of the
forces involved in driving deformation (dynamics). This subject is a field-based discipline.
Field Geology is a branch which requires the knowledge of Geomorphology, Petrology,
Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Structural Geology and GIS. Structural geology is an
essential part of engineering geology, which is concerned with the physical and mechanical
properties of natural rocks.

 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY
Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the
practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems.
It is a multidisciplinary field that is closely related to engineering geology and, to a lesser
extent, to environmental geography. Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an
applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the
solving of environmental problems. It is a multidisciplinary field that is closely related to
engineering geology and, to a lesser extent, to environmental geography. Each of these
fields involves the study of the interaction of humans with the geologic environment,

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including the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and to some extent the
atmosphere. In other words, environmental geology is the application of geological
information to solve conflicts, minimizing possible adverse environmental degradation or
maximizing possible advantageous condition resulting from the use of natural and
modified environment.

 GEOCHEMISTRY
Geochemistry is a branch that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain
the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans.
The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the entire Solar
System . This subject has made important contributions to the understanding of a number
of processes including mantle convection, the formation of planets and the origins of all
kinds of rocks, minerals, mineral fuels, soils and valuables. The mobility of all elements on
in and out of a planet are fully studied under geochemistry. Today. geochemistry is a
major branch of Earth Science that applies varieties of chemical principles to deepen the
understanding of the planets. Geochemists consider the globe composed of discrete spheres
— rocks, fluids, gases and biology — that exchange matter and energy over a range of time
scales. An appreciation for rates of reactions and the range of physical conditions
responsible for the chemical expressions of each sphere provides the significant framework
to study the co-evolution of the solid Earth, its oceans, atmosphere, biosphere, and
climate. Sub-disciplines of geochemistry include biogeochemistry, organic geochemistry,
trace and elemental geochemistry, and metamorphic and igneous-rock geochemistry. The
wings of geochemistry are, Organic Geochemistry, Inorganic Geochemistry, Stable Isotope
Geochemistry, Light Stable Isotope Geochem, Metallic Element Stable Isotope Geochem,
Actinide/Radionuclide Geochemistry, Petroleum Geochemistry, Aqueous Geochemistry,
Environmental Geochemistry, Biogeochemistry, and Planetary Geochemistry. It involves
thermodynamics, and analytical chemistry as major tools and techniques. The analytical
instruments and their use are also a part of it. The instruments include inductively-
coupled plasma and stable-isotope mass spectrometers, a chromFTIR lab, fully automated
electron microprobe, X-ray diffractometer, laser Raman, SEM, and several other
equipment facilities.

 GEOPHYSICS
Geophysics is a major subject of natural science. It is a core branch of geology. It is
concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its
surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis.
The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications: Earth's shape;
its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics
and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and
rock formation. The study includes the water cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics
of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and

magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated

with the Moon and other planets. Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate
discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic

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compasses were made from lodestones, while more modern magnetic compasses played an
important role in the history of navigation. The first seismic instrument was built in 132
BC. Isaac Newton applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the precession of the
equinox; and instruments were developed to measure the Earth's shape, density and
gravity field, as well as the components of the water cycle. In the 20th century,
geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the
ocean, and geophysics played an essential role in the development of the theory of plate
tectonics.

Today, Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as mineral resources,

mitigation of natural hazards and environmental protection. Geophysical survey data are
used to analyze potential petroleum reservoirs and mineral deposits, locate groundwater,
find archaeological relics, determine the thickness of glaciers and soils, and assess sites for
environmental remediation. While there are many divisions of geophysics such as
oceanography, atmospheric physics, climatology, and planetary geophysics, this brochure
describes 25 three of the most popular The major branches of geophysics are:

1. Biogeophysics – study of how plants, microbial activity and other organisms alter
geologic materials and affect geophysical signatures.

2. Exploration geophysics – the use of surface methods to detect concentrations of ore

minerals and hydrocarbons. 3. Geophysical fluid dynamics – study of naturally occurring,
large-scale flows on Earth and other planets.

4. Geodesy – measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational

field.

5. Geodynamics – study of modes of transport deformation within the Earth: rock

deformation, mantle convection, heat flow, and lithosphere dynamics.

6. Geomagnetism – study of the Earth's magnetic field, including its origin, telluric
currents driven by the magnetic field, the Van Allen belts, and the interaction between the
magnetosphere and the solar wind.

7. Mathematical geophysics – development and applications of mathematical methods and

techniques for the solution of geophysical problems.

8. Mineral physics – science of materials that compose the interior of planets, particularly
the Earth.

9. Near-surface geophysics – the use of geophysical methods to investigate small-scale

features in the shallow (tens of meters) subsurface.

10. Paleomagnetism – measurement of the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field over
the geologic past.

11. Seismology – study of the structure and composition of the Earth through seismic
waves, and of surface deformations during earthquakes and seismic hazards.

12. Tectonophysics – study of the physical processes that cause and result from plate
tectonics. Branches of geophysics: Petroleum Geophysics and Environmental Geophysics.

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  HYDRO-GEOLOGY
Hydrogeology is the study of the distribution and movement of water in aquifers
and shallow porous media—that is, the porous layers of rock, sand, silt, and gravel below
the Earth's surface. Hydrogeology examines the rate of diffusion of water through these
media as the water moves down its energy gradient. The flow of water in the shallow
subsurface is also pertinent to the fields of soil science, agriculture, and civil engineering.
The flow of water and other fluids (hydrocarbons and geothermal fluids) in deeper
formations is relevant to the fields of geology, geophysics, and petroleum geology.
Geohydrology is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of
groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust. The term geohydrology is often
used interchangeably.

 MARINE GEOLOGY
Marine geology or geological oceanography is the study of the history and structure
of the ocean floor. It involves geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and
paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal zone. Marine geology has
strong ties to physical oceanography. Marine geology or geological oceanography is the
study of the history and structure of the ocean floor. It involves geophysical, geochemical,
sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal zone.
Marine geology has strong ties to geophysics and to physical oceanography. Marine
geological studies were of extreme importance in providing the critical evidence for sea
floor spreading and plate tectonics in the years following World War II. The deep ocean
floor is the last essentially unexplored frontier and detailed mapping in support of both
military (submarine) objectives and economic (petroleum and metal mining) objectives
drives the research.

QUESTION:

1. What are the most important branches of Geology?

2. Why does Geology is important to the field of Civil Engineering?
3. State the importance of Engineering Geology and Environmental Geology.

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LESSON 3: EARTH STRUCTURE AND
COMPOSITION

Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on composition. The crust makes up less
than 1 percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and continental crust is often
more felsic rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth’s mass.
Finally, the core is mostly iron metal. The core makes up about 31% of the Earth.
Lithosphere and asthenosphere are divisions based on mechanical properties.
The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that
behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The asthenosphere is partially molten upper mantle
material that behaves plastically and can flow.

 Crust
Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust
is very thin, relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of
crust, each with its own distinctive physical and chemical properties. Oceanic crust is
composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools deeper
down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily muds and the
shells of tiny sea creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near the shore where it
comes off the continents in rivers and on wind currents. Continental crust is made up of
many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The average
composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of the
oceanic crust. Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises
higher on the mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins. When
filled with water, these basins form the planet’s oceans. The lithosphere is the outermost
mechanical layer, which
behaves as a brittle, rigid solid.
The lithosphere is about 100
kilometers thick. The definition
of the lithosphere is based on
how earth materials behave, so
it includes the crust and the
uppermost mantle, which are
both brittle. Since it is rigid and
brittle, when stresses act on the
lithosphere, it breaks. This is
what we experience as an
earthquake.

Figure 1. EARTH STRUCTURE

 Mantle
The two most important things about the mantle are: (1) it is made of solid rock, and
(2) it is hot. Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from

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seismic waves, heat flow, and meteorites. The properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite,
which is made of the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate minerals. Peridotite is rarely found
at Earth’s surface.Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot because of the heat
flowing outward from it and because of its physical properties. Heat flows in two different
ways within the Earth: conduction and convection. Conduction is defined as the heat
transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if the
material is solid. Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same
temperature. The mantle is hot mostly because of heat conducted from the core.
Convection is the process of a material that can move and flow may develop convection
currents. Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a stove.
Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up. As the
core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move more rapidly, decreasing its
density and causing it to rise. The rising material begins the convection current. When the
warm material reaches the surface, it spreads horizontally. The material cools because it
is no longer near the core. It eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down
into the mantle. At the bottom of the mantle, the material travels horizontally and is
heated by the core. It reaches the location where warm mantle material rises, and the
mantle convection cell is complete.

 Core
At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal
for a few reasons. The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the overall
density of the planet, as calculated from the planet’s rotation. If the surface layers are less
dense than average, then the interior must be denser than average. Calculations indicate
that the core is about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal making up much of the
remaining 15 percent. Also, metallic meteorites are thought to be representative of the
core. If Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field. Metals
such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not.
Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid because S-waves
stop at the inner core. The strong magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid outer
core. Convection currents in the outer core are due to heat from the even hotter inner core.
The heat that keeps the outer core from solidifying is produced by the breakdown of
radioactive elements in the inner core.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the two types of crust and its properties?

2. What is the Earth’s core made up of?

3. Which layer make up the asthenosphere?

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LESSON 4: ELEMENTARY
KNOWLEDGE ON CONTINENTAL
DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS

Several centuries ago, observers looking at

global maps noticed the similarity in outline of the
eastern coast of South America and the western
coast of Africa (figure 3.1). In 1855, Antonio Snider
went so far as to publish a sketch showing how the
two continents could fit together, jigsaw-puzzle
fashion. Such reconstructions gave rise to the bold
suggestion that perhaps these continents had once
been part of the same landmass, which had later
broken up.

Wegener began to publish his ideas in 1912 and

continued to do so for nearly two decades. He
proposed that all the continental landmasses had
once formed a single supercontinent, Pangaea
(Greek for “all lands”), which had then split apart,
Figure 1. The jigsaw-puzzle fit of South
the modern continents moving to their present America and Africa suggests that they
positions via a process called continental drift. were once joined together and subsequently
separated by continental drift.
Several other prominent scientists found the idea
intriguing. However, most people, scientists and
nonscientists alike, had difficulty visualizing how something as massive as a continent
could possibly “drift” around on a solid earth, or why it should do so. In other words, no
mechanism for moving continents was apparent. There were obvious physical objections to
solid continents plowing through solid ocean basins, and there was no evidence of the
expected resultant damage in crushed and shattered rock on continents or sea floor. To a
great many reputable scientists, these were insurmountable obstacles to accepting the
idea of continental drift.

As it turns out, additional relevant evidence was simply undiscovered or unrecognized at

the time. Beginning in the 1960s, data of many different kinds began to accumulate that
indicated that the continents have indeed moved. Continental drift turned out to be just
one consequence of processes encompassed by a broader theory known as plate tectonics.
Tectonics is the study of largescale movement and deformation of the earth’s outer layers.
Plate tectonics relates such deformation to the existence and movement of rigid “plates”
over a weaker, more plastic layer in the earth’s upper mantle.

 Plate Tectonics—Underlying Concepts

As already noted, a major obstacle to accepting the concept of continental drift was
imagining solid continents moving over solid earth. However, the earth is not rigidly solid
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from the surface to the center of the core. In fact, a plastic zone lies relatively close to the
surface. A thin shell of relatively rigid rock can move over this plastic layer below. The
existence of plates, and the occurrence of earthquakes in them, reflect the way rocks
respond to stress.

 Stress and Strain in Geologic Materials

An object is under stress when force is being applied to it. The stress may be
compressive, tending to squeeze or compress the object, or it may be tensile, tending to
pull the object apart. A shearing stress is one that tends to cause different parts of the
object to move in different directions across a plane or to slide past one another, as when a
deck of cards is spread out on a tabletop by a sideways sweep of the hand.

Strain is deformation resulting from stress. It may be either temporary or permanent,

depending on the amount and type of stress and on the physical properties of the material.
If elastic deformation occurs, the amount of deformation is proportional to the stress
applied, and the material returns to its original size and shape when the stress is
removed. A gently stretched rubber band or squeezed tennis ball shows elastic behavior.

 Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

The earth’s crust and uppermost mantle are somewhat brittle and elastic. Together they
make up the outer solid layer of the earth called the lithosphere, from the Greek word
lithos, meaning “rock.” The lithosphere varies in thickness from place to place on the
earth. It is thinnest underneath the oceans, where it extends to a depth of about 50
kilometers. The lithosphere under the continents is both thicker on average than is
oceanic lithosphere, and more variable in thickness, extending in places to about 250
kilometers.

The layer below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which derives its name from the
Greek word asthenias, meaning “without
strength.” The asthenosphere extends to an
average depth of about 300 kilometers in the
mantle. Its lack of strength or rigidity results
from a combination of high temperatures and
moderate confining pressures that allows the
rock to flow plastically under stress. Below the
asthenosphere, as pressures increase faster
than temperatures with depth, the mantle
again becomes more rigid and elastic.
Figure 2. The outer zones of the earth. The
terms crust and mantle have compositional The asthenosphere was discovered by studying
implications lithosphere and asthenosphere
describe physical properties. The lithosphere the behavior of seismic waves from earthquakes.
includes the crust and uppermost mantle. The Its presence makes the concept of continental
asthenosphere lies entirely within the upper
mantle. Below it, the rest of the mantle is more drift more plausible. The relationships among
rigidly solid again. crust, mantle, lithosphere, and asthenosphere
are illustrated in figure 3.

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  Locating Plate Boundaries
The distribution of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions indicates that these phenomena
are far from uniformly distributed over the earth. They are, for the most part,
concentrated in belts or linear chains. This is consistent with the idea that the rigid shell
of lithosphere is cracked in places, broken up into pieces, or plates. The volcanoes and
earthquakes are concentrated at the boundaries of these lithospheric plates, where plates
jostle or scrape against each other.

 Plate Tectonics—Accumulating Evidence

Through the twentieth century, geologists continued to expand their knowledge of the
earth, extending their observations into the ocean basins and applying new instruments
and techniques, such as measuring magnetism in rocks, or studying the small variations
in local gravitational pull that can provide information about geology below.

 The Topography of the Sea Floor

Those who first speculated about possible drifting continents could not examine the sea
floor for any relevant evidence. Indeed, many assumed that the sea floor was simply a
vast, monotonous plain on which sediments derived from the continents accumulated.
Once topographic maps of the sea floor became available, however, several striking
features were revealed (figure 3.3). There were long ridges, some thousands of kilometers
long and rising as much as 2 kilometers (1.3 miles) above the surrounding plains, thus
rivaling continental mountain ranges in scale. Examples can be seen along the western
edge of South America, just south of the Aleutian Islands, and east of Japan. Studies of
the ages and magnetic properties of seafloor rocks, as described below, provided the keys
to the significance of the ocean ridges and trenches.

Figure 3. Global relief map of the world, including seafloor topography.

Note ridges and trenches on the sea floor.

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  Magnetism in Rocks—General
The rocks of the ocean floors are rich in ferromagnesian minerals, and such minerals
are abundant in many rocks on the continents as well. Most iron-bearing minerals are at
least weakly magnetic at surface temperatures. Each magnetic mineral has a Curie
temperature, the temperature below which it remains magnetic, but above which it loses
its magnetic properties. The Curie temperature varies from mineral to mineral, but it is
always below the mineral’s melting temperature. A hot magma is therefore not magnetic,
but as it cools and solidifies, and iron-bearing magnetic minerals crystallize from it, those
magnetic crystals tend to line up in the same direction. This is the basis for the study of
paleomagnetism, “fossil magnetism” in rocks.

The explanation for magnetic reversals must be related to the origin of the magnetic field.
The outer core is a metallic fluid, consisting mainly of iron. Motions in an electrically
conducting fluid can generate a magnetic field, and this is believed to be the origin of the
earth’s field. (The simple presence of iron in the core is not enough to account for the
magnetic field, as core temperatures are far above the Curie temperature of iron.)
Perturbations or changes in the fluid motions, then, could account for reversals of the
field. The details of the reversal process remain to be determined.

Figure 5. Age distribution of the sea floor superimposed on a shaded relief map. (“B.P.”
means “before present”). Note relative spreading rates of Mid-Atlantic Ridge (slower) and
East Pacific Rise (faster), shown by wider color bands in the Pacific. -Atlantic Ridge
(slower) and East Pacific Rise (faster), shown by wider color bands in the Pacific.

 Age of the Ocean Floor

The ages of seafloor basalts themselves lend further support to this model of seafloor
spreading. Specially designed research ships can sample sediment from the deep-sea floor
and drill into the basalt beneath.

The time at which an igneous rock, such as basalt, crystallized from its magma can be
determined by method. When this is done for many samples of seafloor basalt, a pattern
emerges. The rocks of the sea floor are youngest close to the ocean ridges and become
progressively older the farther away they are from the ridges on either side (see figure

3.4). Like the magnetic stripes, the age pattern is symmetric across each ridge. As seafloor
spreading progresses, previously formed rocks are continually spread apart and moved

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farther from the ridge, while fresh magma rises from the asthenosphere to form new
lithosphere at the ridge. The oldest rocks recovered from the sea floor, well away from
active ridges, are about 200 million years old.

 Polar-Wander Curves
Evidence for plate movements does not come only from the sea floor. For reasons
outlined later in the chapter, much older rocks are preserved on the continents than in the
ocean—some continental samples are over 4 billion years old—so longer periods of earth
history can be investigated through continental rocks. Studies of paleomagnetic
orientations of continental rocks can span many hundreds of millions of years and yield
quite complex data.

Magnetized rocks of different ages on a single continent may point to very different
apparent magnetic pole positions. The magnetic north and south poles may not simply be
reversed but may be rotated or tilted from the present magnetic north and south. When
the directions of magnetization and latitudes of many rocks of various ages from one
continent are determined and plotted on a map, it appears that the magnetic poles have
meandered far over the surface of the earth— if the position of the continent is assumed
to have been fixed on the earth throughout time. The resulting curve, showing the
apparent movement of the magnetic pole relative to the continent as a function of time, is
called the polar wander curve. We know now, however, that it isn’t the poles that have
“wandered” so much.

How Far, How Fast, How Long, How Come?

Past Motions, Present Velocities

Rates and directions of plate movement have been determined in a variety of ways.
As previously discussed, polar-wander curves from continental rocks can be used to
determine how the continents have shifted. Seafloor spreading is another way of
determining plate movement.

Figure 6. Seismic tomography is a technique that

uses seismic-wave velocities to locate areas of colder rock
(blue) and warmer rock (red). The deep cold rocks in this
cross section may be sunken slabs of cold subducted
lithosphere; the warmer columns at right, mantle plumes.

The direction of seafloor spreading is usually obvious: away from the ridge. Rates of
seafloor spreading can be found very simply by dating rocks at different distances from the
spreading ridge and dividing the distance moved by the rocks.

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Another way to monitor rates and directions of plate movement is by using mantle hot
spots. These are isolated areas of volcanic activity usually not associated with plate
boundaries. They are attributed to rising columns of warm mantle material ( plumes),
perhaps originating at the base of the mantle . Reduction in pressure as the plume rises
can lead to partial melting, and the resultant magma can rise through the overlying plate
to create a volcano. If we assume that mantle hot spots remain fixed in position while the
lithospheric plates move over them, the result should be a trail of volcanoes of differing
ages with the youngest closest to the hot spot.

Looking at many such determinations from all over the world, geologists find that average
rates of plate motion are 2 to 3 centimeters per year. In a few places, movement at rates
over 10 centimeters per year is observed, and, elsewhere, rates may be slower, but a few
centimeters per year is typical. This seemingly trivial amount of motion does add up
through geologic time. Movement of 2 centimeters per year for 100 million years means a
shift of 2000 kilometers, or about 1250 miles!

Why Do Plates Move?

A driving force for plate tectonics has not been identified. For many years, the most widely
accepted explanation was that the plates were moved by large convection cells slowly
churning in the plastic asthenosphere. According to this model, hot material rises at the
spreading ridges, some magma escapes to form new lithosphere, but the rest of the rising
asthenosphere material spreads out sideways beneath the lithosphere, slowly cooling in
the process. As it flows outward, it drags the overlying lithosphere outward with it, thus
continuing to open the ridges. When it has cooled somewhat, the flowing material is dense
enough to sink back deeper into the asthenosphere.

Movements between Plates

It is believed that the plates can move between themselves just like ice blocks floating on
ice water in figure 1.7 producing various forces between the plates causing earthquakes.

Figure 7. Movements of continental plates.

 Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle

In the previous chapter, we noted that all
rocks may be considered related by the
concept of the rock cycle. We can also look at
the rock cycle in a plate-tectonic context, as

illustrated in figure 8. New igneous rocks

Figure 8. An ocean-continent convergence

22 | P a g e zone illustrates some of the many ways in which
plate-tectonic activity transforms rocks.
form from magmas rising out of the asthenosphere at spreading ridges or in subduction
zones. The heat radiated by the cooling magmas can cause metamorphism, with
recrystallization at an elevated temperature changing the texture and/or the mineralogy
of the surrounding rocks. Some of these surrounding rocks may themselves melt to form
new igneous rocks. The forces of plate collision at convergent margins also contribute to
metamorphism by increasing the pressures acting on the rocks. Weathering and erosion
on the continents wear down preexisting rocks of all kinds into sediment. Much of this
sediment is eventually transported to the edges of the continents, where it is deposited in
deep basins or trenches. Through burial under more layers of sediment, it may become
solidified into sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks, in turn, may be metamorphosed or
even melted by the stresses and the igneous activity at the plate margins. Some of these
sedimentary or metamorphic materials may also be carried down with subducted oceanic
lithosphere, to be melted and eventually recycled as igneous rock. Plate-tectonic processes
thus play a large role in the formation of new rocks from old that proceeds continually on
the earth.

SUMMARY

This chapter gives a short account of the rocks subjected to stress may behave either
elastically or plastically. At low temperatures and confining pressures, they are more
rigid, elastic, and often brittle. At higher temperatures and pressures, or in response to
stress applied gradually over long periods, they tend more toward plastic behavior.

The outermost solid layer of the earth is the 50- to 100- kilometer-thick lithosphere, which
is broken up into a series of rigid plates. The lithosphere is underlain by a plastic layer of
the mantle, the asthenosphere, over which the plates can move. This plate motion gives
rise to earthquakes and volcanic activity at the plate boundaries. At seafloor spreading
ridges, which are divergent plate boundaries, new sea floor is created from magma rising
from the asthenosphere. The sea floor moves in conveyor belt fashion, ultimately to be
destroyed in subduction zones, a type of convergent plate boundary, where oceanic
lithosphere is carried down into the asthenosphere. It may eventually be remelted or sink
as cold slabs down through the mantle. Magma rises through the overriding plate to form
volcanoes above the subduction zone. Where continents ride the leading edges of
converging plates, continent-continent collision may build high mountain ranges.

Present rates of plate movement average a few centimeters a year. One possible driving
force for plate tectonics is slow convection in the asthenosphere; another is gravity pulling
cold, dense lithosphere down into the asthenosphere, dragging the asthenosphere along.
Plate-tectonic processes appear to have been active for much of the earth’s history. They
play an integral part in the rock cycle—building continents to weather into sediments,
carrying rock and sediment into the warm mantle to be melted into magma that rises to
create new igneous rock and metamorphoses the lithosphere through which it rises,
subjecting rocks to the stress of collision— assisting in the making of new rocks from old.

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QUESTIONS

1. What causes strain in rocks? How do elastic and plastic materials differ in their
behavior?

2. Define the terms lithosphere and asthenosphere. Where are the lithosphere and
asthenosphere found?

3. Describe the rock cycle in terms of plate tectonics, making specific reference to the
creation of new igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

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LESSON 5: EARTH PROCESSES

Earth processes shape the Earth’s surface and the sedimentary deposits that record
those processes link human timescales to geologic history. The dynamic environments at
Earth’s surface reflect connections between biological, physical and chemical systems. The
study of earth processes is based on number of fundamental principles, some of which are
unique. The earths topographic features are a mixture of landforms being formed at the
present time and others that have been shaped in the past by processes no longer active, it
embraces the investigation of both the mechanics of modern processes and the historic
influence of geologic time. The former includes an understanding of the physics and
chemistry of surface processes that generate landforms, and all the latter adds the
element of time to landforms that evolves over period of time too long to study in the
context of modern processes. The origin of landforms can be related to a particular geologic
process, or set of processes, and the landforms thus developed evolve with time through a
sequence of forms having distinct characteristics at successive stages. (Davis, 1990)

The surface processes responsible for most of the earth’s topographic features are
weathering, mass wasting, running water, ground water, glaciers, waves, wind, tectonism,
and volcanism. Considering the mechanics, and in some cases the chemistry, and of each
of the processes, followed by the analysis of the landforms that they create and the
evolution of such forms with time. The earth processes bestows distinctive features on the
landscape and develops characteristics assemblages of landforms from which the origin of
the forms can be identified. In the very same way that fingerprints can be used to identify
a person.

Earth’s surface is a dynamic interface across which the atmosphere, water, biota,
and tectonics interact to transform rock into landscapes with distinctive features crucial to
the function and existence of water resources, natural hazards, climate, biogeochemical
cycles, and life. Interacting physical, chemical, biotic, and human processes “Earth surface
processes” alter and reshape Earth’s surface on spatial scales that range from those of
atomic particles to continents and over time scales that operate from nanoseconds to
millions of years. The study of Earth surface processes and the landscapes they create is
rich with open questions and opportunities to make fundamental scientific advances and
to understand and predict the interactions, causes, and effects of these processes.
Scientists who study Earth’s “surface processes” have a distinctive and novel ability to
contribute to understanding how Earth’s surface changes with time and resolving
important environmental challenges that may arise from these changes.

Research in Earth surface processes has grown significantly in the last two decades, in
response largely to two factors. First, scientists, policy makers, and the public have
become increasingly aware of the impact of human activity and climate change on Earth’s
surface. The changes to Earth’s surface affected by natural events and by humans, notably
through land use, have altered the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of soils,
mountains, prairies, rivers, coasts, and watersheds. Thus, society has heightened its
demand for scientific guidance in making decisions concerning the future of Earth’s
surface. Second, development of new analytical and computing tools has markedly

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increased our ability to examine Earth’s surface at high spatial and temporal resolution
and to develop models that can help to understand the speed and magnitude over which
surface processes interact and affect changes.

 EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS
Landforms evolve with time through a continuous sequence of forms having typical
features at successive stages of development, largely as a result of continuous changes in
processes and rates as time goes on. Given example is the basin of Navation, formed under
a permanent snowfield below the snowline, it enlarges until the snow and ice accumulate
to form a glacier, which then develops a steep upper headwall and create a scoured basin.
The changes in the landforms are progressive, and the forms evolve continuously.

 MONITORING EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES AT HIGH RESOLUTION IN

SPACE AND TIME
The evolution and increasing availability of new measurement technologies has
enabled many of the advances in Earth surface processes. Technological advances in
remote sensing, geochemistry, geochronology, and computing have fostered great progress
in the study of Earth’s surface. For example, recent advances in the areas of digital
topography and geochronology enable scientists not just to conduct research faster or more
accurately, but to make observations and interpretations that were not possible
previously.

 DIGITAL TOPOGRAPHY

Throughout history, the creation of maps has been a means of recording observations that
enable us to find and denote paths and patterns and to generate hypotheses about the
controls on the spatial relationship of features. Topographic maps, depicting land
elevation and displaying landforms, have been crucial to scientific inquiry about the Earth
and have been central to land development. In the 1980s, a profound step was taken when
line drawings of elevations on topographic maps were digitized and the landscape could be
represented via digital elevation models on computers. This innovation launched
thousands of scientific studies exploiting this new capability and ultimately gave rise to
many new practical applications. In the last decade, technological advances have enabled
the first airborne and satellite-mounted surveys of topography using radar
(interferometric synthetic aperture radar, InSAR) and laser (light detection and ranging,
or lidar) technology, giving unprecedented spatial resolution over large areas. This
development has led to a second wave of digital topographic studies that are transforming
not just research in Earth surface processes, but also the fields of agriculture, ecology,
engineering, and planning. With regard to Earth surface processes, digital elevation data
enable us to examine, for the first time, topographic features over broad areas using
computer-automated techniques. This ability is leading to new insights and tools that link

26 | P a g e
 landscapes to hydrology, geochemistry, tectonics, and climate. Although many
digital elevation data are coarse in scale for studying the features, for example, of
mountain belts with long, high hillslopes, the data have been truly revolutionary. The
advances in the past decade are akin to those of the 1960s in the fields of seismology and
geophysics, when accessibility to global seismic and paleomagnetic data and new tools to
process such signals spurred the plate tectonics revolution and greater understanding of
Earth’s subsurface processes.

One of the most recent transformative phases in the measurement and characterization of
landscape topography has been the ongoing development of laser surveying, both from the
ground and from airborne instruments. This method is referred to as lidar, or airborne
laser swath mapping (ALSM) in the case of aerial surveys. High-resolution swath
bathymetry uses sonar for the same types of measurements in marine environments. With
lidar, a laser pulse is sent from the instrument, and the time for its return from a reflected
surface is detected and used to calculate distance. Current technology permits typical
accuracies to about 5 to 10 centimeters vertically and 20 to 30 centimeters horizontally,
with data returns every few decimeters. From these returns a point cloud of elevation data
is created; various analytical methods are then used to distinguish vegetation from
ground. Obtaining surveys over broad areas that document topography at the resolution at
which transport, erosion, and deposition processes operate. Lidar data also capture
important quantitative attributes of vegetation that can be used in studies. of
ecohydrology and eco geomorphology. Landslide scars, channel banks, river terraces,
floodplain features, fault traces, and other landforms can be detected, quantified, and used
to advance theoretical and practical understanding. Repeat scans allow change detection
as never previously possible. These techniques also permit improved understanding of the
human impact on types and rates of geomorphic processes.

Documenting topography at the

resolution of transport and erosion
processes. Area in red box on the
digital air photo is the area covered
by the upper lidar images. Image
width of the digital air photo is 3
kilometers.
Figure 9. TOPOGRAPHY

SOURCE: National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping

(NCALM), Bottom Image courtesy of Google Earth.

 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
Landforms are produced either by directly offsetting the land surface or by
secondary erosion of rocks of differing resistance. Most of the earth’s major features, such
as the mountain ranges and the configuration of the continents and the ocean formed
basins which are the results of large-scale motion of crustal plates. Direct offsetting of the
land surface is known as neotectonism, referring to very recent crustal activity. For
example, an escarpment created by fault movement is a land form caused directly by
tectonic movement. The etching out of the valleys and ridges by erosion of rocks of

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differing resistance whose spatial configuration is determined by the geologic structure.
Recent erosions has etched out the weaker beds into valleys and the more resistant ones

into ridges whose position and orientation are determined by the earlier crustal
deformation. Usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth.
These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains. Repeated
applications of force the folding of already folded rocks or the faulting and offsetting of
already faulted rocks can create a very complex geologic picture that is difficult to
interpret. Most of these forces are related to plate tectonic activity. Some of the natural
resources we depend on, such as metallic ores and petroleum, often form along or near
geologic structures. Thus, understanding the origin of these structures is critical to
discovering more reserves of our nonrenewable resources.

 GEOMORPHIC SYSTEMS
The understanding of surface processes and geomorphic systems involves
application of a number of concepts common to all scientific disciplines. These concepts
include uniformitarianism, equilibrium, and positive feedback.

 EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEM
An equilibrium system is one in which a delicate balance exists between opposing
forces such that any change in the variables that control the system produces a change in
one or more of the other variables to generate a new balance. In late 1884, Le Chatelier
expressed the concept that a change in any variables governing the equilibrium of a
chemical system will cause a compensating change among other variables that will
establish stability in the system. The general equation is known as the equilibrium was
anticipated seven years before Le Chatelier by American geomorphologist G.K. Gilbert. He
applied the concept of negative feedback to explain streams that transport as much load as
they are capable of carrying without either eroding or depositing any of it, a condition he
called graded. If a graded stream has a steeper slope than that required to develop the
velocity it needs for transporting the load, the increased velocity accompanying the
steeper slope will lead to entrainment of more channel material, and erosion of the bed
will lower the slope until the velocity is adjusted to just transport the load. A change in
slope from steep to gentler will have the opposite effect – increasing the slope by
deposition of material in the channel. In this way, a graded stream produces a smooth
longitudinal profile of equilibrium. Every reach of graded stream is part of an equilibrium
system, and any interruptions of the variables controlling the system will introduce waves
of erosion and deposition that over through the system until a new equilibrium is
produced. In geomorphic equilibrium, negative feedback processes counteract external
changes to the system and stabilize the system by making adjustments within it. For the
given example coarse of debris, beyond the capacity of the stream of transport, is
introduced into a stream, deposition occurs in time, thereby it is needed to increase the
sloping of the channel and the increasing of velocity of flow until it is sufficient to
transport the newly added coarse material, at which time has a new steady state is
attained.

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 The applied concept of Gilbert to hillslopes and pediments in the western part of the
United States. He then identified equilibrium in stream channels, equilibrium of
hillslopes, and equilibrium of control of pediments. Each of the systems responds to

changes in controlling the variables by evoking a change in the system, which

reestablishes new balance. Gilbert’s importance was recognized by Davis his work about
the perception of equilibrium in streams and slopes. Davis incorporated them into his
work concept which is the cycle of erosion. Mackin also placed great emphasis on the
profile of equilibrium in his classic 1948 paper on the graded stream: according to Mackin
“Its diagnostic characteristics is that any change in any of the controlling factors will
cause a displacement of the equilibrium in a direction that will tend to absorb the effect of
change.”

Time is a critical element in geomorphic equilibrium because of most natural

geomorphic systems are dynamic and equilibrium must be considered in a framework of
long or short periods of geologic time. In his definition of a graded stream, Mackin
wrestled with the problem of changes in as fluvial system “over a short period of years” in
order to deal with changes in streams that occur hourly, daily, weekly and so on. Most of
these short term changes balance out in the long run and do not really produce a lasting
geologic effect.

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIA

A. STEADY STATE EQUILIBRIUM

FIGURE A

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 B. DECLINING EQUILIBRIUM

FIGURE B

A. DYNAMIC EQULIBRIUM

FIGURE C

B. METASTABLE EQUILIBRIUM (EPISODIC EROSION)

FIGURE D

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 C. DYNAMIC METASTABLE EQUILIBRIUM (EPISODIC EROSION)

FIGURE E

The steady state equilibrium has an under conditions that change very little with
time. For example, an erosional surface of low relief in the latter stages of the cycle of
erosion. The figure A illustrates the two variations of this type of equilibrium and that the
conditions are constant. Figure B has small variations in forms oscillate about a constant
average condition, and a short-term change offset one another, so that the overall trend
does not deviate significantly. Declining Equilibrium occurs when the rate of change

declines with time to successively lower the rate of change in figure C. A related type of
equilibrium known as dynamic equilibrium, consists of small variations about a changing
average condition. Short term oscillations do not entirely offset on another so that the
average trend changes progressively. This type of equilibrium is characteristics of graded
streams and graded slopes in the cycle of erosion where the rate of erosion of streams
slowly changes as topographic relief of an area diminishes with time.

 UNIFORMITARIANISM
To understand the origin of relict landforms created by ancient processes, one must
understand modern processes and use this knowledge to extrapolate into the past. Implicit
the assumption of basic physical and chemical processes that apply to the present and
equally to the past and the future, this concept was championed by Hutton and Lyell as
uniformitarianism. This concept is often stated as, “The present is the key to past,”
meaning that the clue to recognition of the origin of relict landform lies in studying
present landforms. Care may be exercised in the application of uniformitarianism due to
rate of surface processes may have actually existed in the past but may not be operative in
the present. Given example is the difficulty of interpreting relict glacial landform if
glaciers were not present today. However, in most cases, landforms may be understood by
extrapolation of present processes backward in time.

 POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM

Positive feedback occurs when a change in the input variable causes magnification
of change in the direction of the initial adjustment. The bend of the stream meander
causes the water to enhance erosion on the outside of the bend, which cause the bend to
enlarge, which in turn cause accelerated erosion on the outside of the bend, until finally

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two meanders intersect and destroy one another. Positive feedback system thus carry the
source of their own destruction and eventually accelerate to self-elimination.

QUESTIONS:

1. Explain your understanding about the three concepts of geomorphic systems.

2. What are the importance of earth processes?
3. What features are the topographic features responsible for the earth processes?

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LESSON 6: WEATHERING

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the earth’s surface by the action of

rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the
removal of rock material. There are three types of weathering: physical, chemical and
biological.

The weathering of rocks due to the physical and chemical processes that take place in the
rocks near the surface by the atmospheric agencies, which lead to its disintegration and
decomposition, is called the surface weathering. Another form is the changes that take
place deep down the rock, due to chemical action. Thus, there are two processes that
constitute weathering of rocks. They are:

1. Mechanical Disintegration. In this process the rock is split into smaller pieces or
even soils, but the character of the product of this type of weathering of a given rock is the
same. An example is the conversation of rock into sand.

2. Chemical Weathering. In this process the rock (mineral assemblage) decomposes

to other products. The weathered product and original rock grains need not be the same.
An example is the conversion of rock into clay.

The process of weathering represents an adjustment of the minerals of which a rock is

composed to the conditions prevailing on the surface of the Earth. As such, weathering of
rocks is brought about by physical disintegration, chemical decomposition and biological
activity. It weakens the rock fabric and exaggerates any structural weaknesses, all of
which further aid the breakdown processes. A rock may become more friable as a result of
the development of fractures both between and within mineral grains. The agents of
weathering, unlike those of erosion, do not themselves provide for the transportation of
debris from the surface of a rock mass. Therefore, unless the rock waste is otherwise
removed, it eventually acts as a protective cover, preventing further weathering. If
weathering is to be continuous, fresh rock exposures must be constantly revealed, which
means that the weathered debris must be removed by the action of gravity, running water,
wind or moving ice.

Weathering also is controlled by the presence of discontinuities in that they provide access
into a rock mass for the agents of weathering. Some of the earliest effects of weathering
are seen along discontinuity surfaces. Weathering then proceeds inwards so that the rock
mass may develop a marked heterogeneity with corestones of relatively unweathered
material within a highly weathered matrix. Ultimately, the whole of the rock mass can be
reduced to a residual soil. Discontinuities in carbonate rock masses are enlarged by
dissolution, leading to the development of sinkholes and cavities within the rock mass.

The rate at which weathering proceeds depends not only on the vigour of the weathering
agents but also on the durability of the rock mass concerned. This, in turn, is governed by
the mineralogical composition, texture, porosity and strength of the rock on the one hand,
and the incidence of discontinuities within the rock mass on the other. Hence, the
response of a rock mass to weathering is directly related to its internal surface area and
average pore size. Coarse-grained rocks generally weather more rapidly than fine-grained

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ones. The degree of interlocking between component minerals is also a particularly
important textural factor, since the more strongly a rock is bonded together, the greater is
its resistance to weathering. The closeness of the interlocking of grains governs the
porosity of the rock. This, in turn, determines the amount of water it can hold, and hence,
the more porous the rock, the more susceptible it is to chemical attack. Also, the amount of
water that a rock contains influences mechanical breakdown, especially in terms of frost
action. Nonetheless, deep-weathered profiles usually have been developed over lengthy
periods of time. The type and rate of weathering varies from one climatic regime to
another. In humid regions, chemical and chemico-biological processes are generally much
more significant than those of mechanical disintegration. The degree and rate of
weathering in humid regions depends primarily on the temperature and amount of
moisture available. An increase in temperature causes an increase in weathering. If the
temperature is high, then weathering is extremely active; an increase of 10∞C in humid
regions more than doubles the rate of chemical reaction. On the other hand, in dry air,
chemical decay of rocks takes place very slowly.

Weathering leads to a decrease in density and strength, and to increasing deformability.

An increase in the mass permeability frequently occurs during the initial stages of
weathering due to the development of fractures, but if clay material is produced as
minerals breakdown, then the permeability may be reduced. Widening of discontinuities
in carbonate rock masses by dissolution leads to a progressive increase in permeability.

Civil Engineers are interested in weathering of rocks as they meet with the products of
weathering as well as the original rock itself in their construction.

 Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical or physical weathering is particularly effective in climatic regions that
experience significant diurnal changes of temperature. This does not necessarily imply a
large range of temperature, as frost and thaw action can proceed where the range is
limited.

Alternate freeze–thaw action causes cracks, fissures, joints and some pore spaces to be
widened. As the process advances, angular rock debris is gradually broken from the parent
body. Frost susceptibility depends on the expansion in volume that occurs when water
moves into the ice phase, the degree of saturation of water in the pore system, the critical
pore size, the amount of pore space, and the continuity of the pore system. In particular,
the pore structure governs the degree of saturation and the magnitude of stresses that can
be generated upon freezing (Bell, 1993). When water turns to ice, it increases in volume by
up to 9%, thus giving rise to an increase in pressure within the pores it occupies. This
action is further enhanced by the displacement of pore water away from the developing ice
front. Once ice has formed, the ice pressures rapidly increase with decreasing
temperature, so that at approximately -22 ∞C, ice can exert a pressure of up to 200 MPa.
Usually, coarse-grained rocks withstand freezing better than fine-grained types. The
critical pore size for freeze–thaw durability appears to be about 0.005 mm. In other words,
rocks with larger mean pore diameters allow outward drainage and escape of fluid from
the frontal advance of the ice line and, therefore, are less frost susceptible. Fine-grained
rocks that have 5% sorbed water are often very susceptible to frost damage, whereas those

34 | P a g e
containing less than 1% are very durable. Nonetheless, a rock may fail if it is completely
saturated with pore water when it is frozen. Indeed, it appears that there is a critical
moisture content, which tends to vary between 75 and 96% of the volume of the pores,
above which porous rocks fail. The rapidity with which the critical moisture content is
reached is governed by the initial degree of saturation.

The mechanical effects of weathering are well displayed in hot deserts, where wide diurnal
ranges of temperature cause rocks to expand and contract. Because rocks are poor
conductors of heat, these effects are mainly localized in their outer layers where alternate
expansion and contraction creates stresses that eventually rupture the rock. In this way,
flakes of rock break away from the parent material, the process being termed exfoliation.
The effects of exfoliation are concentrated at the corners and edges of rocks so that their
outcrops gradually become rounded (Fig. 3.2). However, in hot semi-arid regions,
exfoliation can take place on a large scale with large slabs becoming detached from the
parent rock mass. Furthermore, minerals possess different coefficients of expansion, and
differential expansion within a polymineralic rock fabric generates stresses at grain
contacts and can lead to granular disintegration.

There are three ways whereby salts within a rock can cause its mechanical breakdown: by
pressure of crystallization, by hydration pressure, and by differential thermal expansion.
Under certain conditions, some salts may crystallize or recrystallize to different hydrates
that occupy a larger space (being less dense) and exert additional pressure, that is,
hydration pressure. The crystallization pressure depends on the temperature and degree
of supersaturation of the solution, whereas the hydration pressure depends on the
ambient temperature and relative humidity. Calculated crystallization pressures provide
an indication of the potential pressures that may develop during crystallization in narrow
closed channels. Crystallization of freely soluble salts such as sodium chloride, sodium
sulphate or sodium hydroxide often leads to the crumbling of the surface of a rock such as
limestone or sandstone. Salt action can give rise to honeycomb weathering in porous
limestone or sandstone possessing a calcareous cement.

There are two types of mechanical weathering (a) Block disintegration (b) Granular
disintegration. In both cases, the products remain the same as the original material. Only
the size of the product changes.

In block disintegration massive rock is broken up to large blocks. Granular

disintegration results from the loss of cohesion between individual mineral grains. This
takes place more on the coarser variety of rocks like granite. The agents of mechanical
weathering are:

1. Temperature changes

2. Living things like trees and those that bore holes

3. Mechanical abrasion of wind and water

We will examine how these influence the weathering of rocks.

1. Temperature Changes: All the rocks, especially igneous rocks have joints. In addition,
rocks, especially igneous rocks, are made of minerals in very close contact. In sedimentary

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rocks, the formation is such that there will be a filling material between rock pieces that
become sedimentary rocks.

Rocks when heated, expands, but on cooling it does not come back to its original
length. There is some residual strain which is very small. Imagine, this has been
happening from last many millions of years. The exposed rock which has been heated and
cooled can break up into blocks because of this reason.

Another reason for the breaking up of igneous rocks is the difference in coefficients
of expansion of the different minerals which are in close contact in these rocks. This can
result in large strains in the rock on heating and resultant in cracking into blocks or even
disintegration into small pieces.

These changes affect rocks with large crystals like granite more than other rocks
like basalt. This principle (effect of heat on rocks) has been used for quarrying granite in
some countries.

The conversion of a large mass of rocks into blocks at the surface along steep slopes
leads to rock-falls in the mountains regions due to gravity.

2. Effects of living things: Growing of trees in joints of rocks can lead to disintegration of
the rock. Similarly boring of holes by animals also affect weathering of rock.

3. Mechanical abrasion due to wind, flowing water etc.: The abrasive effect of wind and
flowing water can also lead to the smaller amount of weathering, and the effect depends
on the intensity of wind and flow of water.

 Chemical Weathering
In the chemical weathering, the product of weathering is different from the parent
rock as it undergoes chemical changes. The changes that can happen are such as

1. Carbonation

2. Solution (as in limestones)

3. Hydration

4. Oxidation

The atmosphere contains oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, several inert gases, moisture
etc. In addition, the water that flows on the ground among decaying vegetation will
contain many reactive chemical substances like carbon dioxide, organic acids etc. These
contribute to chemical weathering. Many minerals are changed to other substances with
different chemistry. This is known as chemical weathering. Among the processes specified
above for making chemical changes carbonation and solution are the important ones. For
example, the mineral orthoclase present in rocks, becomes kaolinite by carbonation. The
weathering of granite to laterite is due to solution. The process of chemical disintegration

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affects basic rocks like basalt more than the other rocks, like granite. Where these two
rocks basalt and granite, occur side by side, the place converts itself to valleys of basalt
and ridges of granite due to excessive weathering of basalt. Igneous rocks are more
susceptible to chemical weathering than sedimentary rocks as sedimentary rocks are
produced from weathered products of igneous rocks.

 Transport of Products of Weathering

The weathered products can remain in place or they can be also transported by
water or wind. If they remain in place, they become residual soils. They may be
transported and may become sedimentary rocks or become alluvial soils. The agents that
transport these materials are mainly:

1. Water in the forms of steams of rivers, and

2. Wind that blows soils from one place to the other, especially in the dry areas.

3. Glaciers in polar regions, the regolith. The mantle of unconsolidated material

above bedrock consisting of

(a) residual materials that remain in place where it has weathered.

(b) transported material transported by gravity or water (rivers, lakes, sea etc.) and
wind.

Table shows the classification of regolith. (The soil formed out of the parent rock below
and still remains in situ is called residual soil).

Type Name Details

Laterite, gravel, sand clay

In situ materials (a) Residual deposits
along with rocks

Peat, organic soils, chemical

(b) Cumulative deposits
precipitates etc.

Talus, materials from earth

Transported materials (a) Gravity deposits
due to creep etc.

(b) Alluvial deposits Alluvial, swamp deposits

(c) Aeolian deposits

Dunes, loess
(wind-blown)

(d) Lacustine deposits

Silt, clay, sand etc.
(lake deposits)

(e) Marine deposits Sand, clay etc.

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Note: The soil profile of a place depends on its history for the past 4500 million years of
the earth’s life and the changes that have happened. We cannot accurately trace its
history of a place by any means, except by taking samples from the place and identify
them from their composition.

Type of Regolith at a Place

The layers of weathered rocks, soil etc. lying over bedrock is technically called
regolith. Usually textbooks in geology deal only with rocks but civil engineers are
interested in both the soil as well as the rock below the ground level. Even though it is
difficult to predict the geological history and the nature of the soil deposit in a place, we
will be able to guess from our experience of the deposits we have found in many other
similar places, the type of deposit we are likely to meet in a given site. For this purpose of
studying the geology of soil deposits we divide soil deposits into the following five groups:

1. River deposits

2. Lake deposits

3. Shore deposits

4. Sea deposits

5. Wind deposits

The nature of soil strata that we usually find in each of these above deposits will be
similar but different form each other. We will deal with them separately in the later
chapters. All civil engineers dealing with foundation engineering should have a fair
knowledge of the nature of deposits in each group. We will study it in the following
chapters.

Symbols Used to Describe the State of Weathering of Rocks

The following symbols are sometimes used to describe the state of weathering of
rocks in our geological field survey of a site.

1. Completely Weathered Rock Materials (CWRM)

2. Highly Weathered Rock Materials (HWRM)

3. Moderately Weathered Rock Materials (MWRM)

4. Partially Weathered Rock Materials (PWRM)

5. Hard Rock (HR)

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Summary

Weathering is the disintegration or decomposition of the original rocks to form the

regolith. In general there are many ways by which weathering of rocks take place. They
are (1) Mechanical Weathering (2) Chemical Weathering (3) Weathering of rock by plants
and animals.

Geomorphology is a special subject. It is the study of landscape. The aerial

photographs of landscape are very helpful for the preliminary investigations of large
projects like building a reservoir. Even a preliminary study of geomorphology is quite
interesting and rewarding.

QUESTIONS:

1. In this process the rock is split into smaller pieces or even soils, but the character
of the product

of this type of weathering of a given rock is the same.

2. What will happen if the weathered products can be remain in place or can be also
transported by water or wind?

3. It is the layers of weathered rocks, soil lying over bedrock.

4. Give the general ways by which weathering of rocks take place

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LESSON 7: WORKS OF RIVERS, WIND
AND SEA AND THEIR ENGINEERING
IMPORTANCE
 RIVERS
To a hydraulic engineer and an irrigation engineer the water that flows into the
river is most important. From the geological point view, we look upon rivers as one among
the means of distributing the products of weathering all over the earth surface.

All the rivers have a beginning which is called the head. The place where a river
ends in the sea or lake is called the mouth. In all the cases, the slope of the rivers at the
head is high so that it can carry all the materials (the coarse and fine weathered products)
from the parent rocks down. The slope slowly decreases and in the plains it is smaller.
Thus the shape of the slope curve from the head to the mouth is concave (facing the sky).
Thus concept of change in slope is very important in our study of deposits along the rivers.

 PLAYFAIR’S LAW (Functions of a river)

Very few people realize that the whole river system from its start to the finish (head
to mouth) is a sensitive, lively system. This lively performance of rivers is described by the
Playfair’s law which can be stated as follows.

“Every river consists of a main trunk fed by the branches that run in valleys,
proportioned to its size and all of them together forming a system of valleys
communicating with each other and having such a nice adjustment of their toward slopes
that none of them join the principal valley either at a too high or too low level, a
circumstance which would be impossible if the valleys were not the work of the stream
which flows in it”.

This law indicates vibrant systems and explains how the deep valleys and other
landforms have been formed. They are the work of the rivers to facilitate the smooth flow
of water and sediments. These landforms have been formed by the three geologic functions
of the rivers, namely:

 EROSION
The erosion is one of the most expressive features of river which is turbulent with
currents in all directions. Most rivers carve the river valley by erosion. The higher the
velocity and turbulence, the greater is the erosion. The river erosion can take place in the
following four ways: (1) Corrasion (2) Corrosion (3) Attrition, and (4) Hydraulic action.
These can be indicated as follows:

Corrasion: This is the abrasive force or corrosive force, producing a mechanical erosion of
rocks by the sediments the river carries. The abrasion of rock fragments depends on the
three factors (1) If the transported material is hard in relation to the

40 | P a g e
  bed, the bed gets affected and wears down (2) If both are hard then the bed gets
polished (3) If the bed is harder the bed is not affected.
 Corrosion: In this process the water dissolves particles of the river banks or bottom
and carries them in solution.
 Attrition: This is due to the rubbing of the particles being carried by the river when
they are thrown at each other.
 Hydraulic action: This is the force of the water of the fast flowing rivers that can
dislodge materials from the river banks and river beds.

Transportation of Eroded Materials

The materials that have been eroded have to be transported down the river. There
are three ways in which the river can transport the materials dislodged by it, they are:

1) Dissolved load
2) Suspended load: The fine particles of sand silt and clay can remain in suspension.
3) Bed load: The large-sized materials settle to the bed of the river and move along the
bed by rolling, sliding or by sudden movement (saltation). This bottom load is also
called the traction load.

Deposition (Alluvial Deposits)

When the velocity of water in river is not enough to carry the load of soil particles it
has been carrying, it deposits the load at the places of low velocity. This usually happens
in the regions where the slope of the river bed becomes gentle.

As the slope of the river at the head of the river is large and towards the mouth it is
small, the maximum size of deposits the river can carry is larger near the head and
becomes smaller towards the mouth. Because of this reason, in the regions where the river
had large slopes earlier and now small slopes, we may meet with coarse pebbles at the
bottom with fine sand or silt at the top of the river bed. This is the soil profile of most of
the rivers at mid reaches.

These functions act on the following three physical processes involved in the formation
of river valleys, namely:

1) Deepening of the river valley

2) Lengthening or shortening of the river valley, and
3) Widening the river valleys

Carried or Deposited Particles by River Water

Different particles of soil require different velocities (a) For them to be scoured by
water (b) For them to be carried in water and (c) To be deposited on their path. For
example, it requires a velocity of about 150cm/s for gravel pieces to be carried by rivers.
Sand may require only 30 to 15 cm/s. It is also interesting to note that sand and gravel
generally roll along the bed of the river, whereas silt and clay are carried in suspension.

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 Velocity curve of a stream with depth

Figure 10. Fields of erosion,

transportation and deposition of
river sediments in the flow of
Bed rivers.

 Stream Cycle
The stream cycle can be briefly described as follows. We have seen that a river is a
live system. It passes through three stages in the same way as humans. These stages
described herein below:

 Juvenile or Youth Stage (Upper Course)

This is the stage of high downward vertical erosion. It develops the following characteristic
formations:

a) V- shaped valleys
b) Gorges and canyons
c) Rapids and cataracts (Rapids of greater dimensions are known as cataracts)
d) Waterfalls
e) Holes
f) Piracy (Capturing of a streamlet that flowed into one river another stream that
flows into another river)

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  Maturity Stage (Middle Course)
This is the middle course of a river where the gradient is gentler and the river valley
becomes wide, leading to the following features:

a) Meanders: (The term meander is derived from river Meanderz in Turkey, which
flows in loops). In the wide plains the river may be made to bend and take a curve
due to some obstructions. Then the velocity around the outside bend becomes very
much higher and hence the river cuts down the river bank. As the velocity inside
the bend being less, deposition of fine particles takes place which is shown. The clay
deposits are found more on the inside of the river bends where the velocity is low.
As erosion cuts away bank on one side and deposition takes place on the opposite
side, the river migrates laterally and produces a meandering river.

b) Flood plain: The flood plains occur in the middle course of the river that has formed
its maturity. The valley characteristics are absent and the river flows along a wide
and flatter region. Overflow of the banks and flooding happens during floods. This
leaves behind deposits of silt on both sides. These are called flood plains. The
following are the geomorphologic features of this region:

 Levees: The natural embankments formed by the river in the flood plains are called
levees. As the floodwater in the river spills on the flood plains it loses energy and
coarse materials are deposited at the edges. Over the years raised edges are formed
which are called levee.
 Oxbow lakes: The meandering river can cut across the flood plain and form the
oxbow lakes. The oxbow lakes can develop into swamps in course of time.
 Braiding: When the river reaches the end of the middle course the river deposits
more and more of the load it has been carrying and may break up into a network of
interconnected channels resembling the strand of a braid. This happens more often
towards the beginning of the old stage of the river.

Figure 11. Meandering River

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 Figure 12. Natural Levees and
Flood Plains

(a) (b)

Figure 13: Development of deltas (a) Initial development (b) Final development

 OLD AGE (Lower Course)

In the last stages of the river just before it joins the sea or lake, the flow becomes
gentle as the slope of the river in considerably reduced. If it joins the sea, there are waves,
sea currents and also change in the salinity of water. The suspended material is deposited.
If the amount of material is not large then it will be carried away by the sea by its
currents and waves. This is what happens to the small rivers on the west coast of
peninsular India. However if the rivers are large like those which flow into the Bay of
Bengal and the amount of suspended materials carried by river is very large, a large
amount of the suspended materials will be deposited at the mouth of the river to form
deltas. (The name delta is given as the usual form of the land built up by the river such as
the Nile is in the form of the Greek letter delta with the pointed end facing landwards).

 Delta-Building: The subject of delta-building is very interesting and can be

explained as follows. The deposition of material at the mouth of the river and into
the sea materially increases the length of the river. This decreases the slope and
hence more deposition happens. For example, if the slope was 2 ft in 90 miles and if
the length of deposition of sediments of the river is increased to 100 miles, the slope
reduces from 1 in 45 to 1 in 50. The velocity of water decreases and more deposition
takes place. Also during the floods because of the raising of the beds, the river will
have to branch off before it falls into the sea to increase the flow and thus form the
typical delta.There are many types of deltas of which three are the typical.
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Figure 14: Examples of arcuate deltas

Figure 15: Examples of bird’s foot deltas (This third type is the estuarine deltas).

1) Arcuate (means bent like a bow) deltas: It looks like those of the river Ganges and
Nile.
2) Birds foot deltas: It appears like that of the Mississippi river. These rivers carry
extremely fine particles and clays. The deposits do not allow much flow under the
surface (the deposits being clayey or impervious), so that the flow of water is
concentrated in a few large channels which form a pattern of the bird’s foot. Thus
this type of deltas has clay deposits.
3) Estuarine filling: As in the Hudson River which flows into an estuary and where the
deposits are built in the form of long bars at the mouth of the river. The forms
extensive filling of soil bars or marshes.

The rivers that fall into lakes will also build deltas. The deltas, built in lakes and in
land seas or bays, are more perfect than those built in the open ocean with strong currents
and waves. The deltas built in the seas will be usually irregular.

The three stages or courses do not depend on the age of the river but on the present
performance of the river at a given place which depends on many present factors. It is also
interesting to consider the two basic physiographic concepts in river flow that of (a) base
level and (b) profile of equilibrium which varies with the flow.

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 a) Base Level: This is the level that controls the depth of the stream erosion. No
stream base level can be below the sea level. A base level is the depth limit of the
valley and is controlled by the water level in the body of water into which it flows
down (ocean, sea, lakes, etc.). Only the lower end of the valley reaches the base
level, the rest is generally higher except for depressions.
b) Profile of equilibrium: A stream is said to have reached its grade or profile of
equilibrium when its slope and volume of water it carries are in equilibrium with
the sediment load it transports. The annual and seasonal fluctuations in volume
and velocity bring about continual readjustments of their profile. The gradient is
expressed as slope of the profile of equilibrium at the steady state of flow of the
river with no erosion or deposition. It is expressed in meters per kilometer, meter or
feet per mile.

No implication of years is to be read into the terms juvenile, youth and old stages. It
only represents the various stages of development of the river. Thus a youthful stream in
hard rock, high above the base level (profile of equilibrium) may be millions of year of age,
whereas the old stream near the base level may be only a few thousand years of age.

 REJUVENATION OF RIVERS
As already indicated, youth and old age does not denote the age of the river but only
whether it is eroding (juvenile) or is in equilibrium or in depositing (old age) at present.
Thus if a mature river has its gradient increased for example, by lowering the sea level or
some construction then the river will work to reduce the gradient by cutting down the
previously deposited flood plain until the former gradient is again established. This is in
accordance with the Playfair’s law.

 CORIOLIS EFFECT AND FERREL’S LAW

The effect which causes the deflection of a body in motion on earth due to the
rotation of the earth is called the Coriolis Effect. According to Ferrel’s law, due to this
effect if a body moves in any direction on the earth’s surface, the deflection force will act to
the right in the northern hemisphere and the left in the southern hemisphere.

According to this law a river flowing in the north direction in northern hemisphere
tends to erode the east banks more than the west banks. Similarly a river in the northern
hemisphere flowing in south direction tends to deflect to the west; land erosion will take
place more of the west banks than the east banks. However in all the cases the resistance
of the material to erosion and slope of the land will also play a prominent part.

 WIND
The movement of air over the surface of the earth is called wind. We have seen that
wind, water and ice are not only some of the agents of weathering but also the agents of
transportation of the weathered products over the face of the earth. Wind performs all the
three functions of erosion, transportation and deposition of the weathered products.

46 | P a g e
The wind deposits are also called Aeolian deposits. We will first examine the above three
functions. We are also interested in the nature of typical formations made by wind, such
as sand-dunes, loss deposits. We will briefly examine their nature. They are found in or
near desserts in the regions of high temperature and wind as well as low rainfall.

 EROSION WORK OF WINDS

The processes of erosion due to wind are (1) Deflation, and (2) Abrasion which can
be described as follows.

 Deflation
The act of removing the loose particles of the earth from one area and forming
depression as shown in the figure is called deflation. By this process of removing the sand
to the groundwater level, oasis is formed in deserts.

Figure 16: Evolution of oasis lakes

 Abrasion
Abrasion is the process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against
formations like understanding rock and eroding them. Most of the coarse materials in the
wind remain in the lower 30 to 60 cm height of the wind from the ground as bed load and
some coarse sand particles will be swept by rolling them on the ground. Hence the rock
erosion produces profiles of upstanding rocks as shown in figure. In such cases there will
be more erosion at the lower level and very much less erosion at the higher level of the
upstanding rocks.

Figure 17: Erosion of lower parts of rocks as more sand is present in the lower layers of
the wind and when wind blows from one direction only.

 SANDANDSTORMS AND DUST STORMS

While the lower part of the wind consists of sand, the upper part is mainly the fine
particles of dust. Thus the lower part produces the sand storms and the upper part
produce dust storms.

 DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENTS
The velocity of the wind carrying the particles may get reduced by some obstructions
like hills, mountains, forests sudden change of climate presence of water bodies like
rivers, sea, fall of rains, etc. This reduction of velocity forces deposition of the

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 particles the wind is carrying, and they form typical Aeolian deposits. The two
important types such deposits are (1) Sand dunes (2) Loess. We will briefly examine their
characteristics.

 SAND AND DUNES

The sand dunes are formed by deposition of sand carried by winds. It is a heap of
sand conical in cross section with a gentle slope on the windward side and a steeper slope
on the leeward side as shown in figure. There is much type of formations such as the
longitudinal dunes transverse dunes and most common crescent shaped dune called
Barchans. This is in the form of a horse shoe in plan with horns pointing in the direction
in which the wind blows. Because of its shape, the barchans are also called crescent dunes.
The windward side is convex in plan and rises gently at less than 20˚. It has well-defined
crest beyond which it slopes abruptly on to the leeward side. The dunes may get stabilized
as “fixed dunes” in one place or like the barchans move in the direction of the winds. Sand
dunes can be formed at three kinds of locations namely

1) Near sea shores as shore dunes

2) Bed of rivers as riverbed dunes and
3) Inland as desert dunes

The other shapes as shown in the figure are also formed in the other locations. They
are the transverse and the longitudinal types. The main engineering problems we meet
with sand dunes is their movement from one place to another with time. With violent
winds it may migrate to a valuable agricultural or residential land. The best solution to
prevent this migration is the plantation of suitable plants or grass that will grow in these
dune formations so that their roots will stabilize the soil. Planting tall trees and hedges at
the border of the area to be protected, is another solution.

Figure 18: Plan view of sand dunes (a)

Crescent shaped dune called Barchans
(b) Transverse dune (c) Longitudinal
dune.

Seifs: These are also called longitudinal

dunes. They are formed parallel to the
directions of the wind as shown in the
figure. These are usually found in the
places where a steady wind prevails.
These dunes may exist in great heights
and up to 200 m along long distances.

 LOESS DEPOSISTS
The term loess was first applied to the loose unconsolidated deposits found along the
Rhine River extending to the Black Sea. Loess is fine particles usually derived from
flood plains and glacial outwash laid by the wind. It consists of the loosely arranged

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 angular grains of calcareous silt, rich in quartz with calcium carbonate. It is of the
uniform size and composition formed without stratification. They can be formed in large
heights and can stand with a vertical face when dry. But structure will collapse completely
if water gets into the deposits. Usually the loess soils are very fertile and good for
agriculture.

The loess deposits pose two engineering problems, Firstly the collapse of its
structure on wetting or saturation. Secondly because of its loose structure, they are subject
to frost heaving in cold countries, when they occur on highway layouts. However no major
loess deposits are found in the Indian subcontinent.

 SEA
Seas and oceans covered over seventy per cent of the earth’s surface. Most civil
engineers are generally interested on the shorelines only. Those specializing in harbor
structures will have to go deeper into the sea. The term ‘sea’ is generally used for saline
water bodies surrounded by landforms and also water bodies of shallower depth less than
4 km. In this chapter we will first describe the formation of the shoreline and restrict our
study of the two subjects namely (1) sea waves, sea currents and the theory of formation of
coastlines by erosion, deposition and sea level changes (2) Corel deposits.

 SEA WAVES
The waves are created by the winds. This disturbance travels to the coast and gets its
energy destroyed. The distance between the crests of adjacent waves is the wavelength in
the deep part of the sea; waves are only oscillatory (goes only up and down). These are
called oscillatory waves. As it travels to the shallower coast it becomes translator waves
and brakes along the shores. The velocity of the oscillatory waves in the ocean is equal to
the wavelength divided by the period of the waves as shown in the figure. During heavy
winds the waves will be large and may also travel faster as the energy stored in the waves
will be higher. During tsunamis the velocity of the waves is very high and the high kinetic
energy it carries is converted into very high waves (high potential energy) on reaching the
coast.

 LITTORAL CURRENTS
The word littoral means pertaining to the shoreline. There are many types of currents in
the sea. The littoral currents are currents pertaining to the seas, lake and oceans, the
currents produced after the breaking of waves on the coast are shown in the figure. The
movement of water up to the coast when the waves break is called swash and the return of
the water back into the sea is called backwash. While the flow (velocity) of the swash is
directed to the shore the currents set up by the backwash (which is called the rip current)
usually act below the sea level and are directed to the deeper waters as shown in the
figure. Hence it is easier to come to the shore if we swim with the waves on top rather
than swim against the rip current that act below the surface of the sea. (All those who go
into the sea for a swim should be aware of this action). There is also another

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 current called littoral current acting along the coast as shown in the figure. This
current affects formation of the coast and we will deal with this current in more detail.

Figure 19: Waves and currents (1) Ordinary Waves (2) Transitory Waves (3) Littoral
currents (4) Rip Currents

Formation of Coastline by Marine Erosion of Coastal Rocks

The following are the four distinct processes.

1) Abrasion: Waves hurl pebbles, sand boulders and other substances against base of
cliffs, under-cutting the base of cliffs on the sea coast.
2) Hydraulic action: The cracks in the cliffs are filled with sea water from the waves
and its sudden release during the retreat of the waves cause the material around
the cracks to break up.
3) Attrition due to rubbing together of particles in the waves and get broken up.
4) Solution (Corrosion): By chemical action leading to solution of some of the
constituents.
Landforms Formed by Marine Erosion of Rocks on Seacoasts

We will next deal with the landforms formed by the coastal erosion and coastal
deposition. The following landforms are created by the above erosion of the rocks beside
the sea.

a) Sea cliffs
b) Sea caves, Arches ,stacks and stumps
c) Wave-cut platforms
Formation of Landforms by Coastal Deposition

The sediments entering the sea are carried away by the sea waves and deposited in
the sea or alternately it may be taken to the other parts of the seacoast. The coarser and
heavier particles are generally left near the coast. These form shore deposits. Such
deposits on the coast forms the landforms called beaches, spits and bars. Brief descriptions
of these are given below with reference to the figure below.

Figure 20: Development of shoreline deposits

by littoral currents

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  Beaches: These are formed by the deposition of sand and gravel along the coast. In
theory, beach is the zone extending from low water sea level to the upper limit of
high water. However if the sea recedes the beaches can become wider, from the
former position of the waterline to the present position of the waterline. There are
many such wide beaches formed along the seacoasts.
 Spits: Spit is a long and narrow extension of the beach into the sea. They are sand-
deposits formed by shore drifts. (The process of shifting coarse materials from
seaward side towards the land along the shore is called beach drift). This happens
mainly across the mouths of the rivers or the depressions of the sea into the land as
shown in the figure above where the shore current along the coast meets deeper
waters. Then the sea current slows down. The reduction of the velocity of current
makes the deposition of materials in the shore current. The one end of the spit as
shown in figure below is joined to the mainland and the other end projects into the
sea. If the seaward end gets curved, it is known as a hooked spit as shown in figure
below. The curve also occurs due to the action of the waves.

Figure 21: Development of spit, hook and bay

 Bars: Bars are long deposits of sand formed in the sea parallel to the shoreline. This
may be above or below the sea level. Those above the sea level are called barrier
beach.
 Tombolo: If the bar forms a link to the mainland the link is known as a tombolo as
shown in the figure below.

Figure 22: Development of hook and bar

 Lagoon: A bar spit can enclose a portion of the sea as shown in the figure above to
form a lake such as the Chilka Lake of Orissa, which is of 70 km length and a
maximum width of 52 km. Such a lake is called a Lagoon.

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  FORMATION OF LANDFORMS BY SEA LEVEL CHANGES
During the long history of the earth, the sea level has fallen and also risen in many
places on earth due to various causes. A rise in sea level can form a ford (a narrow long
valley). There are called shore lines of submergence. Similarly when this rise in sea level
submerges a river valley it forms a “ria coastline” (Ria is good sit for harbors). These are
many of those along the coastline of Britain.

When the sea level falls and more of the land gets exposed they are known as raised
beaches. The landforms formed by this process are called land or shores of emergence. The
shape of a coast is shown in the figure below. Kerala is taken as a land of emergence and
in the puranas it is said to be created by saint Parashurama.

Figure 23: Types of shorelines (a) Shoreline of submergence (b) Shoreline if emergence

 CURRENTS IN THE SEAS

There are different types of currents that work in the waters of the seas like density
currents, salinity currents, temperature currents, tidal currents etc. However most of
them do not affect the shores. We will briefly examine only the action of the following type
of currents that affect the coastline as shown.

1) Underflow or rip currents and littoral currents

2) Tidal currents

 UNDERTOE (Rip Current) AND LITTORAL CURRENTS

We noted that the waves that come to the shore with a certain velocity, after
flowing up the slope of the beaches, the water returns to the sea with a velocity depending
on the slope of the beach along the bottom. This current is called undertoe or rip current.
In the shallow shores this returning velocity will be meeting the velocity of the incoming
or advancing waves with high velocity inside the line of breakers and it is thrown
shoreward again. Under these circumstances, if the waves hit the shore at an angle, an
escape current flowing along the coast may be generated. Already dealt with in the
current that moves along the coast is called littoral current. This current will flow parallel;
to the coast until depressions are found which will give an opportunity for seaward exit.
The velocity of the sideward flow being less, it will leave all the course materials it has
been carrying near the coast and can take only the fine materials with it. However if the
beach is sufficiently steep the undertow may develop enough velocity to move suspended
materials with it to the sea. Thus the materials deposited on the beach by the waves will
depend in many factors.

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  TIDAL CURRENTS
The rise and fall of the tide in an open coast does not produce much effect on the
deposits on the shoreline. However if the tides are very high and the fall of the tide has to
take place through a narrow exit then the large velocity at the place of exit may have some
effect on the nearby deposits at that place. The high velocity can lead to erosion.

 SEAWALLS AND BULKHEADS

Seawalls and bulkheads are the massive structures built along the coast (They are
built parallel to the coast). Their faces may be vertical, sloping or parabolic to produce as
little force on the wall as possible. Bulkheads are made of steel or concrete or timber piles
and they are used where the impact of waves is not very large. The large hollow
prestressed concrete pipes have been used for shore protection near Chennai harbor with
some success.

 CONSTRUCTION OF REVETMENTS
Revetments against the coast are usually built with large stone or concrete block big
enough to resist the force of the waves placed on each other. It should also be built high
enough to prevent overtopping of the ordinary waves. For economy, the height may be
such that storm waves may just spill over it.

 PREVENTION OF SILTING
Corals are very small sea organisms that live in very large colonics especially near
the tropics. They secret calcium carbonates and build coral reef. These coral deposits may
be built on sand deposits in the sea. The three types of coral reefs deposited are (a)
Fringing reefs (b) Barrier reefs and (c) Atolls.

QUESTIONS:

1. Give and explain the following four ways of river erosion that take place.

2. It is the process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against formations like
understanding rock and eroding them.

3. What are the develop characteristics of Juvenile Stage.

4. It is created by the winds. This disturbance travels to the coast and gets its energy
destroyed.

5. Another term of longitudinal dunes. They are formed parallel to the directions of
the wind as shown in the figure

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LESSON 8: ORIGIN, OCCURRENCE
OF EARTHQUAKE

It is very important that in the design of civil engineering structures like buildings,
bridges, dams etc., we should be able to examine the following with respect to
earthquakes.

(a) The chance of earthquake happening in the place concerned.

(b) Estimate the magnitude of earthquake that can happen at the place.

(c) Provide information regarding the forces and stresses caused by the likely
earthquake in the region.

(d) Check whether soil liquefaction can take place at the site of the structures we are
interested in.

The methods of design and detailing the structure for earthquakes is a special subject. In
this chapter we will examine only the following:

1. The cause of earthquakes and its types.

2. How do we measure the magnitude of the earthquake that takes place in a

particular region.

3. What is the magnitude of earthquake that we can expect at various places in India
according to ISI893 (2002) specification.

4. We will also examine the earthquakes that take place under the sea called
“seaquakes” and the occurrence of tsunami (A Japanese word “soo nah me”,
meaning the coastal waves) as there are chances of these affecting coasts of South
India. A tsunami can also be caused by a landslide under the sea.

5. What is meant by liquefaction of soil due to an earthquake.

 Causes of Earthquake and Its Types

The earth is like a ball of about 6370 km in radius with most of the interior as liquid or
semisolid. Its solid crust is only of the thickness of about 45 km. The crust is divided into
seven major plates and many minor plates in contact with each other and that all types of
movements can take place at their junctions. Each plate may have inside plate-defects-like
faults. Due to many reasons this crust gets strained and the energy produced by these are
stored in the crust. At intervals the energy has to get released through movement of crust
mostly along the already existing faults or at times even by breaking of the solid crust
itself. More often each of the seven plates floating on the magma can react with the closest
plate and cause disturbances. These movements and consequent release of energy cause
violent earthquakes. Thus earthquakes, depending on its origin are classified as follows.

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  Tectonic Earthquakes
This type of earthquakes take place due to movement of the crust along the existing
faults in the earth’s crust. It can take place on land or under the sea. When it occurs under
the sea as seaquakes, tsunami may also happen. But tsunami need not happen in all such
earthquakes. It occurs only when the movement of the crust under the sea is vertical.

Most major earthquakes occur along the junctions of the plates described above, called
Interplate Earthquakes. Earthquakes can also take place within major plates. They are
called Interplate Earthquakes.

 Reservoir Associated Earthquakes

It is claimed that in a reservoir storage of water to a large depth near the dam and to a
lower depth in other places can also produce shear failure in the rock below the reservoir.
These movements can cause earthquakes. These are called reservoir associated
earthquakes. It is claimed that the serious earthquake (M 6.5) that took place in
December 1967 near Koyna dam in Poona which resulted in the loss of many lives, was
due to this type of shear failure.

Earthquakes Due to Other Causes

Earthquakes can also occur near the places of volcanic eruption and also due to an atom
bomb or due to very large earth or rock slides etc. They are called non-tectonic
earthquakes.

Measurement of Size of Earthquakes Intensity and Magnitude of Earthquakes

There are two scales of measurement of the largeness of the earthquakes one proposed by
Mercalli in1902 and the other proposed late by Charles F. Richter in1958. The first is
called intensity and the second is magnitude.

Intensity-Mercalli scale of intensity of earthquakes: Mercalli classified earthquakes into

twelve classes according to the destruction they cause. The classifications are like I
“Instrumental” (very feeble that can be felt only by an instrument) to XII very destructive.
This is not very much in use nowadays.

Richter scale of magnitude of earthquakes (m): Sometimes called modified Mercalli

intensity is base more scientifically on the amplitude produced in the earthquake
measuring instrument, the seismograph.

The Mercalli scale gives to the base 10 the maximum trace amplitude in microns which
will be registered in the standard seismograph. It is expressed to the base 10 and we have
the magnitudes of M 1 to M10. A magnitude of M 8 compared to M3 will be 10 5 times
stronger. The energy released is given by the formula

Log E (ergs) = 11.8 + 1.5 M

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Thus the energy released by a magnitude of M 8.5 earthquake will be more than 100
million times stronger than a small earthquakes of a magnitude of M 3. An earthquake of
magnitude of M 6 produces the energy equivalent to 20 million tons of TNT.

Earthquakes produce vertical as well as horizontal and torsional oscillations. Of these, on

land the horizontal acceleration is given more importance in design of civil engineering
structures like tall buildings, bridges etc. They produce horizontal forces similar to wind
forces in buildings. The frequency of oscillations is also important. If the frequency of the
earthquake is also the same as the natural frequency of the structure, there will be
resonance and more havoc. Thus in one region earthquake were more destructive for a
three-storeyed buildings at the site than other higher of lower rise buildings. However at
present frequency of the earthquake can be predicted for a place only from the past
records of earthquakes in that place.

The earthquakes of magnitude less than the magnitude M 5 is considered as minor and
are referred to as the earth tremors. In the earthquakes under the sea, vertical movement
is more important as it alone is the chief cause of tsunami.

Measurement of Earthquakes

In practice the “magnitude” of the earthquake is measured by the instrument called

seismograph as shown in Figure 24.1. Usually a pendulum type seismograph is used to get
the trace on paper called seismogram. During an earthquake, the ground moves and this
movement is magnified and measured by this instrument. Earthquakes generate three
types of waves namely P (or primary waves) and L (surface long waves).

(a) (b)

Figure 24. Seismograph (a) Working principle (b) Instrument.

The velocities of these waves through earth are different. Hence from a record of the
differences pf time these waves are received at a station, the distance of the instrument
station to the centre of the earthquake called epicenter can be easily determined, this is
the reason how the place of occurrence of an earthquake is announced as soon as it occurs.

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Causes of Tectonic Earthquakes

It is now believed that the shaking of the ground during earthquake is caused by the
passage of seismic waves generated by the stored up stress, in the earth’s crust when
sudden slip takes place on a geologic fault. These geologic faults can be of four types,
mentioned herein below:

(i) Lithospheric plates between continents have been identified, so far

(ii) Strikes slip (Figure 7.4.)

(iii) Normal thrust fault and (Figures 7.5 and 7.6)

(iv) Shallow angle thrust fault.

The item (i) happens between continental rifts and the other active faults are inside the
continents. In fact twelve major tectonic plates and several minor tectonic plates have
been identified so far which play vital role in producing major earthquakes.

It is thought that the “characteristics shakers” of these difference types of faults are
different from each other but we will not go deep into these differences in this chapter. It
is hence sufficient to assume that the cause of earthquake is due to release stored up
energy and the movement of the crust at these faults. In long active fault, disturbances
can occur at any time. It is very difficult to predict when an earthquake will occur at a
place. The only aspect we can predict is that wherever there is a long active fault, an
earthquake can occur there anytime and that the magnitude of the earthquake generally
depends on the length of the existing fault, where the earthquake occurs.

Magnitude of Some Past Earthquakes

The magnitude in Richter scale of some of the past earthquakes that took place around
India and some other places are given below with the year it occurred. (The term FD
means focal depth where the disturbances are supposed to have taken place.)

1. Assam earthquake 1897 (M 8.7)

(in the Himalayan region)

2. Koyna earthquake 1967 (M 6.5)(FD 8 km)

(reservoir associated)

3. Earthquake in Iddiki (Kerala) 2001 (M 4.8)

(This is only a tremor)

4. Gujarat (Bhuj) earthquake 2001 (M 6.8)(FD 23 km)

5. Indonesian earthquake 2004 (M 9)

6. Pakistan earthquake 2005 (M 7.6)

In Himalayan Region due to the movement of a reverse fault

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 7. Japan earthquake 2011 (M 10)

(It is interesting to note that the area of the “world plate” divide passes very near to
Japan.)

Relation between Earthquake and Length of Slip or Fault

We have already seen that the major cause of a tectonic earthquake is the movement of
the earth’s crust at the faults. Faults which have moved in recent historic times are called
the active faults. The approximate relation between the magnitude of earthquake and the
length of the slip or the fault that produce the earthquake has been given in Table 24.1 in
ASCE monogram Vol CL on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings (1980).

Table 2. Relation between magnitude of earthquake fault slip length and approximate
duration (in seconds) (Fault slip length in miles)

Intensity of earthquake Fault slip length in miles Duration (seconds)

M3 0.3 -

M4 0.8 -

M5 2.0 1

M6 5.0 8

M7 25 20

M8 190 35

M 8.5 530 -

Note: In India as the major active faults are in the Himalayan regions these are the very
regions of probable large earthquakes.

Effects of Earthquake in Civil Engineering Construction

The four very important factors to be considered in civil engineering construction due to
earthquake are the following:

1. The effect of the horizontal forces on structure.

2. Settlement of structures due to vibration of the structure.

3. Soil liquifaction of foundation soil.

4. Slope stability of existing slopes.

We will deal very briefly with each of these aspects.

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Horizontal Forces Due to Earthquake

In a multistoreyed building the horizontal acceleration produces horizontal forces. For this
purpose Indian Standard 1893 (2002) (2) has published the code entitled. “Criteria for
Earthquake Design of Structures”. As shown in Figure 24.2, India has been divided into
four zones (II to IV) as shown in Figure 24.2 for which the design seismic coefficient for
horizontal forces is given. (Note that there is no Zone I) Structures like multistoreyed
buildings rertaining walls etc. should be checked against failure due to these horizontal
forces. Figure 24.2 shows the zones. This figure also shows that the earthquake effects in
peninsular India is much less than in Himalayan region. The magnitude of the horizontal
acceleration (that will produce the horizontal forces) for each zone in India as given in IS
1893 is shown in Table 24.2.

Figure 25. Seismic zones according to IS 1893 (2002). (There is no Zone I).

We calculate the horizontal force as follows in the static method

H = Wa

where W is the weight and a the seismic coefficient as given in Table 24.2.

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Notes:

1. In the multistoreyed buildings W is maximum at the base. There is also a more

dynamic method of calculating the horizontal forces which we will study in the
higher classes.

2. Study the difference in action of wind forces and seismic forces on a very tall
multistoreyed building.

Table 3. Values of coefficient a IS 1893 (2002)

(for simple static method)

Zone Seismic coefficient a

II 0.02

III 0.04

IV 0.05

V 0.08

 Settlement of Structures
The loose cohesionless soils are rearranged by certain types of vibrations in order to
make them extremely dense. In addition, earthquakes can produce oscillation of buildings.
It will be very damaging if they coincide with the natural frequency of the structure. When
the frequency of the building and oscillation due to earthquake happen to be the same,
resonance can be produced. Even otherwise the vertical component of the motion can
induce settlement in loose soils.

 Soil Liquifaction
If the foundation is sandy (the clay content of the soil is less than 5 per cent) and if the
soil is loose and also saturated with high water level, the soil with the water can behave
like a liquid due to the oscillations of the ground caused by the earthquake. Under these
conditions which is called liquefaction of soil, the structure (building) can sink into the
ground. Such failures have occurred in many places due to earthquake. This phenomenon
is called liquefaction due to earthquake.

 Slope Instability During Earthquakes

The shaking of the earth due to earthquake can produce instability of slopes. This very
important in earth dams. (In concrete dams the oscillations of the water body can cause
great damage unless these forces are considered in their design).

In some high hill places like Ooty, even light earthquake can disturb the soil over rocks on
slopes and if very high torrential downpour after the earthquake of rain occur then the

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water seeping through the junction between the rock and soil can produce very bad slope
failures.

 Design of Masonry, Concrete and Earth Dams in the Earthquake Areas

It is better to avoid masonry dams made of individual stone blocks in the areas of large
earthquakes. Earth dams, rock fill dams and also concrete dams without joints will fare
much better under the earthquake conditions. If an earth dam construction is planned at a
site where an earthquake can take place, the foundation should be checked for settlement
and liquefaction due to earthquake.

 Tsunami and Seiche

The earthquakes under the sea produce tsunami. It is only the vertical tectonic
movements that produce tsunami. The tangential and outward movements do not produce
tsunami. The large potential energy caused by the vertical displacement, produce high
energy waves that travel fast (up to 300 km/h) from the place of origin of the earthquake
in all directions. The kinetic energy in these waves can be destroyed only when it reaches
the coast. The kinetic energy, when the waves meet the coast, is in turn converted to high
potential energy in the form of very high waves and by destroying all the structures that
come on its path. The famous tsunami that occurred in 2004 and which affected both east
and west coasts of India was due to a large vertical displacement of the rock under the sea
near Sumatra in the Indian Ocean. It took two hours to reach Tamil Nadu. Early tsunami
warning systems have now been installed in the Indian Ocean. As the tsunami will strike
the far away coast much later than the earthquake, this warning systems give us
opportunity to prepare ourselves to face the event. The recent tsunami of 2011 in Japan
produced waves up to 13 to 15 ft. high and caused great destruction.

Seiche: Seiche is oscillation in lake water. It can be produced by the change of barometric
pressure or earthquake induce waves in enclosed bodies of water-like lakes, reservoirs
have occurred in many places. They caused usually by long period seismic waves only.

Summary

Earthquakes can be tectonic, reservoir associated or can occur due to other causes like
volcanic occurrence, land or rock slides, rockfalls etc. Seaquakes are earthquakes under
the sea. It can be caused by a large land or rock slides of fall under the sea. However all
earthquakes under the sea need not produce tsunami. Only the vertical movement of large
masses can produce tsunami.

The major type of earthquake takes place along the junction of the continental plates and
at active faults. The magnitude of the earthquake will also depends on the “length of fault
disturbed” called the fault slip length along the existing fault at the time of occurrence of
earthquake. The effect of earthquakes in peninsular India is much less than that in the
northern parts of India.

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QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by magnitude and intensity of earthquakes? What are the scales
used to measure earthquake?

2. Compare the energy involved in an M 7 earthquake to that of M 5 earthquake.

3. How does tsunami occur and how can we take measures to meet it? Give one more
reason other than earthquake, which can cause tsunami.

4. What are the effects due to earthquakes to be considered in civil engineering

structures?

5. What is meant by soil liquefaction? How can it occur?

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LESSON 9: MODE OF OCCURRENCE

This is devoted to a brief overview of a few of the important aspects of physical

geology, starting with minerals and rocks. Mode of occurrence reflects the environment of
a mineral’s formation. Minerals bear a genetic relationship with the rock types in
association with which they are formed. This is generally true except in the case in some
minerals which are not formed in the places where they occur now. Barytes has been
observed to occur in the form of veins, stringers, lenses and disseminations which in
general follow certain definite lines of fracture, i.e. joints and fault fissures, with the
single exception of the bedded barytes deposit in Mangampeta area.

Earlier it was considered that the barytes veins were to be both of the nature of the
fissure veins and replacement veins. But the sharp contact of the veins, their regular
tabular form, lack of protuberances, emplacement into the country rock, the presence of
the rectangular shaped intrusions of the limestone with sharp limestone, and even the
general disposition of stringers along joint planes in the country rock favors the view that
the barytes deposits are more of the nature of fillings than replacement deposits. At some
places, red bands of calcite with ill-defined boundaries are met with. This indicates that
some limestone might have been dissolved and recrystallized or the calcite may belong to a
younger generation of hydrothermal minerals.

In either case, replacement is only of minor consequence and the deposits are more
of the nature of the fissure veins. The association of vein barytes with basic volcanic and
the presence of traces of BaO in the trap have led to the belief that barytes mineralization
is related to basic intrusions. But the absence of basic intrusive in other barytes bearing
areas in UpperCuddapah rocks has raised doubts about the possibility of the barytes being
genetically related to the basic magma. Neekalantam and Roy(1979) believed that the
barytes in Cuddapah basin both vein and bedded are the products of extreme barium rich
volcanism. However, considering the mode of occurrence, disposition of the veins and the
basic association, it is more probable that vein barytes is hydrothermal in origin and
possibly, the basic magma is the carrier of barium rich fluid. Although, basic volcanism in
Lower Cuddapah time has affected the calcareous and argillaceous sediments, overlying
Gulcheru Quartszite, the mineralization is confined only to the calcareous horizon. The
localization of mineralization to the dolomite or limestone may be attributed to the
following reasons:(1)The Vempalle dolomite limestone had more structure weak planes.
(2)the volcanism in Lower Cuddapah times occurred in three phases: (a)towards the end
phase of the Vempalle formation in the form of sub aerial basic lava flows. (b)basic and
acidic volcanic activity contemporaneous with the sedimentation in the higher Tadpatri
succession and (c)dolerite, gabbro and serisite sills intruding the Vempalle and Tadpatri
formations. The third phase of igneous activity is considered responsible for mineralisation
in the Vempalle formation.

Occurrence of barytes in Mangampeta area is considered to be of sedimentary origin. The

radiating platy aggregate of barytes containing inclusions of euhedral crystals, microlites
unaltered feldspar, outlines of the wavy barytes lapalli, angular to sub angular nature of
quartz grains exhibiting embayed margins, the presence of minute dark dust

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 like particles in quartz and barytes grains sagging off the tuff laminae beneath the
quartz, pyrite and barytes lapalli indicate a psycolastic origin of the crystal and devitrified
glass tuffs and lapalli (rosette) barytes. The granular barytes is formed by the
precipitation of the volcanic exhalative under sub-marine/sub-aqueous condition. The
intercalations of the rosette barytes within the granular barytes and vice versa may be
attributed to deposition of pyroclastic material within the chemical sedimentary type. The
intimate association of the barytes derived from the pyroclastic ad exhalative phase of
volcanic activity indicates them to be the products of same volcanism.

Mode of Occurrence terms:

Massive – with no distinguishing crystal form

Granular – composed of mineral grains

Concretionary – outer surface rounded or spherical

Cryptocrystalline – individual crystals too fine to distinguish

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the structural weak planes of Vempalle dolomitic limestone?

2. What are the three phases occurred in Lower Cuddapah times?
3. What is the mode of occurrence of minerals?

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LESSON 10: GEOLOGICAL
PROSPECTING

The totality of operations involved in discovering deposits of useful minerals. Geolog

ical prospecting is carried out on thebasis of a study of the geological structure of the terra
in together with geological mapping. Sometimes it is based on datafrom earlier geological s
urveying. As a scientific endeavor, geological prospecting depends on maps of the probable
distribution of useful minerals in the territories under investigation or reconnaissance ma
ps that predict the location of usefulminerals. Prospectors take into account the conditions
under which deposits of useful minerals are formed or the genesisthat is manifested by th
e association of certain minerals with certain elements of the geological structure of the te
rrain. Theuse of these elements in searching for deposits of useful minerals requires a kno
wledge of what are called prospectingindicators. These include characteristics of the depos
its’ link with elements of the local stratigraphy, lithology, tectonics,petrography, geochemi
stry, and geomorphology.

The types of special field and laboratory investigations that are made during prospecting d
epend on such geologicalconditions as the degree of exposure of bedrock, the thickness of t
he cover of loose deposits, and the relief of the terrain.

In surface geological and mineralogical exploration, the river

detritus, glacialboulder, and concentrate methods are used. Inareas covered by loose anthr
opogenic deposits, the regularities in the location of glacial boulders, river gravel, and slop
etalus are studied, the useful minerals located among them are determined, and the distri
bution of these minerals ischaracterized. Washing of river sands or loose deposits on slope
s may yield valuable minerals, such as gold, platinum, tinore, wolframite, and diamonds,
which are found in the heavy fraction (concentrate) of these deposits. Tracing the a realdis
tribution of valuable minerals in concentrates leads to discovery of placer and primary dep
osits of useful minerals. Shallowmining operations, such as the digging of test pits, trench
es, and holes, are usually performed during geological prospecting.In places where theoreti
cal considerations indicate the presence of buried deposits that do not reach the surface, ge
ologicalprospecting involves drilling exploratory boreholes and, sometimes, digging deep s
hafts and adits.

Geochemical exploration includes metallometric, hydrochemical, biogeochemical, and geob

otanical surveying, as well as theanalysis of gases and emanations.

Geophysical exploration is based on the use of differences in a number of physical properti

es between bodies of usefulminerals and the enclosing rock. Differences in elasticity, magn
etism, electrical conductivity, density, and radioactivity aretested. Airplanes, helicopters,
and artificial satellites are used extensively in geophysical prospecting.

Stages in Ground Prospecting:

1. The ore mineral in alluvium or colluvium is sought.

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 2. Mechanical aureole of ore fragment is examined.

3. Finally the outcrop of the ore deposit is located.

Prospecting in alluvium

Alluvium is the sediment that has been transported by water.

Prospecting in colluvium

Colluvium is defined as the sediment that has moved downhill under gravity.

Prospecting for mechanical aureole of ore fragments

Aureole is zone of altered country rock around an igneous intrusion or metamorphic body.

When the resistant vein occur along a slope their fragments move slowly downward by
gravity or solifluction.

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  Prospecting for deposit outcrop

Resistant vein form long elevated ridges and form a positive relief. Eg: quartz vein which
may host sulphide mineralization.

 Prospecting based on erratic ore boulders

Erratic ore boulders are the fragments of ore minerals transported by glacier and
deposited in moraine.

Depositions of erratic boulder is usually in the form of a triangle up to a distance of 20km

and further away its shape becomes indistinct.

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  Solifuction
Solifluction is the flowage of water-saturated soil down a steep slope or slope. Permafrost
is impermeable to water, soil and rock debris gets lubricated by water and flow easily over
the underlying frozen subsoil. It is related to freeze-thaw activity. Soil flows occur when
the surface layers of frozen ground thaw in spring.

 Straiation
Primary ore deposit can be found by tracing the route of erratic boulders indicated by
striation on the bed rock. During prospecting it is most promising to follow the basal
moraine.

QUESTIONS:

1.) What is the most promising to follow the basal moraine?

2.) What is soliflucton?

3.) What are the three stages in ground prospecting?

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LESSON 11: GROUND WATER
Water exists on earth in the following forms:

1.) Standing water above the ground in sea, lakes, etc.,

2.) Flowing water in rivers, springs, etc., and
3.) Groundwater underneath the ground.
In this lesson we will deal with the third form.

The level and amount of groundwater at a place is of considerable importance to the

civil engineer. It is a source of water supply for various uses. Dewatering of the foundation
is important before any construction work. In this chapter we will examine the nature of
occurrenceof grroundwater and some of its special features. We will also examine the
rainwater harvesting for replenishing groundwater which is now being made compulsory
in many cities. Unless we collect and conserve the rainwater, the other naturally occurring
quantity of water will not be sufficient for the growing population in the future. Constant
pumping of groundwater will lower its level in inland places and will lead to salt water
intrusion in the coastal cities. Water shortage is being felt in many modern cities.

 Porosity and Permeability

One of the most important properties we have to consider when we study the flow
through soils and rock, is the permeability of these materials. It is different from their
porosity.

Porosity of soil or rock is defined as the percentage of total volume occupied by pore
space and permeability is the capacity of the material to transmit the flow of fluid. A high
porosity doesn’t meen high permeability unless the pores are interconnected.

Permeability usually denoted by the symbol K is expressed by the equation V=Ki

(wherein the value of V is velocity of flow, K is a constant called permeability, and i is the
hydraulic gradient = head of water/length of flow).

The porosity of soils like sands, etc., is high but the porosity of igneous rocks is
rather very low. However, igneous rocks have many joints and rocks like limestone can
also have solution channels. A flow in rocks can take place through the various joints, and
also through the solution channels in rocks like limestones and dolomite. The following are
a rough measure of the porosity of various deposits. It is expressed as percentage of voids:

Soil – 50%

Sandstone – 10%

Shale – 4%

Granite –Qua

Quartzite – 0.5%

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  Sources of Groundwater
The water found on the ground, in rocks and in soils is of three kinds which can be
described as follows:

1. Magnetic or juvenile water: This kind of water is formed in the rockswhen the
magma of igneous rocks cool down. They may pass into the adjacent rock but
generally, this is not available for exploitation.
2. Connate water: It is trapped in pores of sedimentary rocks during its formation,
but due to presence of lots of minerals components, it cannot be used for drinking
purposes.
3. Meteoric or rainwater: This kind of rainwater that seeps through the ground into
the soil and joints of rocks. It can also be in the form of snow, hail, etc., in cold
countries. This is the most important source of subsurface water.

 Flow of Rainwater
The rain water that falls on the ground is disposed in the following ways:

1. Part of the rainwater is absorbed by top of the forests, plants, etc.

2. Some parts meet the earth’s surface but get evaporated.
3. The remaining rain falling on land gets disposed of in the following forms:
a. Part of it flows into the lakes, rivers, sea, etc.
b. Part of water will be absorbed by roots of plants
c. Another part sweeps through the ground to join the groundwater at that
site.
Water occupying the ground below the zone of saturation is known as the
groundwater. We must know that below the ground level there is a zone of saturation
above the groundwater level. This zone above the water table where the flow is
downwards is called the vandose zone and the water in that zone is called vandose water.

The level of the water that flows into the streams and rivers are also connected with
the groundwater level. The stream can be effluent stream or influent stream. The streams
which are fed by water from the higher-level water table on both sides of a valley are
called effluent stream. If there is a deep groundwater table below the bottom pf the stream
and water can flow from the stream to groundwater level, it is an influent stream. Such
deep-water table is likely to occur in the areas where rock is very porous or contain large
openings. Such streams are not suitable for dam construction for storage of water as there
will be considerable seepage loss under such conditions.

 Groundwater Zones
This zone occupied by the ground, is known as groundwater zone. The upper limit of
the groundwater zone is known as the groundwater table. It usually varies with the
configuration of the land surface but it is a little farther from the surface under the hills
and nearer to the surface in the valleys. In some cases, in the valleys, it may even reach
the surface and flow out as seepage, springs, etc.

The groundwater does no remain static. There is a steady flor of groundwater from
the higher-level to the lower-level. During rains, the groundwater level rises but with the
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stoppage of rain and start of the dry season, the groundwater level falls. Groundwater also
flows to nearby drainage channels or to the sea near the sea coast.

 Freshwater and Salt water Levels Near the Sea

As the state is in balance, taking specific gravity if water as unity and that of sea
water as 1.025 for hydraulic balance if h is the level of freshwater below the mean sea
level and t the level of freshwater above the mean sea level then (h + t) is the level of
freshwater. For balances:

(h + t) x 1 = h x 1.025 giving
𝑡
h = (1.025−1) = 40t

 Movement of Groundwater
After the rainy season, the groundwater reaches its maximum height. It then slowly
falls down. In most regions, the flow will be “free flow” with the surface of the groundwater
under no pressure on it. It can also be a confined flow as in the case of pipeflow. If it flows
in a permeable layers in-between two impermeable layers, it can flow as ordinary springs
and also as artesian springs.

 Seepage and Springs

If the natural water level emerges above the groundwater level, it will form a
seepage. When waterflow in the ground is at a single point or a definite opening, it is
called a spring. A seepage differs from a spring as a seepage is general flow with no
definite opening or point of discharge.

The spring that flow from a definite point can be of different types as described
below:

1. Springs of deep-seated origin may be

a. The volcanic springs associated with volcanoes and are usually hot
b. The hot water springs due to fracture in rocks, extending to deeper
points.
2. An ordinary springs produced from the groundwater are obtained from the
ordinary rainwater.

 Thermal springs
If the groundwater goes deep and come to surface through a fault, it can get heated
when it reaches the deep hot parts of the earth and then emerge as hot or thermal springs.

 Aquifers and Artesian Water

An aquifer is defined as a porous and permeable geologic formation capable of
storing and yielding water in sufficient quantity. In many places on earth, water can be
held in a permeable zone which is confined by impermeable rocks on top and bottom. This
confined water under hydraulic head produces artesian water. In artesian flow, the water

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comes out with a head as the flow is under pressure. In an ordinary flow springs, the
water just flows out without pressure.

The necessary condition for artesian flow are:

1. A source of ample water supply;

2. A medium through which water flows offering more resistance to flow
than the opening;
3. An adequate source of pressure.

 Movement of Water in Rocks

We will examine how the groundwater flows in rocks below the ground, in carbonate
rocks like limestone or dolomite or marble, where the rocks can get dissolved in water. The
solution channels and even caves can be formed below the ground level. The chimney-like
openings which result in these rocks is called sink holes. Where sink holes are present, the
surface flow will be small and lack of surface flow can be taken as an indication for the
presence of sink holes in the limestone areas. It is very important to look for it when the
foundation of the building is laid. There are the case where footings of buildings were built
above the sink holes in the limestone areas and they collapsed on loadings.

 Sedimentary Rocks as Aquifers

The performance of sedimentary rocks as aquifers depends on the type of rocks. The
coarse-grained soils like sandstone may be good aquifers. The fine-grained sandstones are
generally bad aquifers. In the limestone solution, channels play a great part in
groundwater levels and yield from wells.

 Metamorphic Rocks as Aquifers

If these stones are fractured they give good results for water supply. However, non-
foliated rocks like marble, quartzite are generally impervious and the yield of water can be
much smaller.

 Perched Water Tables

In some places, we may find above the main water table layers of clay or other
impervious materials with small bodies of water entrapped. This may also store rainwater
and in many cases, yield freshwater even when the groundwater that we get from nearby
areas will be salty.

 Wells for Extraction of Groundwater

The following are the usual types of wells used for extraction of water. They are
classified according to the method of installation.

1. Dug wells. Manually dug wells of various large diameters.

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 2. Driven wells. Wells of small diameters installed with pipes with a pointed end
and slotted bottom.
3. Bored wells. Large diameter holes put by rogers, or other special equipments.
4. Jetted wells. Wells formed by water jetting.
5. Hydraulic rotary drilled wells. The cutting is done by a suitable drilling
equipment. Drilling mud circulation is used to hold the hole and bring up the soil
or rock bored.

 An Interesting Case of Dewatering and Recharging of Foundation

In excavation of foundation like that for a raft foundation to be placed at large
depths. The groundwater level is usually depressed by means of well points and other
system of pumps. This depressing of water table should not affect the foundation of nearby
structures. Such operation should be carefully planned.

For example, in the case of construction of a 14-storeyed buildings by New York

City Authority in 1950s, the water table had to be reduced by 3m to construct R.C. boxes
for foundation. The adjacent 15-storeyed hotel building was founded on spread footings.
The dewatering would have settled this old building on footings. Hence, to keep the water
level under this building in a steady state, 4500 gallons of water per minute was
withdrawn from the construction site to lower water level and out of it. 300 galloons of
water per minute was fed back into the adjacent site by a diffusion system of well points to
maintain the water level of the adjacent site steady. (Engineering New Record Vol. 156-
1956).

 Recharge of Groundwater by Rainwater Harvesting

The rainwater is the only source of freshwater for all living beings on earth. With
the increase in population and industries, the groundwater level in many locations in the
world especially bear the cities, are getting lower. Hence, the recharge of groundwater by
the rainwater harvesting has become a necessity. The corporation has made this
procedure compulsory for allthe buildings located in the city.

The recharging of the underground water is called rainwater harvesting. The

principle is simple, we must give the two requirements of a convenient route and sufficient
time for the rainwater to go down to the groundwater level and replenish it.

For groundwater recharge, the rainwater that falls on the ground in an open place
outside the human habitation can be made to flow to natural lakes or manmade
depressions so that it will remain there for a long time to percolate into the ground. These
ponds and lakes can also be used for irrigation and other purposes.

In the following section we will therefore concentrate on the methods of rainwater

harvesting from buildings and the residential areas around buildings. We will deal only
with the rainwater that falls on the building as well as that falls in the ground around the
buildings, within the boundaries of compound walls.

The collection of water is divided into two types (1) Collection from the roof of the
building and (2) Collection of water that falls on the ground surrounding the building.

 Roofwater Collection

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 The roofwater can be used for consumption after disposing of the first batch of
rainwater that will wash and clean the roof. For the roofwater collection a water tank, for
collecting maximum rainwater, is provided and the surplus water will be directed for
recharging as is done while recharging the water from the ground.

There are three methods used to force the rainwater that falls on the ground from
the building for recharging the groundwater. The method to be used depends on the area
of drainable ground available around the building.

Method 1: If there is enough ground around the building and if the soil is freely drainable
sand, we allow the rainwater to stand on the ground until it drains down and reaches the
groundwater. We may build bunds around the buildings so that the water does not flow
away.

Method 2: If the ground will not allow free drainage, we can make boreholes extending to
the level of the sand layer at the site and fill the borehole with freely drainable material
and thus quicken the percolation seepage. It is estimated that at least one borehole with
graded filter which can be cleaned periodically of the silt that may accumulate.

Method 3: Another most efficient method is to dig a regular well of large diameter or
series of pits extending to the sand layer, a convenient point at that site, and lead all the
rainwater to the well for standing for some time and seeping into the ground. As water
that flows to the well will contain a lot of sand, silt and other substances usually a settling
tank is also incorporated before the well.

The well can be open or filled with highly pervious material like clean sand to a
certain level. The top of its layer should be covered with a plastic sheet with small holes or
geogrid so that the pervious material which we have filled the well does not get clogged
with fine particles after a certain period.

Summary

This chapter explains the nature of groundwater and its various features like springs,
artesian wells, etc. It also gives an idea of pumping water from wells, especially in rocky
area. The methods of rainwater harvesting for replenishing the groundwater is also
described.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the sources of groundwater. Explain each.

2. What is the difference between springs and seepage? Explain briefly.
3. Explain the salt water intrusion on sea coasts. How can it be prevented?
4. What is the rainwater harvesting?

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LESSON 12: IMPORTANCE OF
GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
As a summary on what are stated in Chapter 1.1, Geology is the study of earth; its
history, the materials of which is it made, the structure of those materials and the effects
of the natural forces acting upon them, the combination of rocks, soil and water and the
science of studying evolution.

Civil engineering is the design, implementation and maintenance of public works

(bridges, building etc.). Civil engineers design structures that are built in or on the
ground. As such an understanding of how the ground behaves fundamental of Civil
engineering design. Earth materials can pose significant problems that need to be
predicted, planned, and designed for. For civil engineering projects to be successful, the
engineers must understand the land upon which the project rests.

Geologists study the land to determine whether it is stable enough to support the
proposed project. They also study water patterns to determine if particular site is prone to
flooding. Some civil engineers use geologists to examine rocks for important metals, oil,
natural gas and ground water.

Engineering Geology may define as the application of geological sciences to

engineering projects. It is aimed at studying the geology of an area for the purpose of
assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation
and maintenance of engineering works, are perfect for the project implementation.

Geological engineers play an important role in identifying and mitigating man-

made and natural hazards that pose a threat to civil structures, infrastructure or people.
Their work includes performing site investigations for planned tunnels, dams or roads;
locating sites and designing facilities for nuclear waste disposal; developing and restoring
groundwater resources; stabilizing rock and soil slopes for dams, highways and properly
development; exploring and harvesting mineral and energy resources; and studying
geologic hazards such as volcanoes, landslides and earthquakes.

Optimization and reliability of civil engineering generates the need for more and
specified data about the ground-water environment and forecasts of possible changes. This
chapter presents the importance of geology in civil engineering projects.

The importance of Geology in Civil Engineering may briefly be outline as follows:

 Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,

composition, durability and other properties.
Example of such construction materials: building stones, road metal, clay,
limestones and laterite.
 The knowledge of geological work of natural agencies as such water, wind, ice and
earthquakes help in planning and carrying out major civil engineering works.

75 | P a g e
 Example: the knowledge of erosion, transportation and depositions helps
greatly in solving the expensive problems of river control, coastal and harbor
work and soil conservation.
 Ground water is the water which occurs in the subsurface rocks. The knowledge
about its quantity and depth occurrence is required in connection with water
supply, irrigation, excavation and many other civil engineering projects.
 The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly concerned
with the geology of the area where they are to be built. In these works drilling is
commonly undertaken to explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in
interpreting the drilling data.
 In tunnelling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in determining the stability of
cuts and slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very
necessary.
 Before starting a major engineering project at a place, a detailed geological report
which is accompanied by geological maps and sections, is prepared. Such report
helps in planning and constructing the projects.
 The stability of civil engineering structure is considerably increased if the
geological feature like faults, joints, bedding planes, folding solution channels etc in
the rock beds are properly located and suitably treated.
 In the study of soil mechanics, it is necessary to know how the soil materials are
formed in nature.
 The cost of engineering works will considerably reduced of the geological survey of
the area concerned is done before hand.

We have known the importance of

geology in civil engineering works. Do
you also wonder what might happen if
geology is absent in one of the civil
engineering projects? The figure below
will let us see what might be the
outcome.

The above pictures show us how geology is important; so, let us study more of it in the
next chapters! 

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SUMMARY:

Geology provides necessary information about the site construction materials used
in the construction of buildings, dams, tunnels, reservoirs, highways and bridges.
Geological information is most important in planning phase, design phase and
construction phase of an engineering project. Before construction begins, selection of site is
important from the viewpoint of stability of foundation and availability of construction
materials. Thus, geology is so important to civil engineering in construction jobs with
economy and success.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is engineering geology?

2. Make a diagram that shows how important geology is in civil engineering projects.

3. Show the relationship between geology and civil engineering through a short film.

4. What are the possible outcomes if geological survey is not conducted?

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 CHAPTER 2:

MINERALOGY

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LESSON 1: ELEMENTARY
KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY OF
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS

The minerals that make up igneous rocks crystallize at a range of different

temperatures. This explains why a cooling magma can have some crystals within it and
yet remain predominantly liquid. The sequence in which minerals crystallize from a
magma is known as the Bowen reaction series.

Of the common silicate minerals, olivine normally crystallizes first, at between 1200° and
1300°C. As the temperature drops, and assuming that some silica remains in the magma,
the olivine crystals react with some of the silica in the magma to form pyroxene. As long
as there is silica remaining and the rate of cooling is slow, this process continues down the
discontinuous branch: olivine to pyroxene, pyroxene to amphibole, and amphibole to
biotite.

At about the point where pyroxene begins to crystallize, plagioclase feldspar also begins to
crystallize. At that temperature, the plagioclase is calcium-rich (anorthite). As the
temperature drops, and providing that there is sodium left in the magma, the plagioclase
that forms is a more sodium-rich variety.

WHO WAS BOWEN, AND WHAT’S A REACTION SERIES?

Norman Levi Bowen, born in Kingston Ontario, studied geology at Queen’s University and
then at MIT in Boston. In 1912, he joined the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C.,
where he carried out groundbreaking experimental research into the processes of cooling
magmas. Working mostly with basaltic magmas, he determined the order of crystallization

79 | P a g e
 of minerals as the temperature drops. The method, in brief, was to
melt the rock to a magma in a specially made kiln, allow it to cool
slowly to a specific temperature, and then quench it so that no new
minerals form. The results were studied under the microscope and
by chemical analysis. This was done over and over, each time
allowing the magma to cool to a lower temperature before
quenching.

The Bowen reaction series is one of the results of his work, and even
a century later, it is an important basis for our understanding of
igneous rocks. The word reactionis critical. In the discontinuous
branch, olivine is typically the first mineral to form (at just below 1300°C). As the
temperature continues to drop, olivine becomes unstable while pyroxene becomes stable.
The early-forming olivine crystals react with silica in the remaining liquid magma and are
converted into pyroxene, something like this:

Mg2SiO4 + SiO2 ——> 2MgSiO3

olivine pyroxene

In cases where cooling happens

relatively quickly, individual plagioclase
crystals can be zoned from calcium-rich
in the centre to more sodium-rich
around the outside. This occurs when
calcium-rich early-forming plagioclase
crystals become coated with
progressively more sodium-rich
plagioclase as the magma cools. Shows a
zoned plagioclase under a microscope.

A zoned plagioclase crystal. The central part is calcium-rich and the outside part is
sodium-rich

Finally, if the magma is quite silica-rich to begin with, there will still be some left at
around 750° to 800°C, and from this last magma, potassium feldspar, quartz, and maybe
muscovite mica will form.

The composition of the original magma is critical to magma crystallization because it

determines how far the reaction process can continue before all of the silica is used up.
The compositions of typical mafic, intermediate, and felsicmagmas are shown in Figure
3.12. Note that, unlike, these compositions are expressed in terms of “oxides” (e.g., Al 2O3
rather than just Al). There are two reasons for this: one is that in the early analytical
procedures, the results were always expressed that way, and the other is that all of these
elements combine readily with oxygen to form oxides.

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The chemical compositions of typical mafic, intermediate, and felsic magmas and the types
of rocks that form from them.

Mafic magmas have 45% to 55% SiO2, about 25% total of FeO and MgO plus CaO, and
about 5% Na2O + K2O. Felsic magmas, on the other hand, have much more SiO2 (65% to
75%) and Na2O + K2O (around 10%) and much less FeO and MgO plus CaO (about 5%).

QUESTIONS:

1. Which minerals are the first to crystallize from cooling magma?

2. Which minerals are most common in granite?
3. How long does it take for magma to cool underground?
4. Which minerals crystallize at high temperatures?
5. How are minerals formed by crystallization from magma?

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LESSON 2: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS

Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which

is usually solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.

There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed
from combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The
rock-forming minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite,
pyroxenes.

Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory

minerals”. Although accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may
provide valuable insight into the geological history of a rock, and are often used to
ascertain the age of a rock. Common accessory minerals are: zircon, monazite, apatite,
titanite, tourmaline, pyrite and other opaques.

The abundance and diversity of minerals depend on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of
the elements of which they are composed. Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s
crust: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. The
composition of minerals formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the
chemistry of the parent body. For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form
minerals such as olivine and pyroxene (as found in basalt). Magma richer in silicon will
form more silica-rich minerals such as feldspar and quartz (as found in granite). It is
unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock with dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike its
own; thus, it is unlikely that andalusite (Al2SiO5) would be found in an aluminium-poor
rock such as a quartzite.

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Some minerals are easily identifiable; others can only be recognized only by the use of a
petrographic microscope or by complex analytical techniques. The following criteria are
used to differentiate minerals in hand sample. Most minerals cannot be identified from
one particular property, and so it is advisable to use several of the diagnostic criteria
outlined below. A hand lens will assist you greatly.

 COLOUR
It is one of the most obvious characteristics of a mineral, but generally not the most
useful diagnostic feature. Depending on impurities, individual mineral types may come in
a vast variety of colours.
For example, ruby and sapphire are differently coloured types of the mineral
corundum (Al2O3). The red colour of ruby is due to the presence of the element chromium.
Sapphires may come is a vast variety of colours; blue is the most familiar colour, but
yellow, orange, green, pink, orange and brown varieties are also known.

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Garnets may also come in a large range of colours, depending on their composition. They
can be found with virtually any colour, although blue garnets are exceptionally rare. It is
therefore advisable not to rely on colour alone to identify a mineral.

 CRYSTAL HABIT
It refers to the characteristic shape of a mineral unit (either an individual crystal or
an aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-developed faces are referred to as “euhedral”;
for example, garnet crystals are often euhedral. Minerals may also occur as aggregates of
crystals; for example, asbestos is usually found as an aggregate of very fine fibres.

The following list gives examples of different crystal habits and examples of common
minerals that may exhibit each habit.

Acicular – needle-like, e.g. natrolite, Granular – aggregates of crystal, e.g.

rutile bornite, scheelite
Bladed – blade-like, slender and Hexagonal -six-sided, e.g. quartz,
flattened, e.g. kyanite hanksite
Botryoidal – grape-like masses, e.g. Massive – no distinct shape, e.g.
hematite, malachite turquoise, realgar
Columnar – long, slender prisms, e.g. Octahedral – eight-sided, e.g. diamond,
calcite, gypsum magnetite
Cubic – cube-shaped, e.g. pyrite,
Platy – flat, tablet shape, e.g. wulfenite
galena, halite
Dendritic – tree-like, branching in
Prismatic – elongate, prism like, e.g.
multiple directions, e.g. pyrolusite,
tourmaline, beryl
native copper, native silver
Radial or Stellate – radiating outwards
Fibrous – very slender prisms, e.g.
from a central point, star-like, e.g.
asbestos, tremolite
wavellite, pyrophyllite
Foliated or Lamellar – layered
structure, parts easily into very thin
sheets, e.g. muscovite, biotite

Acicular Habit (Rutile) Botryoidal Habit (Malachite) Cubic Habit (Pyrite)

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 Fibrous Habit (Silimanite) Foliated Habit (Biotite) Hexagonal Habit
(Sapphire)

Massive Habit (Realgar) Platy Habit (Wulfenite) Prismatic Habit

 HARDNESS
Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching. This physical property
is controlled by the chemical composition and structure of the mineral. Hardness is
commonly measured on the Mohs scale. This is defined by ten minerals, where each
mineral can scratch those with a lower scale number. Diamond (hardness 10) can scratch
everything below it on the Mohs scale, but cannot itself be scratched, whereas quartz
(hardness 5) can scratch calcite (hardness 3) but not corundum (hardness 9).

SCALE NUMBER INDICATOR MINERAL COMMON OBJECTS

1 Talc
2 Gypsum Fingernail
3 Calcite Copper Coin
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite Knife Blade
6 Orthoclase Window Glass
7 Quartz Steel File
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond

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  STREAK
The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of the mark it leaves behind after being
rubbed against a piece of unglazed porcelain. Hematite provides a good example of how
streak works. While this mineral is usually black, silver or brown-red in hand sample, its
streak is always a dark blood-red. Chalcopyrite is usually golden-brown in hand sample,
but has green-black streak. Streak can be used only for minerals with a Mohs hardness of
7 or less, as minerals with a hardness greater than 7 will themselves scratch the streak
plate.

 LUSTRE
Lustre refers to the way in which the surface of a mineral reflects light, and is
controlled by the kinds of atoms present and their bonding. It is described by the following
terms:

 Adamantine – diamond-like lustre; such minerals are usually transparent and have
a high refractive index; e.g. diamond, cerussite, cubic zirconia
 Dull or Earthy – no reflections; e.g. kaolinite
 Greasy – the appearance of being coated with an oily substance; may also be greasy
to the touch; e.g. opal
 Pearly – the whitish iridescence of materials such as pearls; e.g. stilbite
 Vitreous – like glass; e.g. calcite, quartz, beryl
 Silky – like silk fabric; e.g. satin spar (a variety of gypsum)
 Resinous – like a resin; e.g. fire opal
 Metallic – metal-like in appearance; e.g. pyrite

Adamantine Lustre (Diamond) Resinous Lustre (Fire Opal)

 CLEAVAGE
Minerals are composed of atoms, which, for each mineral, have a characteristic
arrangement. Weaknesses in the chemical bonds between these atoms cause planes of
weakness in the crystal structure. Cleavage is an indication of how well a mineral break
along these planes of weakness, and may be a good diagnostic characteristic. Cleavage
may be described as “perfect”, “good”, “distinct” or “poor”. In transparent minerals or in
thin sections viewed though a microscope, cleavage may be seen as a series of parallel
lines.

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 The number of cleavage planes in a mineral may also aid its identification.
Cleavage typically occurs in either one, two, three, four or six directions. Micas easily split
along their one plane of cleavage to form thin sheets. Amphiboles exhibit two cleavage
planes. Iceland spar, a variety of calcite, cleaves readily along three planes of weakness
into distinctive rhombs. Galena breaks along three cleavage planes producing cubic
fractions. Fluorite and diamond show cleavage in four directions. Sphalerite exhibits
cleavage in six directions. Not every mineral display cleavage. For example, quartz does
not have weakness in its crystal structure, and therefore does not exhibits cleavage. When
a quartz specimen is broken with a hammer, it displays conchoidal (shell-like) fracture.

Calcite has three cleavage planes.

 QUARTZ
Quartz is one of the most well-known minerals on earth. It occurs
in basically all mineral environments, and is the important
constituent of many rocks. Quartz is also the most varied of all
minerals, occurring in all different forms, habits, and colors.
There are more variety names given to Quartz than any other
mineral. Although the Feldspars as a group are more prevalent
than Quartz, as an individual mineral Quartz is the most
common mineral.

Most mineral reference guides list Chalcedony as an individual mineral, but in reality it is
a variety of Quartz. It is the microcrystalline form of Quartz, forming only occurs in
microscopic, compacted crystals. This page deals only with the crystalline forms of
Quartz. Chalcedony is listed on its own dedicated page in this guide. Other important
varieties of Quartz, such as Amethyst, Citrine, and Agate, also have dedicated pages due
to their popularity and individual varieties.

Some forms of Quartz, especially the gemstone forms, have their color enhanced. Almost
all forms of the yellow-brown variety Citrine are in fact heat treated. Much Amethyst is
also heat treated to intensify color, and a green transparent form known as "Green
Amethyst" or "Prasiolite" is formed by heat treating certain types of Amethyst. There is
also a transparent sky blue form of Quartz crystals, as well as a wildly iridescent type that
are synthetically colored by irradiation of gold. In some localities, Hematite forms a thin
red or brown layer internally in the Quartz crystal, giving it a natural bright red to brown
coloring, and sometimes even a mild natural iridescence.

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Quartz frequently forms the inner lining of geodes. Most geodes have an inner layer of
larger crystalline Quartz, and an outer layer of Chalcedony or banded Agate.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF QUARTZ

CHEMICAL
SiO2
FORMULA
COMPOSITION Silicon Dioxide
Colorless, white, purple, pink, brown, and black.
COLOR Also, gray, green orange, yellow, blue, and red.
Sometimes multicolored or banded.
STREAK White
HARDNESS 7
CRYSTAL SYSTEM Hexagonal
3D CRYSTAL ATLAS

CRYSTAL FORMS Crystals, which are hexagonal in shape, vary in

AND AGGREGATES shape and size. Quartz crystals are unique and very
identifiable with their pointed and often uneven
terminations. Crystals can be in enormous prismatic
and stubby crystals, or in pointed aggregates of such
crystals. Crystals are usually striated horizontally,
and are sometimes doubly terminated. Quartz crystal
habits include drusy, grainy, bladed, as linings of
geodes, as rounded waterworn pebbles, radiating, as
pointy pyramids on a matrix, as dense
agglomerations of small crystals, massive, globular,
stalactitic, crusty, in nodules, and in amygdules.

Crystals frequently twin; a famous twinning habit is

the Japanese twin, where two crystals contact at a
90° angle. Quartz crystals may also contain a scepter
growth, where the top of a crystal bulges out from the
rest of the crystal, and may also from as phantom
growth, where one crystal forms over another,
leaving a ghosted form inside.

The crystal structure of Quartz is very complicated.

As a result of a changeover from alpha to beta
Quartz, crystals form as hexagonal prisms with
modified crystal faces.
TRANSPARENCY Transparent to opaque
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.6 – 2.7

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 Vitreous. Transparent, colorless Quartz crystals from
LUSTER
a few distinct localities may be adamantine.
CLEAVAGE Indiscernible. Seldom exhibits parting.
FRACTURE Conchoidal
TENACITY Brittle
OTHER ID MARKS 1) Some specimens fluoresce, especially white
and green.
2) Triboluminescent.
3) Piezoelectric.
COMPLEX TESTS Dissolves in hydrofluoric acid
IN GROUP Silicates; Tectosilicates; Silica Group
Hardness, crystal forms, striations on crystal faces,
STRIKING
and frequent appearance of conchoidal fractures on
FEATURES
crystal faces.
Quartz occurs in almost every single mineral
ENVIRONMENT
environment.
ROCK TYPE Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic
POPULARITY (1-4) 1
PREVALENCE (1-3) 1
DEMAND (1-3) 1

VARIETIES FOR AMETHYST, CITRINE, AND CHALCEDONY ARE LISTED

SEPARATELY:

 AMETHYST – purple variety of  AVENTURINE – opaque form of

Quartz. compact Quartz or
Chalcedony
containing small
Mica, Hematite, or
Goethite scales
which cause a glistening effect.
 AQUA AURA  BLUE QUARTZ
– quartz – Is a very uncommon
synthetically in nature and rarely in
enhanced with crystal form. Blue
coating using gold quartz may also refer
(and sometimes to a dull grayish-blue quartz in
other metals) to give it a neon blue massive form with Crocidolite
or other neon color. inclusions.
 CACTUS QUARTZ – form of  CHALCEDO
quartz, usually NY –
Amethyst, Citrine, or microcrystalline
a combination of the form of Quartz.
two, that contains a
large crystal or
crystals overgrown
with a layer of spiky smaller

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 crystals.

 CITRINE –  FADEN
yellow, orange, or QUARTZ – group of
brown variety of quartz crystals with
Quartz. a white thread-like
zone running
through the interior,
with the crystals having formed
around the thread axis.
 FERRUGINOUS QUARTZ – quartz  HERKIMER
with an opaque DIAMOND –
red to brown exceptionally
Hematite coating lustrous and clear
to internal quartz crystals from
inclusion. the Herkimer Co.
vicinity in the Mohawk Valley region
of Central New York State. Herkimer
Diamond crystals are usually doubly
terminated and short.
 MILKY  MORION –
QUARTZ – white, opaque form of black
translucent to quartz. A type of
opaque variety of Smoky Quartz.
Quartz.

 PHANTO  PRASE –
M QUARTZ – light to emerald
quartz green, transparent
containing to translucent
internal phantom Quartz, with
growths, or coloring caused
ghostlike layers within a crystal. from inclusions of
green minerals, such as Actinolite,
Hedenbergite, Chlorite, or Malachite.
 PRASEME  PRASIOLITE
– light green, – describes a light
translucent form green quartz
of Quartz with artificially colored
Hedenbergite by heat treatment of
inclusions found certain types of
on Serifos Island, Amethyst. May also
Greece. be called Green Amethyst by some
jewelers.

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  RAINBOW QUARTZ – quartz  ROCK
synthetically CRYSTAL –
colored with an colorless,
iridescent layer transparent variety
formed from gold of quartz in large
or other metals. crystal form.
Also see Aqua Aura.
 ROSE  RUTILATED
QUARTZ – pink QUARTZ – quartz
variety of Quartz. with golden yellow,
needle-like Rutile
inclusions.

 SCEPTER QUARTZ – quartz  SMOKY

crystal with scepter QUARTZ – brown to
like protusion on black, “smoky”
the end of the variety of Quartz.
crystal that is
wider than the rest
of the crystal.
 STAR QUARTZ – polished quartz  TOURMALINA
displaying asterism TED QUARTZ –
in the form of a six- quartz with splintery
rayed star. tourmaline inclusions.

 USES OF QUARTZ
Quartz is an important mineral with numerous uses. Sand, which is composed of
tiny Quartz pebbles, is the primary ingredient for the manufacture of glass. Transparent
Rock Crystal has many electronic uses; it is used as oscillators in radios, watches, and
pressure gauges, and in the study of optics. Quartz is also used as an abrasive for
sandblasting, grinding glass, and cutting soft stones. It is also essential in the computer
industry, as the important silicon semiconductors are made from Quartz.

In addition to all the practical uses, Quartz is essential to the gem trade. Many
varieties are faceted as gems. Amethyst and Citrine are the most well-known gem
varieties. Rose Quartz, Smoky Quartz, Rock Crystal, and Aveturine are also cut or
polished into gems. Small colorless Quartz crystals are worn by some as pendants for
goodluck.

Quartz is also a very popular among collectors. Certain collectors specialize their
collection entirely on Quartz alone.

 FELDSPAR
Feldspar is the name of a large organization of rock-
forming silicate minerals that make up over 50% of Earth’s

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crust. They are discovered in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks in all
components of the sector. Feldspar minerals have very comparable structures, chemical
compositions, and bodily properties. Common feldspars consist orthoclase (KAISi3O8),
albite (NaAISi3O8), and anorthite (CaAI2Si2O8).

 COMPOSITIONS OF FELDSPAR GROUP MINERALS

This group of minerals includes tectosilicates. Compositions of foremost elements in

common place feldspars may be expressed in terms of 3 endmembers: potassium feldspar
(K-spar) endmember KAISi3O8, albite endmember NaAISi3O8, anorthite endmember
CaAI2SiO8. Solid answers between K-felspar and albite are referred to as “alkali
feldspar”. Solid solutions among albite and anorthite are called “plagioclase”, or greater
nicely “plagioclase feldspar”. Only constrained solid answer happens between K-feldspar
and anorthite, and inside the two different stable answers, immiscibility occurs at
temperatures common place in the crust of the Earth. Albite is taken into consideration
both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar.

CHEMICAL
Silicate
CLASSIFICATION
COLOR Usually white, pink, gray or brown. Also, colorless,
yellow, orange, red, black, blue, green.
STREAK White
LUSTER Vitreous. Pearly on some cleavage faces.
DIAPHANEITY Usually translucent to opaque. Rarely transparent.
Cleavage planes usually intersect at or close to a 90
CLEAVAGE
degrees angle.
Mohs HARDNESS 6 to 6.5
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.5 to 2.8
DIAGNOSTIC Perfect cleavage, with cleavage faces usually
PROPERTIES intersecting at or close 90 degrees. Consistent
hardness, specific gravity and pearly luster on
cleavage.
CHEMICAL A generalized chemical composition of X(Al,Si)4O8 ,
COMPOSITION where X is usually potassium, sodium, or calcium, but
rarely can be barium, rubidium, or strontium.
CRYSTAL SYSTEM Triclinic, monoclinic
USES Crushed and powdered feldspar are important raw
materials for the manufacture of plates glass,
container glass, ceramic products, paints, plastics and
many other products. Varieties of orthoclase,
labradorite, oligoclase, microcline and other feldspar
minerals have been cut and used as faceted and
cabochon gems.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FELDSPAR MINERAL

 ALKALI FELDSPAR MINERALS

The alkali feldspars are as follows:

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  Orthoclase (Monoclinic) [10]  Sanidine (Monoclinic) [11] (K,Na)
KAISi3O8

AISi3O8

 Microcline (Triclinic) [12]  Anorthoclase (Triclinic) (Na, K)

KAISi3O8 AISi3O8

Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline at the lowest. Perthite is a
typical texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar
compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. The perthitic textures in the
alkali feldspars of many granites can be seen with the naked eye. Microperthitic textures
in crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be
seen only with an electron microscope.

 BARIUM FELDSPARS
Barium feldspars are also considered alkali feldspars.
Barium feldspars form as the result of the substitution of
barium for potassium in the mineral structure. The barium
felspars are monoclinic and include the following:

 Celsian BaAl2Si2O8,
 Hyalophane BaAl2Si2O8.

 PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPARS

PLAGIOCL
ASE PERCENT PERCENT
MINERAL NaAlSi3O8 CaAl2Si2O8
NAME
100-90% 0-10%
Albine
albite anorthite
10-30%
Oligoclase 90-70% albite
anorthite
Andesine 70-50% albite 30-50%

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 anorthite
50-70%
Labradorite 50-30% albite
anorthite
70-90%
Bytownite 30-10% albite
anorthite
90-100%
Anorthite 10-0% albite
anorthite

The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic. The plagioclase series follows (with percent
anorthite in parentheses):
Albite (0 to 10) NaAISI3O8,
Oligoclase (10 to 30) (Na, Ca) (AI, Si) AISi2O8,
Andesine (30 to 50) NaAlSi3O8—CaAl2Si2O8,
Labradorite (50 to 70) (Ca,Na)Al(Al,Si)Si2O8,
Bytownite (70 to 90) (NaSi,CaAl)AlSi2O8,
Anorthite (90 to 100) CaAl2Si2O8.

 PRODUCTION AND USES OF FELDSPAR MINERALS

About 20 million tonnes of feldspars have been produced in 2010, primarily by three
countries: Italy (four.7 Mt), Turkey (4. Five Mt), and China (2 Mt).

Feldspar is a common uncooked fabric utilized in glassmaking, ceramics, and to a

point as a filler and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, alumina from
feldspar improves product hardness, sturdiness, and resistance to chemical corrosion. In
ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar (calcium oxide, potassium oxide, and sodium oxide) act as
a flux, decreasing the melting temperature of a combination. Fluxes melt at an early stage
in the firing method, forming a glassy matrix that bonds the opposite additives of the
gadget collectively. In the US, approximately 66% of feldspar is consumed in glassmaking,
including glass containers and glass fiber. Ceramics (inclusive insulators, sanitaryware,
pottery, tableware, and tile) and different uses, which includes fillers, accounted for the
remainder.

 AUGITE
Augite is isomorphous with the minerals Diopside and
Hedenbergite. It is an intermediary member between these
minerals, forming a series, but contains additional sodium and
aluminum within its chemical structure. Strictly speaking,
because of the variables in its chemical structure, Augite is
really more of a group then a single mineral, but still classified
a single mineral species by the IMA.

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 Augite is an important rock-forming mineral, and large crystals are fairly common.
It is the most widespread member of the pyroxene group, and it frequently alters to many
other minerals, including Hornblende, Chlorite, and Epidote. When altered to Actinolite, it
is often called Uralite. Occasionally, though, it is found in large lustrous crystals which
are sought after by mineral collectors. The name Augite is derived from the Greek word
augites, “brightness”, in reference to the bright luster this mineral occasionally exhibits.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AUGITE

CHEMICAL
(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6
FORMULA
COMPOSITION Silicate of calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, and
aluminum. Occasssionally with zinc, manganese, and
titanium impurities.
VARIABLE
(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Zn,Mn,Ti)(Al,Si)2O6
FORMULA
COLOR Green, grayish-green, greenish brown, dark brown, black
STREAK Light green to colorless
HARDNESS 5–6
CRYSTAL Monoclinic
SYSTEM
3D CRYSTAL
ATLAS

CRYSTAL Often as prismatic crystals with a rectangular or octagonal

FORMS AND cross section. Also in short, stubby crystals with a flattened
AGGREGATES slightly pyramidal termination. Other forms are columnar,
grainy, massive, fibrous, and in disordered aggregates of
rectangular crystals. May also be in penetration twins with
v-shaped saddles. Crystals from certain localities have
partially hollow etchings.
TRANSPARENC
Opaque. Translucent in thin sections.
Y
SPECIFIC
3.2 – 3.6
GRAVITY
LUSTER Vitreous, dull
CLEAVAGE 1,2 – prismatic at cleavage angles of 87° and 93°
(Characteristics of minerals in the pyroxene group). May
also exhibit parting in one direction.
FRACTURE Uneven to splintery
TENACITY Brittle
IN GROUP Silicates; Inosilicates; Pyroxene Group
STRIKING
Color, crystal habits, cleavage, and environment
FEATURES
ENVIRONMENT An important constituent of many igneous rocks, including

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 basalt, diabase, and gabbro. Also, in carbonatite and
nepheline syenite pegmatites, and in metamorphic
Serpentine deposits.
ROCK TYPE Igneous, Metamorphic
POPULARITY
2
(1-4)
PREVALENCE
1
(1-3)
DEMAND (1-3) 2

VARIETIES

 FASSAITE – variety of augite originally described from the Val

D’ Fassa region in Italy which has a low iron content. This is usually
responsible for this variety having a lighter green color and
increased translucency then other most Augite.

 JEFFERSONITE – varieties of Augite rich in manganese and

zinc, found in the Franklin District, Sussex Co., New Jersey and
surrounding areas in the Franklin marble. Its chemical formula is
Ca(Mn,Zn,Fe)Si2O6.

 URALITE – Pseudomorph of Actinolite after any mineral of the

pyroxene group, especially Augite.

USES OF AUGITE
Augite does not have any physical, optical, or chemical properties that make it
especially useful. It is therefore one of the few minerals that has no commercial use. The
calcium content of augite has been found to be of limited use in studies of the temperature
history of igneous rocks.

 HORNBLENDE
Hornblende is a group name used to describe Ferro-
hornblende and Magnesio-hornblende, but the term is
generally more inclusive for all calcium aluminum amphiboles.
(Hornblende is frequently also used to describe any
dark, opaque amphibole mineral without individual analysis.)
The individual Hornblende minerals appear very similar and

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can be virtually indistinguishable without complex analysis, and are often just grouped
under a Hornblende label without further distinguishing.

Hornblende is major constituent of the earth and is extremely common. It forms in a host
of different mineral environments, and is often a major constituent of the rock type it
forms in. Hornblende is a rock-forming mineral, and it even constitutes its own rock type
known as Horneblendite, a dark rock formed mostly from Hornblende.

Hornblende is named after the German term horn, referring to its color, and blenden,
meaning "deceiver", alluding to its habit of being confused with ore metals due to its dark
color and luster. Its typical dark color and opacity are usually caused by iron in its
structure.

 HORNBLENDE AS A ROCK-FORMING MINERAL

Hornblende is a rock-forming mineral that is an important constituent in acidic and
intermediate igneous rocks such as granite, diorite, syenite, andesite, and rhyolite. It is
also found in metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schist. A few rocks consist almost
entirely of hornblende.

Amphibolite is the name given to metamorphic rocks that are mainly composed of
amphibole mineral. Lamprophyre is an igneous rock that is mainly composed of amphibole
and biotite with feldspar ground mass.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HORNBLENDE

CHEMICAL
Silicate
CLASSIFICATION
COLOR Usually black, dark-green, dark-brown
White, colorless – (brittle, often leaves cleavage
STREAK
debris behind instead of a streak)
LUSTER Vitreous
DIAPHANEITY Translucent to nearly opaque
CLEAVAGE Two directions intersecting at 124 and 56 degrees
Mohs HARDNESS 5 to 6

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.9 to 3.5 (varies depending upon composition)
DIAGNOSTIC
Cleavage, color, elongate habit
PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL
(Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2
COMPOSITION
CRYSTAL SYSTEM Very little industrial use
USES

USES OF HORNBLENDE

The mineral hornblende has very few uses. Its primary use might be as a mineral
specimen. However, hornblende is the most abundant mineral in a rock known
as amphibolite which has a large number of uses. It is crushed and used for highway
construction and as railroad ballast. It is cut for use as dimension stone. The highest
quality pieces are cut, polished, and sold under the name "black granite" for use as
building facing, floor tiles, countertops, and other architectural uses.

Hornblende has been used to estimate the depth of crystallization of plutonic rocks. Those
with low aluminum content are associated with shallow depths of crystallization, while
those with higher aluminum content are associated with greater depths of crystallization.
This information is useful in understanding the crystallization of magma and also useful
for mineral exploration.

 BIOTITE
Biotite is a very common form of mica. It is named in honor
Jean Baptiste Biot (1774 - 1862), a French physicist,
mathematician, and astronomer who researched the mica
minerals for their optical properties. Because of Biotite's
abundance, its presence is usually lacking in collections except
for it being an accessory mineral to other minerals. Biotite can
come in enormous crystal sheets that can weigh several
hundred pounds. Thin sheets can be peeled off as layers, and the thinner a layer is peeled
the greater its transparency becomes.

In 1998, the IMA removed the status of Biotite as an individual mineral species, and
instead declared it as a group name for the following individual members: Phlogopite,
Annite, Siderophyllite, and Eastonite. However, mineral collectors still refer to Biotite by
its traditional name and rarely make a distinction among its members except for
Phlogopite. Biotite is very hard to clean because if washed it will absorb water internally
and start to break apart. The best way to wash Biotite and other Micas is with a dry
electric toothbrush.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BIOTITE

CHEMICAL The classic formula for Biotite is:

FORMULA K(Mg,Fe2+3)(Al,Fe3+)Si3O10(OH,F)2

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 The group formula including all member minerals:
K(Mg,Fe2+)3(Al,Fe3+)[(Al,Si)3O10](OH,F)2

Individual members are:

Phlogopite: KMg3AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
Siderophyllite: KFe2+2Al(AlSi2O10)(OH)2
Eastonite: KMg2Al(AlSi2O10)(OH)2
Annite: KFe2+3AlSi3O10(OH)2
Fluorannite: KFe2+3AlSi3O10)F2
Tetraferriannite: K(Fe2+3Mg)(Fe3+,Al)Si3O10)(OH)2
Basic fluoro potassium, magnesium, iron aluminum
COMPOSITION
silicate
Black, dark brown, dark green, reddish black. Individual
COLOR group member minerals such as Phlogopite and Eastonite
can be in lighter colors.
STREAK White
HARDNESS 2.5 – 3
CRYSTAL Monoclinic
SYSTEM
3D CRYSTAL
ATLAS

CRYSTAL Crystals are in thick flakes, micaceous masses and

FORMS AND groupings, and in tabular, foliated, flaky, and scalyforms.
AGGREGATES Crystals may also be elongated with one dimension flat,
or stubby triangular or hexagonally shaped crystals. Also
forms in prismatic barrel-shaped or tapered pyramid-
shaped crystals composed of dense parallel plates, and as
rounded nodules of dense crystals.
TRANSPARENC Translucent to opaque. Thin flakes will always be
Y translucent if held up to the light.
SPECIFIC
2.8 – 3.4
GRAVITY
LUSTER Pearly
CLEAVAGE 1, 1
FRACTURE Uneven
TENACITY Sectile, elastic
OTHER ID
Tendency for small pieces or flakes or peel off.
MARKS
IN GROUP Silicates; Phyllosilicates; Mica Group
STRIKING
Flaky habit, crystals, sectility, and mode of occurence
FEATURES
ENVIRONMENT Biotite is a common rock-forming mineral, and is especially
noted in metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss. It is
also found in igneous rock such as granites and rhyolites.
Biotite is also the primary mica in rare earth pegmatites.

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ROCK TYPE Igneous, Metamorphic
POPULARITY
2
(1-4)
PREVALENCE
1
(1-3)
DEMAND (1-3) 2

VARIETIES

MANGANOPHYLLITE

Manganese-rich variety of Biotite.

 MUSCOVITE
Muscovite is the most common mineral of the mica family. It is
an important rock-forming mineral present in igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Like other micas it readily
cleaves into thin transparent sheets. Muscovite sheets have a
pearly to vitreous luster on their surface. If they are held up to
the light, they are transparent and nearly colorless, but most
have a slight brown, yellow, green, rose-color tint.

The ability of muscovite to split into thin transparent sheets – sometimes up to several
feet across – gave it an early use as window panes. In the 1700s, it was mined for this use
from pegmatites in the area around Moscow, Russia. These panes were called “muscovy
glass” and that term is thought to have inspired the mineral name “muscovite”.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCOVITE

CHEMICAL
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
FORMULA
Basic potassium aluminum silicate, sometimes with some
COMPOSITION
chromium or manganese replacing the aluminum
VARIABLE
K(Al,Cr,Mn)3Si3O10(OH)2
FORMULA
Colorless, white, beige, yellow, brown, gray, green, pink,
COLOR
purple, red, black; occasionally multicolored
STREAK Colorless
HARDNESS 2 – 2.5
CRYSTAL Monoclinic
SYSTEM

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3D CRYSTAL
ATLAS

CRYSTAL Crystals are in thick flakes, micaceous masses and

FORMS AND groupings, and in tabular, foliated, flaky, and scaly forms.
AGGREGATES Crystals may also be elongated with one dimension flat,
or stubby triangular or hexagonally shaped crystals.
Muscovite also forms interesting aggregates of dense bladed
crystals, thick rosettes, uniquely twinned star-shaped
formations, and rounded botryoidal and globular masses of
dense flakes.

Muscovites may also form pseudomorphs after other

minerals, assuming the original crystal shape.
TRANSPARENC
Transparent to translucent
Y
SPECIFIC
2.7– 3.0
GRAVITY
LUSTER Pearly
CLEAVAGE 1, 1
FRACTURE Uneven
TENACITY Sectile, Elastic
OTHER ID
Tendency for small pieces or flakes or peel off.
MARKS
IN GROUP Silicates; Phyllosilicates; Mica Group
STRIKING
Flaky habit, crystals, sectility, and mode of occurrence
FEATURES
ENVIRONMENT Muscovite is a very common rock-forming mineral and is
important constituent in many environments. Its presence is
noted especially in granite pegmatites, in contact
metamorphic rocks, in metamorphic schists, and in
hydrothermal veins. Important muscovite deposits where
large significant crystals occur are almost exclusively from
granite pegmatites.
ROCK TYPE Igneous, Metamorphic
POPULARITY (1-
1
4)
PREVALENCE
1
(1-3)
DEMAND (1-3) 1

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Muscovite is a potassium-rich mica with the following generalized composition;

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In this formula potassium is sometimes replaced by other ions with a single positive
charge such as sodium, rubidium, or cesium. Aluminum is sometimes replaced by
magnesium, iron, lithium, chromium, or vanadium.

When chromium substitutes for aluminum in muscovite the material takes on a green
color and is known as “fuchsite. Fuchsite is often found disseminated through
metamorphic rocks of the greenschist facies. Occasionally, it will be abundant enough to
give the rock a distinct green color, and for those rocks the name “verdite” is used.

USES OF GROUND MICA

Muscovite is a very poor conductor of heat and electricity, and is thus used as an insulator
for various electrical products and semiconductors. It is also used in the production of
automotive tires and cosmetics. Large Muscovite sheets were also once used for oven
windows ("isinglass") due to their ability to withstand high temperatures and keep the
heat inside.

VARIETIES OF MUSCOVITE

 ALURGITE – manganese-rich, pink to red variety of

Muscovite.

 FUCHSITE – dark green, chromium-rich variety of Muscovite.

Named in honor of German professor and mineralogist Johann
Nepomuk von Fuchs (1774 – 1856).

 MARIPOSITE – green form of Muscovite mica in small dense

flake group found in Mariposa (and Tuolome) County, Califormnia.
Mariposite forms in metamorphosized Dolomite and Quartz, and
these are usually present as veins or as a base material. A
combination of the green mica and the veins or base material forms a
rock which is also called Mariposite, and it is sometimes used as an
ornamental stone.

 SCHERNIKITE – a light pink form of Muscovite.

 SERICITE – a fine-grained form of mica, usually Muscovite,

that is somewhat silky in appearance.

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  STAR MUSCOVITE – describes twinned Muscovite
crystals in pointed star-shaped sections.

 CALCITE
Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of
CaCO3. It is extremely common and found throughout the
world in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Some
geologists consider it to be a “ubiquitous mineral” – one that
is found everywhere.

Calcite is the principal constituent of limestone and marble.

These rocks are extremely common and make up a significant
portion of Earth’s crust. They serve as one of the largest carbon repositories on our planet.

The properties of calcite make it one of the most widely used mineral. It is used as a
construction material, abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction aggregate,
pigment, pharmaceutical and more. It has more uses than almost any other mineral.

CALCITE AS LIMESTONE AND MARBLE

Limestone is a sedimentary rock that is composed primarily of calcite. It forms from

both the chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate and the transformation of shell, coral,
fecal and algal debris into calcite during diagenesis. Limestone also forms as a deposit in
caves from the precipitation of calcium carbonate.

Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to heat and
pressure. A close examination of a broken piece of marble will usually reveal obvious
cleavage faces of calcite. The size of the calcite crystals is determined by the level of
metamorphism. Marble that has been subjected to higher levels of metamorphism will
generally have larger calcite crystals.

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USES OF CALCITE

The construction industry is the primary

consumer of calcite in the form of limestone and
marble. These rocks have been used as dimension
stones and in mortar for thousands of years.
Limestone blocks were the primary construction
material used in many of the pyramids of Egypt and
Latin America. Today, rough and polished limestone
and marble are still an important material used in
prestige architecture.

Modern construction uses calcite in the form

of limestone and marble to produce cement and concrete. These materials are easily
mixed, transported, and in placed in the form of a slurry that will harden into a durable
construction material. Concrete is used to make buildings, highways, bridges, walls, and
many other structures.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CALCITE

CHEMICAL
CaCO3
FORMULA
Calcium cacrbonate, sometimes with impurities of iron,
COMPOSITION
magnesium, or manganese, and occasionally zinc and cobalt.
VARIABLE
(Ca,Fe,Mg,Mn,Zn,Co)CO3
FORMULA
Colorless, white, yellow, brown, orange, pink, red, purple,
COLOR
blue, green, gray, black, may also be multicolored or banded.
STREAK White
HARDNESS 3
CRYSTAL Hexagonal
SYSTEM
3D CRYSTAL
ATLAS

CRYSTAL Occurs in a great variety of shapes, with the most common

FORMS AND forms asrhombohedral and scalenohedralcrystals. Crystals
AGGREGATES may be tabular, acicular, prismatic, flaky, and needle-like.
May occur as bundles of scalenohedrons,
intergrown rhombohedrons, hair-like masses
of acicular crystals, grainy, stalactitic, fibrous, massive,

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 and earthy. Scalenohedral twinning is common.
TRANSPARENC
Transparent to opaque
Y
SPECIFIC
2.7
GRAVITY
LUSTER Vitreous
CLEAVAGE 1, 3 – rhombohedal
FRACTURE Conchoidal. Rarely observed due to the perfect cleavage
TENACITY Brittle
OTHER ID 1) Commonly fluorescent; specimens from different
MARKS localities fluoresce different colors. Some calcite is also
phosphorescent.
2) Transparent crystals exhibit strong double refreaction.
3) May be thermoluminescent.
COMPLEX 1) Effervescent in hydrochloric acid and most other acids.
TESTS 2) Calcite that doesn’t fluoresce usually becomes
fluorescent upon heating.
IN GROUP Carbonates; Calcite Group
STRIKING Hardness, cleavage, fluorescence, and effervescence with
FEATURES hydrochloric acid.
ENVIRONMENT Calcite is a constituent of all mineral environment, including
sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.
ROCK TYPE Igneous,cSedimentary, Metamorphic
POPULARITY (1-
1
4)
PREVALENCE
1
(1-3)
DEMAND (1-3) 1

VARIETIES OF CALCITE

 AGARIC  ANTHRACO
MINERAL – NITE – dark gray
crumbly white to black variety of
calcite found calcite with a
on cavern bitumen coating or
floors near inclusions.
stalagmites and stalactites.

 COBALT  DOGTOOTH CALCITE – calcite in

OCALCITE – groupings of thick and pointy
refers to an scalenohedral crystals.
intermediary
mineral
between
Calcite and
Sphaerocobaltite in a solid solution

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 series. It is most often perceived as a
cobalt-rich variety of Calcite with a
rich pink color.
 FLOWSTO  ICELAND
NE – calcite SPAR – large,
formed by transparent,
mineral-rich colorless to lightly
water that colored,
deposits the rhombohedral
dissolved mineral on the walls of variety of Calcite.
caverns and cliffs, forming a Double refraction is especially noted
smooth and humpy growth. in Iceland Spar crystals.

 ONYX  SALMON
MARBLE – CALCITE – orange-
travertine or tufa red, “salmon” colored
in the mineral variety of Calcite
form of Aragonite that is usually
or Calcite that opaque.
exhibits color banding.
 SAND  STALACTITE – icicle-like mineral
CALCITE – calcite formation found
that trapped on the roof of
particles of sand caverns, created
in its interior when mineral-
when it formed. rich water drips
down and the
dissolved mineral accumulates into
the icicle-like formation.
 STALAGMITE – tall, domed  TRAVERTINE – mounds of calcium
mineral formation carbonate
found on the roof formed from
of caverns, created hot springs
when mineral-rich that contain
water drips down calcium-rich
and the dissolved mineral water that
accumulates into the icicle-like bubbles up to
formation. the earth and cools down, and its
capability to hold calcium is reduced.
The water eliminates the calcium,
the calcium forms a growing mound
of calcium carbonate, which is
porous. Travertine is usually
Aragonite, although it may also be
calcite.

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  TUFA
– aragonite
formed from
precipitating
water that
traps in
organic
matter, such as leaves, twigs, and
moss. Also, calcareous mounds
formed from deposition of hot
springs that trap in organic matter.

 GARNET
Garnet is the name used for a large group of rock-forming
minerals. It is not a single mineral, but a group contains
related, isomorphous minerals that form a series with each
other. The garnet members form intermediary minerals
between each member, and may even intergrow within a single
crystal. The garnets vary only slightly in physical properties,
and some of the members so similar that they are
indistinguishable from one another without x-ray analysis.

The common Garnets can be divided into two subgroups:

Group 1: Garnets containing aluminum (Al) as their second element.
These include Pyrope, Almandine, and Spessartine. ("Pyralspite")
Group 2: Garnets containing calcium (Ca) as their first element.
These include Uvarovite, Grossular, and Andradite. ("Ugrandite")

The members of each group freely intermingle among one another. For example, the
magnesium in Pyrope may be partially replaced by some iron from Almandine or by some
manganese from Spessartine. However, between the two groups, it is much rarer for them
to intermingle.

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  GARNET PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The most commonly encountered minerals in the garnet group include almandine,
pyrope, spessartine, andradite, grossular, and uvarovite. They all have a vitreous
luster, a transparent-to-translucent diaphaneity, a brittle tenacity, and a lack of
cleavage. They can be found as individual crystals, stream-worn pebbles, granular
aggregates, and massive occurrences. Their chemical composition, specific gravity,

hardness, and colors are listed below.

As seen above, there are variety of different types of garnet, and each has a different
chemical composition. There are solid solution series between most of the garnet minerals.
This wide variation in chemistry determines many of their physical properties. As an
example, the calcium garnets generally have a lower specific gravity, a lower hardness and
are typically green in color. In contrast, the iron and manganese garnets have a higher
specific gravity, a greater hardness and are typically red in color.

HOW DOES GARNET FORM?

 GARNET IN METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Most garnet forms at convergent plate boundaries where shale is being acted upon by
regional metamorphism. The heat and pressure of metamorphism breaks chemical bonds
and causes minerals to recrystallize into structures that are stable under the new
temperature-pressure environment. The aluminum garnet, almandine, generally forms in
this environment.

As these rocks are metamorphosed, the garnets start as tiny grains and enlarge slowly
over time as metamorphism progresses. As they grow, they displace replace, and include
the surrounding rock materials. The photo below shows a microscopic view of a garnet
grain that has grown within a schist matrix. It included a number of the rock’s mineral
107 | P a g e
grains as it grew. This explains why so many garnets formed by regional metamorphism
are highly included.

The calcium garnets typically form when

argillaceous limestone is altered into marble by
contact metamorphism along the edges of igneous
intrusions. These are andradite, grossular,
uvarovite, the slightly softer, typically green
garnets are highly regarded in the gem trade;
they are tsavorite (a bright green grossular) and
demantoid (a golden-green andradite).

 GARNET IN IGNEOUS ROCKS

Garnet often occurs as an accessory mineral in
igneous rocks such as granite. May people are
familiar with almandine garnet because it is
sometimes seen as dark red crystals in the igneous
rock used as granite countertops. Spessartine is an
orange garnet found as crystals in granite
pegmatites. Pyrope is a red garnet that is brought
to Earth’s surface in pieces of peridotite that were
torn from the mantle during deep-source volcanic
eruptions. Garnet is also found in basaltic lava
flows.

 GARNET IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

AND SEDIMENTS
Garnet are relatively durable minerals. They
are often found concentrated in the soils and
sediments that form when garnet-bearing rocks
are weathered and eroded. These alluvial
garnets are often the target of mining
operations because they are easy to mine and
remove from the sediment/soil by mechanical
processing.

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  USES OF GARNET

Garnet has been used as gemstone for thousands of years. In the past 150, it has seen
many additional uses of garnet in the United States. Garnet is also used as an indicator
mineral during mineral exploration and geologic assessments.

QUESTIONS:

1.What is the name of a large organization of rock-forming silicate minerals that make up
over 50% of Earth’s crust?

2.What are the 3 varieties Of Augite? Explain each.

3.What do you call a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of CaCO 3?

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LESSON 3: PROPERTIES, PROCESS
OF FORMATION OF ALL MINERALS

Formation of Minerals
To grow a mineral crystal, the elements needed to make it must be present in the
appropriate proportions, the physical and chemical conditions must be favourable, and
there must be sufficient time for the atoms to become arranged.

Physical and chemical conditions include factors such as temperature, pressure,

presence of water, pH, and amount of oxygen available. Time is one of the most important
factors because it takes time for atoms to become ordered. If time is limited, the mineral
grains will remain very small. The presence of water enhances the mobility of ions and can
lead to the formation of larger crystals over shorter time periods.

Most of the minerals that make up the rocks around us formed through the cooling
of molten rock, known as magma. At the high temperatures that exist deep within Earth,
some geological materials are liquid. As magma rises up through the crust, either by
volcanic eruption or by more gradual processes, it cools and minerals crystallize. If the
cooling process is rapid, the components of the minerals will not have time to become
ordered and only small crystals can form before the rock becomes solid. The resulting rock
will be fine-grained. If the cooling is slow, the degree of ordering will be higher and
relatively large crystals will form. In some cases, the cooling will be so fast that the
texture will be glassy, which means that no crystals at all form.

Volcanic glass is not composed of minerals because the magma has cooled too
rapidly for crystals to grow, although over time the volcanic glass may crystallize into
various silicate minerals.

Minerals can also form in several other ways:

 Precipitation from aqueous solution

 Precipitation from gaseous emanations

 Metamorphism — formation of new minerals directly from the elements within

existing minerals under conditions of elevated temperature and pressure

 Weathering — during which minerals unstable at Earth’s surface may be altered to

other minerals

 Organic formation — formation of minerals within shells (primarily calcite) and

teeth and bones (primarily apatite) by organisms (these organically formed
minerals are still called minerals because they can also form inorganically)

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 Opal is a mineraloid, because although it has all of the other properties of a
mineral, it does not have a specific structure. Pearl is not a mineral because it can only be
produced by organic processes.

 Mineral Properties

Minerals are universal. A crystal of hematite on Mars will have the same properties
as one on Earth, and the same as one on a planet orbiting another star. That’s good news
for geology students who are planning interplanetary travel since we can use those
properties to help us identify minerals anywhere. That doesn’t mean that it’s easy,
however; identification of minerals takes a lot of practice. Some of the mineral properties
that are useful for identification are as follows:

Colour Streak Lustre Hardness

Habit Cleavage/fracture Density Other

 Colour

For most of us, colour is one of our key ways of identifying objects. While some
minerals have particularly distinctive colours that make good diagnostic properties, many
do not, and for many, colour is simply unreliable. The mineral sulphur is always a
distinctive and unique yellow. Hematite, on the other hand, is an example of a mineral for
which colour is not diagnostic. In some forms hematite is deep dull red, but in others it is
black and shiny metallic. Many other minerals can have a wide range of colours. In most
cases, the variations in colours are a result of varying proportions of trace elements within
the mineral. In the case of quartz, for example, yellow quartz has trace amounts of ferric
iron (Fe3+), rose quartz has trace amounts of manganese, purple quartz (amethyst) has
trace amounts of iron, and milky quartz, which is very common, has millions of fluid
inclusions (tiny cavities, each filled with water).

 Streak

In the context of minerals, “colour” is what you see when light reflects off the
surface of the sample. One reason that colour can be so variable is that the type of surface
is variable. If we grind a small amount of the sample to a powder we get a much better
indication of its actual colour. This can easily be done by scraping a corner of the sample
across a streak plate (a piece of unglazed porcelain). The result is that some of the mineral
gets ground to a powder and we can get a better impression of its “true” colour. The streak
colours of earthy hematite and specular hematite. Although the specular hematite streak
looks close to black, it does have red undertones that you can see if you look closely.

 Lustre

Lustre is the way light reflects off the surface of a mineral, and the degree to which
it penetrates into the interior. The key distinction is between metallic and non-
metallic lustres. Light does not pass through metals, and that is the main reason they look

111 | P a g e
“metallic.” Even a thin sheet of metal such as aluminum foil will prevent light from
passing through it. Many non-metallic minerals may look as if light will not pass through
them, but if you take a closer look at a thin edge of the mineral you can see that it does. If
a non-metallic mineral has a shiny, reflective surface, then it is called “glassy.” If it is dull
and non-reflective, it is “earthy.” Other types of non-metallic lustres are “silky,” “pearly,”
and “resinous.” Lustre is a good diagnostic property, since most minerals will always
appear either metallic or non-metallic.

 Hardness

One of the most important diagnostic properties of a mineral is its hardness. In

1812 German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs came up with a list of 10 reasonably common
minerals that had a wide range of hardness. In fact, while each mineral on the list is
harder than the one before it, the relative measured hardnesses (vertical axis) are not
linear. For example apatite is about three times harder than fluorite and diamond is three
times harder than corundum. Some commonly available reference materials are also
shown on this diagram, including a typical fingernail a piece of copper wire a knife blade
or a piece of window glass, a hardened steel file, and a porcelain streak plate. These are
tools that a geologist can use to measure the hardness of unknown minerals.

 Crystal Habit

When minerals form within rocks, there is a possibility that they will form in
distinctive crystal shapes if they are not crowded out by other pre-existing minerals. Every
mineral has one or more distinctive crystal habits, but it is not that common, in ordinary
rocks, for the shapes to be obvious. Quartz, for example, will form six-sided prisms with
pointed ends, but this typically happens only when it crystallizes from a hot water solution
within a cavity in an existing rock. Pyrite can form cubic crystals but can also form
crystals with 12 faces, known as dodecahedra (“dodeca” means 12).

Because beautiful well-formed crystals are rare in ordinary rocks, habit isn’t as
useful a diagnostic feature as one might think. However, there are several minerals for
which it is important. One is garnet, which is common in some metamorphic rocks and
typically displays the dodecahedral shape. Another is amphibole, which forms long thin
crystals, and is common in igneous rocks like granite.

Mineral habit is often related to the regular arrangement of the molecules that
make up the mineral. Some of the terms that are used to describe habit include bladed,
botryoidal (grape-like), dendritic (branched), drusy (an encrustation of minerals), equant
(similar in all dimensions), fibrous, platy, prismatic (long and thin), and stubby.

 Cleavage and fracture

Crystal habit is a reflection of how a mineral grows, while cleavage and fracture
describe how it breaks. These characteristics are the most important diagnostic features of
many minerals, and often the most difficult to understand and identify. Cleavage is what

112 | P a g e
we see when a mineral breaks along a specific plane or planes, while fracture is an
irregular break. Some minerals tend to cleave along planes at various fixed orientations;
some do not cleave at all (they only fracture). Minerals that have cleavage can also
fracture along surfaces that are not parallel to their cleavage planes.

Quartz has no cleavage because it has equally strong Si –O bonds in all directions,
and feldspar has two cleavages at 90° to each other.

One of the main difficulties with recognizing and describing cleavage is that it is
visible only in individual crystals. Most rocks have small crystals and it’s very difficult to
see the cleavage within a small crystal. Geology students have to work hard to understand
and recognize cleavage, but it’s worth the effort since it is a reliable diagnostic property for
most minerals.

 Density

Density is a measure of the mass of a mineral per unit volume, and it is a useful
diagnostic tool in some cases. Most common minerals, such as quartz, feldspar, calcite,
amphibole, and mica, have what we call “average density” (2.6 to 3.0 g/cm3), and it would
be difficult to tell them apart on the basis of their density. On the other hand, many of the
metallic minerals, such as pyrite, hematite, and magnetite, have densities over 5 g/cm 3.
They can easily be distinguished from the lighter minerals on the basis of density, but not
necessarily from each other. A limitation of using density as a diagnostic tool is that one
cannot assess it in minerals that are a small part of a rock with other minerals in it.

Other properties

Several other properties are also useful for identification of some minerals. For
example, calcite is soluble in dilute acid and will give off bubbles of carbon dioxide.
Magnetite is magnetic, so will affect a magnet. A few other minerals are weakly magnetic.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the different types of mineral properties?

2. How is minerals formed?

3. Why is colour not necessarily a useful guide to mineral identification?

113 | P a g e
LESSON 4: COAL AND PETROLEUM

 COAL

Coal are hard rock which can be burned as solid fossil fuel. They are mostly carbon and
also contains hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen. They are sedimentary rock formed
from bog, by the pressure of rocks it suddenly go down.

Peat or bogs, and therefore coal, are formed from the remains of plants which lived many
years ago in tropical ground such as those of the late Carboniferous period or Paleozoic
era. Like in Philippines, they do also wood heated in an airless space which can
make charcoal, which is like coal. Coal can burned for energy or heat. Some of the
coal mined today is burned in power stations to make electricity.

Coal are fossil fuel and are the altered remains of ancient vegetation that originally
accumulated in sump and peat bogs. The energy we get from coal today comes from energy
that plants taken into the sun.

Formation of coals

In the period of the Paleozoic era, land was covered with swamps filled with huge trees
and leafy plants.As the trees and plants died, they drop to the bottom of the bog of oceans
to form layers of spongy materials called peat. Over a many years, peat was covered by
sand, the clay turned into sedimentary rocks. More rock stack on top of old rock and began
to press on the peat. It was press and turned into fossil fuels.

 Coke

Coke is virtually pure form of carbon. Coke is a porous, black and the same as the coal.
Coke have high percentage of the carbon and low in impurities, and it is reached from
destructive distillation of a selective type of coal. Coal can be heated very hot in a place
where there is no oxygen or what we called the airless space to produce coke. Coke can be
used in smelting to reduce metals from their minerals. It is used in producing of steel and
in the extraction of many types of metals.

 Coal Tar

Coal tar is reached as one of the by-products is obtaining the coke or the what we called
coal gas. Coal tar is a highly viscous kind of liquid and is brown-black in color. Coal tar is
a inconstant mixture of many substances. It is used to in producing of many product like
synthetic dyes, explosive, perfumes, roofing materials, drugs, plastics and many more.

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It is almost about 20 years ago, when coal tar was used as a binding materialin making of
the roads. But presently we are using bitumen to substitute in coal tar in making the
roads.

 Coal Gas

The coal gas is one of the by-products in processing of the coke. It is used as fuel
basically for heating in many industries.

Types of Coal

 PEAT is a fibrous, soft, and spongy substance which plant remains are easily
recognizable. They contain a large amount of water and must be dry before use.

 LIGNITE are formed when peat are subjected to increased vertical pressure from
accumulating sediments. Lignite are the dirtiest coal and are used as fuel for electric
power generation. It is the softest and the lowest in carbon but high in hydrogen and
oxygen content.

 BITUMINOUS COAL are dense rock, black but sometimes dark brown and are greatly
used in industry as a source of heat energy. And it is in between of anthracite and
lignite.

 SUB-BITUMINOUS COAL are used as fuel for steam-electric power generation.

 STEAM COAL are used as a fuel for steam locomotives. The small steam coal are used
as a fuel for domestic water heating.

 ANTHRACITE also known as hard coal and more carbon because it’s hard and has a
high lustre. A harder, glossy, black coal. It’s longer burning, and used mainly for
residential and commercial space heating.

 PETROLEUM

Petroleum is a natural liquid found below the Earth’s surface that can be refined into
fuel. Petroleum is a fossil fuel, that it has been created by the decomposition of organic
matter over many years. It is formed in sedimentary rock under in the intense heat and
pressure. Petroleum is used as fuel to power vehicles, heating units, and machines of all
sorts, and also being converted into plastics and other materials. Because of worldwide
reliance on petroleum, the petroleum industry is extremely powerful and it is a major
influence on world politics and the global economy.

Formation of Petroleum

Small sea plants and sea animals died and are burried on the sea or ocean floor for
many years. As the years pass by, the died plants and animals in the ocean were covered

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by the layers of sand and silt. As million years pass, the remains were burried extending
far downwards. And because of the high pressure and temperature on water the dead
organisms were transformed to petroleum. The petroleum is also known as the fossil fuels
because it is product of the dead organisms.

Exraction of Petroleum

Petroleum and the extraction and processing of this drive the world economy and
global politics. The world owes its existence to petroleum. There are some of largest
companies in the world that are involved in the extraction and processing of the
petroleum, with other companies creating products which require hydrocarbons to operate
or a petroleum-based. Asphalt, which is used to pave highways, is also made from
petroleum. Vehicles which drive on highways are made on materials that derived from
petroleum and run on fuels refined from petroleum.

Petroleum is most frequently related with crude oil and the wells dug into the ground to
bring that liquid to the surface. The liquid can vary in color, from relatively transparent to
dark brown or black. Heavier oils are usually the darkest in color. Petroleum contains
various types of hydrocarbons, and natural gas is commonly found dissolved in the liquid
in essential amounts. Hydrocarbons can be processed in refineries into different types of
fuels. Hydrocarbon molecules in petroleum are include asphalt, paraffin, and naphthene.

Petroleum are comprised of a mixture of various hydrocarbons, and it can have a different
chemical and physical properties depending on where it is found in the world. The more
dense of the petroleum the more difficult it is to process and the less valuable it is. The
light crude is the easiest to refine and are generally considered as the most valuable, while
the viscosity of the heavy crude can make it more expensive to refine. And the sour crude
contains the sulfur and sulfuric compounds, which can make the fuel less valuable.

In petroleum industry, petroleum companies are divided into upstream, midstream and
downstream. Upstream which deals with crude oil. Midstream which bring up to the
storage and transport of crude oil and other more refined products. And downstream
refers to products for consumers such as gasoline.

Refining of Petroleum

When the extraction was done, the petroleum was refined to reached petrol, diesel, wax,
bitumen, kerosene, paraffin, lubricating oil, and many more. Petroleum refinery is the
place where the refining process of the petroleum performed.

Here are some of the petroleum products and their uses:

 Petrol - fuels the motor car, solvent in dry cleaning, and aeronautics.

 Diesel - can fuels the heavy vehicle, like trucks, rail engine and small vehicle like
vans, jeep, jet aircraft, small generators, and many more.

 Bitumen - is used to make roads, paints and many more.

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 Kerosene - it fuels gas stoves, lamps, jet aircraft and many more.

 Parrafin - can use in producing an ointment, cosmetics, and even candles, and many
more.

 Lubricating oil - is used as a lubricants in engines.

 Liquid Petroleum Gas - it fuels vehicle, and fuel in household.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the disadvantages and advantages of the coal to the environment?

2. What is the role of the coal to have a cleaner, healthier energy future?

3. What are the environmental impacts of the petroleum?

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LESSON 5: THEIR ORIGIN AND
OCCURRENCE IN INDIA

An appraisal of the total minimum resources of India so far known to geologist

brings home that the mineral wealth of India is not inconsiderable for a country of her size
and population that it encompasses a sufficient range of useful products that are
necessary to make a modern civilized country more or less industrially self-contained.
Except in the case of minerals such as iron-ore, aluminum-ore, titanium-ore, mica and a
few other minerals, the resources in econo

mic minerals and metals are however, limited. Chances of discovery of new
minerals deposits of any extent and richness by ordinary geological methods are not many,
though the recent geophysical methods of locating underground mineral occurrences by
electrical, magnetic, gravimetric and acismic methods seem to offer possibilities of
bringing to light hitherto undiscovered but, in some cases, suspected deposits of
petroleum, coal-measures, natural gas, underground water, metallic lodes, etc.

Nature has made a very unequal territorial distribution of minerals in Indian region. The
vast alluvial plains tract of Northern India is devoid of mines of economic minerals. The
Archaean terrain of Bihar and Orissa, possesses the largest concentration of ore such as
iron, manganese, copper, thorium, uranium, aluminum, chromium, industrial minerals
like mica, sillimanite, phosphate; and over three-fourths of India’s reserves of coal
including coking coal. The iron-ore reserves lying in one or two districts of Bihar and in
the adjoining territories of Orissa are calculated at over 8,000 million tons, surpassing in
richness and extent those of any known region. There are large reserves of manganese-
ores; over 50 percent of the world’s best mica – block, splitting and sheet – is a supplied by
the mica mines of Kodorma and Gaya in Bihar. The second minerally rich state is Madhya
Pradesh, carrying good reserves of iron and manganese ores, coal, limestone and bauxite.
Madras has workable deposits of iron, manganese, magnesite, mica, limestone, and
Lignite. Mysore state has yielded all the gold of India, besides producing appreciable
quantities of iron, porcelain clays and chrome-ores. Hyderabad has good reserves of second
grade coal, besides being potential source of several industry minerals. Kerala processes
enormous concentrations of heavy minerals and high strategic importance calculated to
contain, together with lesser deposits along the Malakar coast, some 200 million tons of
ilmenite, besides monatize, zircon and garnet in workable quantities. The state of Uttar
Pratlesh and (Eastern) Prajab have been far less productive and have scarcely as yet
figure its India statistics. Rajasthan, for a long time absent in India’s mineral returns,
gradually be a productive centre, holding protnise for the future in non metal ( copper,
lead and zinc), uranium, mica, steatite and precious stones ( aquamarine and emerald).
West Bengal’s mineral resources are confined to coal ( annual mineral capacity about 16
million tons) and iron ore of the Himlayan region, the only proved mineralized region of
importance is the territory of Kashmir south of the great himlayan axis, with its coal
(some of it anthracitic), aluminum ore, sapphires and some minor industrial minerals. But
for the large magnesitereservesand partly known copper deposits of Kumaon and Sikkim

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and some fairly wide spread bodies of iron-ore in these area, the rest of the Himlayan
region is vertable terra incognita as regards economic minerals. The same is applicable to
Sikkim and Bhutan region. Nepal can considered a fairly mineralized terrain where
occurrences of cobalt, nickel and copper-re are reported, but which has not yet been fully
explored geologically.

The rock- system of India possess in varying degrees most of the minerals and metals. The
various useful products they yield, their detailed occurrences, and some facts regarding
the production of the most important ones are dealt with the foollowingchapters.

About 86 varieties of economically important minerals re found in India

They are:

 10 metallic minerals

 46 non-metallic minerals ( industrial)

 3 atomic minerals and

 23 minor minerals ( including building and other materials)

 4 fuel minerals.

The economy of India is controlled by two vital resources

 Metallic and non-metallic mineral resources

 Mineral fuels

While studying the economic geography of India, all these aspects are to be studied in
details, because, these two resources control many of the industrial activities.

If we look at the mines operating in India, we have

 2999 mines working on all minerals

 574 mines working on coal

 700 mines concentrating on metallic minerals and

 1725 mines working for getting non-metallic minerals.

The are six core industries controlling the national economy of India. They are:

1. Crude oil

2. Petroleum

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 3. Coal

4. Electricity

5. Cement

6. Finish carbon steel

All of these are supported by mining sector. This in turn depends on mineral resources.

Among the resources, minerals are the major contributors of the national economy. India
is the country, much dependant on the available natural resources for its economy.

India has a good amount of natural resources like water resources, forest resources,
energy resources, mineral resources, land resources and the human resources.

QUESTIONS:

1. How many varieties of economically important minerals in India?

2. What are the minerals found in India?

3. What are the six core industries controlling the national economy of India?

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 CHAPTER 3:

PETROLOGY

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LESSON 1: CLASSIFICATION OF
ROCKS

Rocks are aggregate of one or more mineral. The nature and properties of a rock
are determined by minerals in it ( particularly those essential minerals which individually
make up more than 95 % of its volume) and by the manner in which the minerals are
arranged relative to each other (that is, the texture of the rock ). Weathering, of course,
will affect the engineering properties of rock.

An individual rock type or specimen is always described in terms of its mineral

composition and its texture, and both are used in the classification of rocks. According to
their manner of formation, rocks are of three main types:

1. Igneous rocks

2. Sedimentary rocks

3. Metamorphic rocks

 Igneous rock s- are formed from magma, which has originated well below the
surface, has ascended towards the surface, and has crystallised as solid rock either
on the surface or deep within the earth’s crust as temperature fell.

 Sedimentary rocks- are formed by the accumulation and compaction

(a) Fragments from pre-existing rocks which have been disintegrated by

erosion .

(b) Organic debris such as shell fragments or dead plants

(c) Material dissolved in surface waters (river, oceans, etc.) or ground water
which is precipitated in conditions of oversaturation

 Metamorphic rocks- are formed from pre-existing rocks of any type, which have
been subjected to increase of temperatures (T) or pressure (P) or both, such that the
rocks undergo change this change results in the metamorphic rock being different
from the original parental material appearance, texture and mineral composition.

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123 | P a g e
LESSON 2: DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN
THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF ROCKS

 Igneous rocks

 Formed from magma, which has originated well below the surface, has ascended
towards the surface, and has crystallised as solid rock either on the surface or deep
within the Earth’s crust as its temperature fell.

 Igneous rocks are composed of interlocking crystals (only a few of which display a
perfect crystal form), and are said to have a crystalline texture.

 TEXTURE: Can be referred to as Phaneritic, Aphaneritic, Glassy (or vitreous),

Pyroclastic or Pegmatitic.

 SIZE:

a. Fine-grained rocks - crystals are on average less than 1 mm across;

b. Medium-grained rocks they are between 1 and 3 mm across, and in

c. Coarse-grained rocks they are over 3 mm across.

 CATEGORIES:

a. Volcanic or Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma)
reaches the surface, along either wide vertical fissures or pipe-like openings
in the Earth’s crust.

b. Hypabyssal igneous rocks form minor intrusions, which have solidified below
the surface, and have cooled more slowly than extrusive rocks because of the
thermal insulation of the surrounding country rocks. They are typically, but
not invariably, medium grained.

c. Plutonic or Intrusive igneous rocks have formed by the slow cooling of great
volumes of magma, typically at depths of a few kilometres, within the Earth.
It is erosion throughout geological time that has removed the overlying rocks
and revealed these plutonic intrusions at the surface.

 Sedimentary rocks

 Formed from the solid debris and the dissolved mineral matter produced by the
mechanical and chemical breakdown of pre-existing rocks, or in some cases from the
skeletal material of dead plants and animals.

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  Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited
in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be referred to as stratified
rocks.

 Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils.

 Described according to the type of environment in which it accumulated: as a

continental deposit if it were laid down on land or in a lake by rivers, ice or wind; as
an intermediate deposit if it were laid down in an estuary or delta; or as a marine
deposit if it were laid down on a seashore, in the shallow waters of the continental
shelves, or in the abyssal areas of the deep oceans.

 TEXTURE: Chemical sedimentary rocks generally have a crystalline texture. Some,

however, are formed of fragments, and their textures are dependent on the sizes,
shapes and arrangement of these fragments. If the rock has been formed from
organic debris, then the fragments may consist of particles of shell or wood, but the
texture can be described in the same terms as are used for other fragmented rocks.

 The textures of sedimentary rocks are mainly dependent on the parameters of the
clast, or the fragments of the original rock. These parameters can be various in
types, such as surface texture, round, spherical, or in the form of grain.

 SIZE: Sedimentary rocks range from small clay-size rocks to huge boulder-size
rocks

 The four major groups of sedimentary rocks are:

(a) terrigenous sedimentary rocks (sometimes referred to as clastic or detrital rocks),

which are formed from minerals or rock fragments derived from the breakdown of
pre-existing rocks;

(b) Chemical sedimentary rocks, which are formed from the precipitation of salts
dissolved in water;

(c) Organic sedimentary rocks, which are formed from the skeletal remains of plants
and animals and include coal and oil;

(d) limestones and dolomites, which are sedimentary rocks consisting of more than 50%
carbonate, and can include chemical, clastic and biological material.

 Metamorphic rocks

 Formed from pre-existing rocks of any type, which have been subjected to increases
of temperature (T) or pressure (P) or both, such that the rocks undergo change. This
change results in the metamorphic rock being different from the original parental
material in appearance, texture and mineral composition.

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Table 1: Textural Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

TEXTURE ROCK TYPE GRAIN SIZE, (etc.)

Hornfels Fine to medium grained, index

Granular or Minerals in random arrangement

equidimensional Quartzite Fine to medium grained

Marble Medium to coarse grained

Fine grained, well defined

Slate
cleavages
Foliated
Phyllite

Schist Medium grained

Indistinct foliation Gneiss Medium to coarse grained

Banded Migmatite Compositional banding

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LESSON 3: IGNEOUS ROCKS

The origin of Igneous Rocks can be compared to that of producing the steel products
from the blast furnace. Igneous Rock is one of the three main rock types, the others being
sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous Rocks are formed from the cooling of a molten
mass of lava, poured out on the crust of the earth.

It is from weathering of these igneous rocks that the other types of rocks, the sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks, and even soils are formed. Because igneous rocks are formed from
hot lava, there will be no fossils in igneous rocks.

How the extrusive and intrusive rocks are formed. Table 4.1 summarizes the formation of
the different types of igneous rocks. The same composition of lava can form two types of
rocks depending on it’s formation whether extrusive or intrusive as shown in table 4.1.

TABLE 4.1

Extrusive flow Intrusive flow Coarse textured

(glassy or felsitic)

Rhyolite Granite Acidic

Trachyte Syenite Light

Andesite Diorite

Basalt Gabbro

Augite Pyroxenite Basic

Limburgite Peridotite Dark

An extrusive flow is in the form of the molten mass or magma that comes to the surface
and cools down. That is how the basalt is formed, because the cooling is quick, the crystals
that are formed are small. On the other hand, if the magma penetrates under other rocks
and cool down slowly under the crust, it is said to be intrusive. Unlike basalt the granite is
formed because when the magma comes to the surface the cooling is slow, so the crystals
that are formed is larger and can be seen by the naked eye. These can be seen on the
surface only after erosion of materials from its top.

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  EXTRUSIVE OR VOLCANIC ROCKS

The three common representatives of the extrusive group are rhyolite, basalt and
andesite.

Rhyolite, is the type of rock that is light-coloured and it does not occur in the large areas
but not in less than a few kilometers.

Basalt. The fast cooling of lava give the basalt a dark-coloured, composed chiefly of
plagioclase and pyroxene. Basalt density can be as high as 2.77. Basalt can also cover very
large areas in one place, unlike rhyolite.

Andesite is a medium-textured variety. Basalt and Andesite are called by the name
“Deccan Trap” by the engineers. In Peninsular India has a large area of deccan trap,
because of the quick cooling.

 INTRUSIVE OR PLUTONIC ROCK

Granite is the good example of intrusive formation. The chemical and mineralogical
composition of rhyolite and granite are similar which is distinguishes by its coarse-grained
texture.

FORM OF INTRUSIVE ROCKS

The 4 different formation of intrusive are the following:

Laccolith – a domelike intrusion

Batholith – is a great intrusive mass inside a rock mass, but without a domelike top

Dikes – a wall like tubular mass cooled in a crack in the rock

Sills – also known as intrusive sheets, its intrusion between layers of stratified rock

This different kinds of formation are shown below.

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CLASSIFICATION AND IMPORTANCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

TYPE ROCK RESISTANCE PHYSIOGRAPHIC

NAME FORMS

1. Fine- Basalt Usually resistant Columnar jointing,

textured and except when dikes and
dark (basic) bearing olivine. escarpments

Medium Andesite Usually resistant Not wide spread

enough to form
typical landscapes

Light (Siliceous) Rhyolite Resistant but Bluffs and Cliffs

sometimes
decomposes badly

2. Coarse- Gabbro diabase Very resistant Dikes and

textured except when escarpments
dark (basic) containing alivine

Meduim Syenite Similar to granite Uplands

but lack of quartz,
less resistant

Light (Siliceous) Granite Resistant Exfoliation dams,

disintegrates Bosses and
readily in grid uplands.
regions

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As seen from table 4.1 a magma having the same mineral composition, when solidifies
under different physical conditions can yield different rocks. The difference in chemical
composition of magma can occur, leading the formation of different minerals and different
rocks. The terms used in the change of chemical composition are a.) Assimilation or the
melting of different types of rocks and b.) Differentiation.

The only way to get familiar with this various types of rocks is by actual laboratory
examinations.

 ACIDIC AND BASIC ROCKS

Igneous rocks under mineralogically are divided into acidic and basic rocks.

Acidic rocks these rocks contain dominant quantities of siliceous minerals. They contain as
much as 65% of silica and other chemical resistant to weathering. Granite is the best
example of acidic rock.

Basic rocks these rock contains more basic minerals. Compare to acidic rocks these rocks
contain less silica and large proportion of calcium, iron, aluminum etc., Basic rock is more
suspectible to chemical attack on the ground. Basalt is the best example of basic rock.

ROCKS IN PENINSULAR INDIA

There are two types of igneous rock formation in India. This are the Deccan trap also
known as basalt and andesite, and charnockites.

Deccan trap one of the largest volcanic features on earth are called “Deccan Trap”. These
are large Igneous province located on the deccan plateau of west-central India. These
deccan traps are consists of multiple layers of solidified flood basalt, that are together.
They have a thickness of more than 2,000m, with an area cover about 500,000 km 2 and a
volume of 1,000,000 km3. It was called traps because it was step like appearance of their
outcrops. It is also a flat-topped hills of basalt that is a typical landscape of the region.
Deccan Traps was the most extensive rock formation in peninsular in India.

It is very important for us to know that the same trap on weathering can give two
different products. The first product that can be formed was the red iron rich or the so
called “Laterite”. It was for formed in the regions where there is a good vegetations and
plenty of rainfall. The other soil type that can be formed was the black expensive type of
soil or the so called “Black Cotton Soils”. These types of soils are formed in the dry regions
with less rainfall.

Charnokites, this type of Igneous Rock is a granite type formation of the Archaean era in
South India. It covers the southern part of India and first recognized by Holland and
named after Job Charnock. The Mahabalipuram temples are built of Charnokites.

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SUMMARY

Igneous rocks are rocks that are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or
lava. These rocks make up 90-95% of the 16 km. of the earth’s crust by its volume.
Igneous rock is very important because it form about 15% of the Earth’s current surface.
These rocks are the beginning of all earth system.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between Extrusive and Intrusive Rock Formation?

2. What is the difference between the three types of Extrusive Rock Formation?

3. Give example of Intrusive Rock Formation and explain.

4. What are the two types of Mineralogically, Igneous Rock?

5. What is an Igneous Rock?

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LESSON 4: SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

MINERALOGY OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

The composition of a given rock will depend on the source from which the waste
material came on the resistance, chemical and mechanical of each component during
transport, and on the distance travelled. The main constituents of terrigenous
sedimentary rocks are fragments from pre-existing rocks and minerals. These may be
fresh and unaltered, or may be alteration products of weathering, such as clay minerals.
Quartz is the most common mineral. It is chemically stable and hard enough to resist
abrasion as it is transported. Some rarer minerals, such as garnet, tourmaline and rutile,
have similar properties. Feldspar is less stable but may survive for long enough, under
favourable circumstances, to be present in deposits that have not been transported far
from their source, or which are protected in other ways. The other common rock-forming
minerals of igneous rocks generally have and even lower survival rate when exposed to air
and water.

Some minerals in sedimentary rocks may be formed in the area of deposition. The
most common examples are those minerals precipitated from solution to form the chemical
sedimentary rocks. They include carbonates (calcite, dolomite and siderite), sulphates
(gypsum and anhydrite), chloride and silica (chalcedonic minerals). Each may not only be
and essential mineral in a particular type of chemical sedimentary rock, but may also be
the sole mineral present.

Limestone may possess mineral constituents that include clastic particles, chemically
precipitated material and organic remains (shells, corals, etc.).

Diagenesis is the name given to processes that alter the character of a sedimentary
rock after it has been deposited, either by interreactions between constituent minerals or
by reactions between constituent minerals and pore fluids or other liquids circulating
through the sedimentary material. Diagenesis is a low-temperature process, which can
occur when the sediment is still in contact with the sea or lake after its deposition, and
also later when direct contact with the original water has been removed. The process
continues until the constituents and pore fluids are in chemical equilibrium.

In the sedimentary pile during diagenesis, silica is first deposited at low

temperatures beween grains. As the sedimentary pile thickens, the deeper sediments then
have cacite deposited at the higher temperatures; these deep sediments have been
compacted and their porosity has been reduced. If the sedimentary pile is later uplifted,
the calcite cement redissolves and sedimentary rock will possess gaps or voids in its
structure this explains why some sedimentary rocks are much weaker than their
appearance would suggest.

Sedimentary rock grains may be bonded together by cement which consists of any
naturally deposited mineral matter as described earlier. Commonly found cements in
sedimentary rocks include calcite and silica, as well as haematite which give the rock a
red colour.

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133 | P a g e
TEXTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Chemical sedimentary rocks generally have a crystalline texture. Some, however,

are formed of fragments, and their textures are dependent on the sizes, shapes and
arrangement of these fragments. If the rock has been formed from organic debris, then the
fragments may consist of particles of shell or wood, but the texture can be described in the
same terms as are used for other fragmented rocks.

The size of grains is an important textural feature of a terrigenous rock, as an

indication of distance between its source and depositional areas, as well as an easily
observed property which may be used to distinguish and classify the rock. The coarsest
particles are carried are deposited nearest to the source area, and most of the finest
particles are carried in suspension to greater distances before they settle. These clay
particles, or rock flour (which represents minute particles of the common rock-forming
minerals), are deposited only when the current slackers to nearly zero, and in some cases
the salinity of the water of and estuary of the open sea makes the minute specks of clay
clot (flocculate) into larger particles.

The degree of roundness of grains is related to the amount of abrasion suffered

during transport, and hence to distance travelled from their source before deposition.
Roundness is related to the sharpness or curvature of edges and corners of grains. It is
also dependent on the size and hardness of the grains and the violence of impact of one
against another.

A property associated with roundness of grains is sphericity, which defines the

degree to which a particle or grain approaches the shape of a sphere. Equidimensional
particles have a greater prospect of becoming spherical during transportation than other
shapes of particle. Sphericity is controlled by directions of weakness such as bedding

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 planes or fractures. It is also related to size, in that the larger the grain above 8 mm, the
lower the sphericity. The relationship of rounding to particles less than 2 mm of high and
low sphericity is given in(see Figure 1.6)

Figure 1.6

Sand sized particles showing variation in roundness and sphericity

High sphericity

Low sphericity

A positive correlation exists between sphericity and roundness, but other factors,
notably particle size, planes of weakness, and particle composition, may have a marked
influence on the final shape of the particle when it is finally deposited. Settling velocity
will also influence the shape of the deposit.

Most terrigenous rocks contain grains of different sizes (see Fig. 1.7). The relative
homogencity of a rock is expressed as its degree of sorting, a well sorted rock consisting of
similarly sized particles. In contrast, a poorly sorted rock has a wide range of particle sizes
(that is, grades). It should be noted that, in engineering practice, a soil such as gravel,
containing a wide range of sizes (grades), is said to be well graded, and that ‘well graded’
is opposite in meaning to ‘well sorted’

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Figure 1.7

Volcanic breccia formed angular fragments of rock glass in a matrix

of volcanic fragments, from Maryvale, Utah, USA. (Reprinted by
kind permission of professor Donald bowes)

QUESTIONS:

1. DIFFERENTIATE SANDSTONE, LIMESTONES, SHALE, CONGLOMERATE

AND BRECCIA.

2. IT’S FORMED BY PRIMARY VOLCANIC PROCESS THAT MAY INCLUDE

EXPLOSIVE VOLCANISM?

3. GIVE THE GENERAL WAYS BY WHICH SEDIMENTARY ROCKS FORMS.

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LESSON 5: METHAMORPHIC ROCKS

We studied that the production of metamorphic rocks is similar to the production of

clay bricks. Metamorphism means alteration or change. Metamorphic rocks are the results
of a change in the form and character of preexisting igneous. It is difficult to guess
whether the parent rocks is igneous or sedimentary if the action of metamorphism is very
intense. Perhaps the chemical analysis is the only reliable method to determine its
original state.

There are three (3) principal agents of high pressure and high temperature involved
in the recrystallization:

1. Earth movement and pressure (Mechanical)

2. Liquid and gas, chiefly water (Chemical)

3. Heat (produces chemical change)

The effects can produce even new minerals from the minerals of the origin rocks.

Changes in Sedimentary Rocks Due to High Temperature and Pressure

When rocks is subjected to the combined effects of high temperature and pressure, its
porosity decreases, strength increases and the unit weight also increase due to expulsion
of chemically bound water.

 Limestone is transformed to crystalline (MARBLE).

 Sandstone is transformed to (QUARTZITE).

 Under moderate temperature and pressure, converted to fissile slate and

schist, these classified as low grade metamorphic rocks.

 Shales under increasing temperature and pressure can also be

metamorphosed into a very hard and dense GNEISS which is classified as
high grade metamorphic rocks.

 A list of important and characteristics of metamorphic shows in Table 6.1

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 Table 6.1 Importans of metamorphic rocks and their characteristics

Parent materials Rocked formed Property Location

Change from Slate Weak but more Lowlands

sedimentary rocks resistant than
limestone

Chemical Reaction and Marble Weak Lowlands with

Limestone by pressure associated with
more resistant

Sandstone by high Quartzite The most Residual things

temperature resistant Rocks knob and
monadnocks

Changed from igneous or Gneiss Usually strong Uplands

sedimentary rocks and very
(Banded) resistant

Schistose Schist Usually weak by Uplands and

resistant ridges

 Argilacous Rocks

A type of rocks like clay stones, mudstone which contains a lot of clay. (the words
agril means CLAY).

 Formation of Slate and Shale

All states are derived from shales during metamorphic of the shale. The particle size
increases and all the flaky particles get oriented to one plane. The capacity to split into
thin plates or slabs in these plane is called cleavage. This is the most evident in roofing
states. The slaty cleavage is shown in figure below:

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  Marble from Crystalline Limestone and Dolomite

Marbles are crystallized limestone calcite or dolomite formed due to high

temperature and pressure. The calcium carbonate recrystallizes under these conditions
into form of calcites. Marbles has no cleavage but may have fractures along which they
break into a large piece. Pure marbles are from pure limestone, is generally white but
various impurities produces green, pink, black, and etc. which can be very attractive.
Structure of marbles will show figure below:

Marble and Marble Formation

 Quartzite from Sandstone and Formation of Schist

In can be derived from sandstone or quartz. Theses is the type of rocks composed of
quartz grain firmly cemented together. It is the highly resistant weathering. Schists are
rocks made of parallel or subparallel layers on bands of platy and flaky minerals. Within
these bands will have crystal of other mineral like hornblende. these will form by high
pressure and temperature from sedimentary or igneous rock.

Schist is defined foliated rocks presenting layer of

minerals. The mineral is visible to the naked eye. It
can be mica schist, chlorite schist, talc schist, etc.
these is the most common metamorphic rocks. Its
contains large quantities of flat platy minerals like
mica which are lying on the same direction. When
shale is subjected to high pressure with heating,
smashing, and folding. The particle of clay and other
minerals can be converted to mica or other flaky
minerals given by typical feature of schist.

Some metamorphic schists can be containing smooth

sheets of quartz along the cleavage plane. Drilling holes into quartz can be extremely
difficult and expensive.

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  Formation of Gneiss

Special mention should be made for all types of rocks including gneisses, if the pressure
and temperature are very high and act of long time, schist may be also transformed into
gneiss. The percentage of flaky constituents is much smaller than schists even though
they may be oriented parallel to one plane. The strength of gneiss is same as igneous rock.
Gneiss is the last stage in transition of clay sediments into a solid rock. It can also produce
from many types of rocks.

Gneiss with banded structures. Magnetite Gneiss showing distinct banding

(The bands are also broken by small faults)

Criteria for Distinguishing between Metamorphosed, Igneous Rocks and Sedimentary

Rocks

Many geologists will have to depend on the field study of its occurrence and its
general characteristics as well as its relation to other adjacent rocks. they will decide
microscopically or by chemical analysis of collecting specimen as to whether the rock is
originally as igneous or sedimentary rock. If the metamorphism has been complete, the
difficult to differentiate its origin. Otherwise chemical and chemical analysis of collected
specimens is the only sure tests to find its origin.

Summary

Metamorphic rocks are metamorphosed from sedimentary or igneous rocks when these are
subjected to high pressure and high temperature.

The principal types of these metamorphic rocks are briefly described in this chapter.

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QUESTIONS:

1. Name four metamorphic rocks and state from what rocks and how are they
metamorphosed.?

2. What is schist and state how and from what type of rocks it is formed

3. What is marble?

4. How is it formed in nature?

5. What is quartzite and how is it formed?

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 CHAPTER 4:

STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY
AND ROCK
MECHANICS

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LESSON 1: ATTITUDE OF BEDS

In order to understand how tectonic deformation occurs, we need to introduce a

system of coordinates that tells us about the orientation of the structures in space. Such a
system is based on the strike and dip of a surface. Measurements of geometrical attitudes
of layers strata are essential for studying the structural geology of any particular region.
Strata may be faulted in Anticlines (arch-shaped folds in rock in which rock layers are
upwardly convex) and Synclines (arch-shaped folds in rock in which rock layers are
downwardly convex), and can even be overturned.

In accordance with stratigraphic principle of original horizontally, most strata and

most volcanic deposits (such as lava flows and volcanic ash falls known as Tephra) are
formed as horizontal sheets of materials. After the lava has cooled, or the sediment has
been lithified, local Earth motions can lead to a wide variety of departures from this
originally horizontal condition.

The most common alteration of the originally horizontal state is simple tilting. In
this situation, the stratal layer tilts as would a table if you cut down two legs from one
side. When this tilting occurs, the stratal layer in question develops what is called an
Attitude. The attitude consists of two components: The Strike and Dip, which are mainly
used during the geological mapping of an area, and will both be described within that
context in the following section. Most of the time, data collection (stratigraphic,
paleontological, structural, etc.) occurs in the field. Geologist record information from a
series of different outcrops. An outcrop is simply a rock column exposed at the surface,
whether naturally (because of erosion or mountain building) or artificially (because for
instance of a road cut, a tunnel, or an excavation). Armed with a topographic map,
geologists’ records observations about the rocks that he sees, and they then plots, among
other things, a variety of different symbols recording anything he sees, from the rock type
to its structures.

 STRIKE
When a layer is tilted, it could be tilted in any direction. It could be thought of as
an inclined plane. This inclined plane would intersect a horizontal plane along a line. That
intersection is called the strike. The strike is an imaginary line that represents the
intersection of the plane of the tilted bed with the horizontal plane tangential to the
surface of the Earth at the point of investigation. Geological strike is essentially the same
as taking a tilted table analogy; imagine that the room containing the tilted table was
filled with enough water to partly immerse the table top, in which the strike line on the
table top will be the intersection of the water level and the surface of the table top.

Strata surfaces are rarely perfectly planar, of course, because of natural

irregularities on the surface of a layer of sediment, lithified or not.

Geologist can nevertheless estimate the strike of beds with remarkable precision,
that is, to within a couple of degrees of the true value. This is done using a transit

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compass called a Brunton. To measure strike, the geologist can sight along the strike of a
bed by looking into the edge of the stratum in question. This is similar to sighting along
the edge of a broken pane of glass until you are looking parallel to the flat surfaces, and
the direction you are looking defines the strike, and this is then measured by the compass.

Another method involves setting a clipboard

or other flat surface against the rock as an
extension of its upper surface (bed top) or
lower surface (bedding plane sole). The
Brunton, or other type of compass with a
spirit level is then placed against the
carefully positioned clipboard surface, and
the strike is read directly as the compass is
oriented against the board to a horizontal
position.

A Brunton device

 DIP
The dip is simply the angle of maximum inclination of our layer. Dip is always
perpendicular to strike, and is measured in the downhill direction on the tilted slab, where
a drop of water to be spilled on the clipboard in the second method described above, the
water would flow downward and its track would define the direction of dip.

(From © Plummer, C.C., and Carlson, D.H., 2008. Physical Geology (12thed.), McGraw-
Hill)

In the figure above, we can see the strike represented by the black line (line of
strike) marking the intersection of the tilted layer and the horizontal surface, here
represented by a body of water for simplicity. We can also see the dip, which is the angle of
tilt with respect to the horizontal surface, and which points to the left (direction of dip).
The layers are tilted 30 degrees. Since a map gives us a view from above, we cannot

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represent the angle of tilt graphically, but only its direction. Hence, by using a T symbol,
the long arm represents the strike, the short arm represents the dip, and the angle of dip
is simply indicated by a number associated with it.

 STRIKE AND DIP SYMBOLS

A strike of 0° would be represented by a vertical long arm of the T, but that would
also be true for a strike of 180°. How do we tell one from the other? By convention; if the
dip is to the right, the strike is 0°; if it is to the left, the strike is 180°. In the following
figure, you can see how the strike (and also the dip) change in increments in 45°, starting
from 0° and ending with a full circle of 360°.

[Alessandro Grippo, November 23, 2009]

Strike variations from 0° degrees to 360°, shown here in increments of 45°

Note that we cannot always measure the strike and dip. If the layer is horizontal,
there is of course no strike (intersection with a horizontal plane), and there is no dip (the
layer is not tilted). Now, what if the layer is vertical, that is at its maximum tilt of 90°? In
this case, we can measure both strike and dip.

For both these scenarios, we will use special symbols: two parallel segments (no dip)
for vertical layers, and a cross inside a circle for horizontal layers.

A. A layer oriented at 330° to the North (0°, or 360°, minus 30°) and tilted by 10°
B. Vertical layers. Strike is at 330°. Dip is of course 90° (maximum angle possible) and
is not indicated.

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 C. Horizontal layers. There is no strike and there is no tilt.

 DETERMINING STRIKE AND DIP DIRECTIONS FROM MAP PATTERNS

From the discussion above, it should be apparent that a rough approximation of the
direction of dip can be made by noting whether a V points up or down the valley. What
about strike? By definition, strike is always perpendicular to dip and is the line of
intersection of a horizontal plane with the geologic plane. If a dipping surface crosses
valley and ridges we can construct strike lines (also called structure contours) to precisely
determine the strike.

A strike line is a line connecting two or more points on a geologic surface that are at
the same elevation (Figure 4.1). By drawing a line between two points on a surface that
are at the same elevation, you can define the intersection of a horizontal plane with the
surface in question, and thus the strike of that geologic surface. Strike lines are labelled
by elevation. For example, the 400’ strike line in Figure 4.1 connects the two exposed
points on the contact between the white and grey units (the base of the grey unit) where
that contact surface crosses the 400’ topographic contour. Because a planar surface can
have only one strike, all the strike lines on a surface must be parallel if the surface is
planar. Non-parallel strike lines on a surface indicate that the surface is not planar, such
as folded beds and erosional unconformities. This condition can be used to differentiate
between V’s formed by planar beds crossing V-shaped topography, versus folded beds.
Constructing strike lines in this way is the easiest way to determine the attitude of
contacts and faults, and provides a quick check on whether surfaces are planar. This is
also a powerful predictor of where a contact should intersect topography when mapping, if
the strike and dip of the contact are known. Finally, the spacing between the strike lines
of different elevations is a function of dip. Steeper dips have more closely spaced strike
lines (for the same reason that contours are closer together in steeper topography.)

To determine the strike, measure the angle between your constructed strike lines
and the North direction on the map. In Figure 4. 1, the strike is north-south (= 000°=
180°).

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Figure 1: Construction of strike lines for planar beds crossing a valley. Note that the 300’
contour is west of the 400’ contour, indicating that the bedding contacts dip downwards
toward the west.

 CALCULATING DIP
By definition, dip is perpendicular to strike. To determine the angle of dip, you must
use strike lines at different elevations.

In Figure 4.1, the difference in elevation between the 300’ and 400’ strike lines is
100’. To determine the structural gradient or dip, we must know the map distance
(horizontal distance) over which that geologic surface drops 100’ in elevation. Measure the
distance between the strike lines on the map, and using the map scale, convert your
measurement (say, 10 mm) to a map distance (say, 225’). So the gradient can be calculated
by the change in elevation divided by the map distance.

Gradient = 1000/2250 = 0.44

The dip angle is the inverse tangent of the gradient:

tan−1 (0.44) = 24°

Therefore, the orientation of the bedding planes in Figure 9 is fully defined: (000/24W).

 APPARENT DIP
Imagine that you are on a uniformly sloping surface (such as a roof). If you walk
directly down that surface, then that is the steepest slope along which you can walk (the
path water would take if poured on the surface). Alternatively, by walking at an angle, the
slope of your path will not be as steep. Now consider the same idea, but in relation to the
dip of geologic planar surfaces. If you take a cross section line perpendicular to strike, then
the bed seen dipping in that cross-section will be inclined at the true grip angle, that is, at
the dip equal to the steepest slop, in the plane.

However, suppose that the line of cross-section takes a different slice through the
Earth (not perpendicular to strike) and that it shows the inclined layers as if they had a
lesser dip– this is the apparent dip. Luckily there is a method that allows you to calculate
apparent dip from true dip if the strike and bearing of the cross section line are known.
The apparent dip depends on the angle between cross section and strike, β. As you saw
above, if this angle is 90° (perpendicular) then the dip you see is the true dip. If the angle β
between the strike line and the cross section line is anything other than 90°, then the
apparent dip will be some value less than the true dip.

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Two possible lines in a dipping plane (or paths to walk down a steep roof). The steepest
one is the true dip. The other one will always be the shallower slope (smaller apparent
dip).

A: Plane is seen in a cross section which is cut perpendicular to the strike of the plane
(parallel to, or containing the line of true dip).

B: Plane is seen in a cross section which is at some random angle to the strike of the plane
(does not contain the line of true dip, but crosses the plane at some path of lesser,
apparent dip).

Figure 4

Naturally occurring or man-made cross sections through the earth (e.g. cliffs,
quarry faces, road cuts, etc.) are very unlikely to be parallel to the true dip of the

148 | P a g e
geological surfaces you are interested in. What is observed in these cross sections is the
apparent dip of the surfaces in the direction of the cliff wall or road cut. If the cross section
you are viewing is not perpendicular to strike, but you know the strike and can observe
the apparent dip, you can determine the true dip.

In Figure 4, the line of section is at an angle β to strike. To determine the apparent

dip of the bed in the cross section, we must know two things: the true orientation of the
plane (strike, dip and direction) and the angle between strike and the cross section. In
Figure 4.4, strike is E-W (090) and the dip is:

tan−1 (100’/500’) = 11.3°

Let’s say you measure β = 30° off the map. Use the formula:

tan(α) = tan(δ) * cos(β)

Where:

α = apparent dip

δ = true dip

β = angle between strike and cross section line

You can rearrange this equation to solve for the value that you need. In the
above example where you know β and δ and want to solve for α so that you can show that
bedding plane accurately in the cross section you are drawing, use:

α = tan−1 [tan(δ) ∗ tan(β)]

So in our case (Figure 4.4):

α = tan−1 [tan(11.3°) ∗ tan(30°)]

α = 9.8

This is the dip you plot in your cross section.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the difference between an Anticline and a Syncline?

2. The orientation of a plane in space is expressed by its attitude; a term consisting of
two components; strike and dip. Define strike. Define dip.
3. What do non-parallel strike lines indicate?
4. Are Strata surfaces always perfectly planar? Explain your answer.
5. What are the things to be considered in order to determine the apparent dip of the
bed in the cross-section?

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LESSON 2: OUTCROPS
An outcrop is an exposure of the bedrock or deposits on the surface of the Earth.
Outcrops do not cover most of the Earth’s surface because in most places the bedrock or
deposit are covered by a sheet of soil or vegetation and cannot be seen closely.
Sometimes that sheet gets removed through erosion or earthquakes, and such exposure
happens most of the time where erosion happens at a fast pace and exceeds weathering
conditions such as mountain ridges and mountain tops.

 OUTCROP PATTERNS ASSOCIATED WITH FOLDED ROCKS

1. As rocks are folded, and subsequently subjected to erosion, regular patterns become
evident in relation to type of rock that outcrops and age of the rock that outcrops in
an area of folded strata. In essence, erosion exposes the interiors of the folds.

2. NON-PLUNGING FOLDS – axis of fold is horizontal, results in parallel bands of

dipping strata about the fold axis.
a. Anticlines – oldest strata exposed along fold axis
b. Synclines – youngest strata exposed along fold axis

3. PLUNGING FOLDS – axis of fold is tilted, results in alternating V-shaped bands of

dipping strata oriented about the fold axis
a. Anticlines – oldest strata exposed in the center of the V, V points in direction
of plunge of fold axis
b. Syncline – youngest of strata exposed in the center of the V, V points in
opposite direction of plunge of fold axis

4. DOUBLY PLUNGING FOLDS – fold axis is plunging in two opposite directions,

results in a flattened oval pattern, or a double V-shaped pattern
a. Anticlines – oldest strata exposed in center of flattened oval
b. Synclines – youngest strata exposed in center of flattened oval

QUESTIONS:

1. An exposure of the bedrock or the superficial deposits on the surface of the rock?
2. Where do most outcrops form?
3. How do outcrops form? What factor contributes the most to its formation?

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LESSON 3: GEOLOGICAL MAPS,
GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATIONS AND BORING
IN SOILS

It is desirable for Civil Engineers to have a knowledge of the geological maps which
are available from the Geological Survey of India for most of the regions in India. These
maps may give the geological details of the area and the site we are interested in. From
the data given in these maps we can prepare plans and sections and get a rough idea of
the types of rocks and other details of the place. We may also consult the reports of any
previous investigation made near the site for any civil engineering project that might been
carried out before the start of the present project.

However, a more detailed survey of the given site will be needed when we
undertake a major project like a reservoir or water supply or bridge or tall buildings
project. For the preliminary information for this purpose, we may use the geophysical
methods like the seismic survey or the electrical resistivity method to find the location of
the bedrock at the given site. Finally, for detailed information actual boring will also have
to be made. This will give exact data of the subsoil conditions. In this chapter we will
make a brief study of a geophysical methods and soil brings used to find the depth of the
bedrock and nature of the overburden at a given place. In chapter 26 we will deal with a
rock boring and the method of a reporting of a field result of rock boring.

 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
To record all the observations that we make in the field, we will have to make first a
topographical survey of the site. A plane table survey is very suitable for this purpose. As
civil engineers study this subject of plane table survey under the subject of “surveying” it
need not to be described in a book on Geology for Civil Engineers.

 MEASUREMENT OF STRIKE AND DIP

We will first deal with the preliminary geological survey of a site. When we record
the position and descriptions and the outcrops, we have also to give its strike and dip and
angle of plunge of the structural features of the out crops as shown in fig. 7.6 Chapter (The
strike in the N.S direction of outcrop and dip angle of plunge is it angle with the
horizontal). This is done in India by using a “clinometer compass” as shown in figure 25.1.
It is combination of a compass to measure (to measure N.S) and clinometer to measure
dip. We measure the inclination of plane of outcrop with the vertical equal to θ which is
then converted to the inclination with the horizontal as (90- θ).

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Clinometer compass and measurement of (a) Strike (b) Dip.

The method of a measurement is shown in figure 25.1. To measure the strike (N.S)
the instrumental is placed on the plane of the rock (or on top of a hardcover notebook
placed on the top of the rock). For measuring the value of θ, it is placed perpendicular to
the surface of the rock and the clinometers reading will give inclinations with the vertical
which if then converted with a respect to the horizontal. Americans use Brunton compass
for this purpose.

 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATIONS METHODS

Another information we casually need is the depth of the bedrock. The physical
explorations methods are field investigations in which measurements are made from the
ground level to find the subsurface formation (like depth of the bedrock level), depth of
ground water level etc., using the special instruments. The following are the methods
commonly used:

1. Seismic method
2. Electrical resistivity method
3. Gravitational method
4. Magnetic method
5. Radiometric method
6. Geothermal method
We will briefly data only with the most popular methods and 2 given above.

 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION BY ACTUAL BOREHOLES

So far, we have described the approximate explorations form the surface of the
ground at a site. For the civil engineering projects, in all the cases we will have to know
every accurately the nature of the soil and rocks below the surface. In all the cases at least
some actual boring below the surface will be needed for all the important projects. In some
projects we may explore only the soil below the ground level to a limited depth. In others,
we may have to know the nature of the bedrock below to the soil also. Hence, we may
divide this sub surface exploration by actual boring into two divisions.

1. Sub soil exploration where we make boreholes in the subsoil up to the bedrock
only.
2. Exploration of the soil and also the bedrock below the topsoil
We will deal in this chapter with the subsoil part and in the next chapter (or) rock
exploration. For the small depths of soil explorations, we may use an auger for this
purpose; but for large depths we have to use special instruments.
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  SUBSOIL EXPLORATION BY AUGER BORING FOR SHALLOW HOLES
There are two types of auger borings namely;

1. Hand operated auger method

2. Shell and auger method
The hand operated method uses the various types of hand augers shown in Figure 25.4. In
other method called the shell and auger method a shell also called a sand bailer, is used.
To take samples, we use a heavy duty pipe with a cutting edge as shown. The shell is
raised up and allowed to fall in a hole when soil gets trapped in the bailer (shell). These
are all old methods and used nowadays for a small project.

Shallow boring tools (a) Hand augers (b) Shell and with sinker bar (SB)

 SUBSOIL EXPLORATION BY DEEPER BOREHOLES

The object of this investigation is to identify the regolith up to the rock level. As a
hole to be produced in the earth , tends to get closed, we have to find some methods to
keep it open. A steel casing pipes or more commonly drilling mud (bentonite) slurry is used
for this purpose. Casing pipes are specially made steel pipes. In most borings in soft and
loose soils and in borings were field permeability test are to be carried out we have to case
the hole with casing pipes in such places we cannot used drilling mud. There are different
methods for advancing the hole in earth. They are the following:

 WASH BORING
The hole is advanced by the special drilling bits consisting of a combination of chopping
and jetting bit to break the soil into small fragments called cuttings. The cuttings are
brought to the surface by circulating simple water washing the hole when using a casing
or by using drilling mud. As the drilling mud is dense, it also keeps the hole from

153 | P a g e
collapsing. At intervals, sample are taken by special samplers. The setup for wash boring
is shown in Figure 25.2.

Set up for wash boring (Water is forced under pressure by thus pump the washing the
hole).

 PERCUSSION DRILLING
This method is more in use for installing borewells for water- supply than for soil
exploration. The hole is advanced by alternate raising and dropping heavy drilling tools
thus forming slurry which is removed at intervals by means of bailers or by a sand pump.
The boreholes is usually kept dry, except for the limited quantity of water for form a slurry
of pulverized material at the bottom (when drilling for water, most of the drilling will be
above the water level).

 ROTARY DRILLING
The rotary drilling is the most commonly used method now a days. This method is suitable
for all types of soils and rocks. In this method the hole is advanced by rotating a string of

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drill rode (consisting of a series of hollow drill rods) to the bottom of which is attached a
cutting bit as described below.

The cutting bits are bits attached to the end of the drill rods for advancing the hole
by rotating in the borehole. Drilling water or drilling fluid (with bentonite) is pumped
under pressure through the hollow drill rods. The water serves the double purpose of
cooling the bit and removing the cuttings from the bottom of the hole as the fluid returns
to the surface through the space between the drill rod and the drilling hole (casing).
Drilling bits with carbide tips is used for soils and soft rock deposits. Diamond drill- bits
will have to be used for hard rocks.

To take samples of soil for identification or testing, special sampling devices are
used. The samples in soils can be taken by;

1. Open drive sample for taking disturbed samples

2. Thin walled sampler for taking undistributed soil.
In addition, we conduct special field test like standard penetration test while advancing
the hole by a special sampler.

 SPACING AND DEPTHS OF BORINGS

The number and spacing of boreholes to be put will depend on the importance of the
project. Generally, it is estimated that for an ordinary building there should be at least
one borehole for every 9800 square meters. For the large buildings there should be at least
one boreholes at the corners, center and periphery. For the linear structures like a wall
one boring at least every 30 m distance is needed. For a bridge we put them under the
proposed piers.

The depth of the hole should extend to rock or to a depth where the change in
stress due to construction of the structure will not be more than 10% of the present
existing pressure in the soil at that level.

 USE OF AIRPLANE (AERIAL) PHOTOGRAPHS

It is possible nowadays to estimate the nature of landforms, their component
materials and geological structure for the study of specially made aerial photographs. As
this is a special field of study, not generally conducted by civil engineers, we will not go
into the details of the subject. However, all civil engineers should be aware of this method.

SUMMARY

This chapter gives a brief account of measurement of strike and dip as well as the
preliminary methods of subsoil exploration used for finding the nature of the soil below
the ground level. The seismic method and the electrical resistivity methods are briefly
described. The methods of putting actual boreholes in the field to examine the overburden
are also described.

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QUESTIONS:

1. What are the importance of geological map in Civil Engineering?

2. Explain your understanding about the Geological Maps, Geophysical Explorations

and Boring in Soils.

3. Give the Six(6) Geophysical Exploration Method.

4. This method is the most popular method used for determining the depth of bedrock.

5. Give the two types of auger borings and explain in your own understanding.

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LESSON 4: STUDY OF STRUCTURES,
FOLDS, FAULTS AND JOINTS
 STRUCTURAL FEATURES
The principal “structural features” namely joints, folds and faults are very
important in geology of rocks, especially of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Their
importance are due to the fact that even though these deposits might have been originally
formed in layers, due to these structural features, the order in which we meet the layers at
present at the site may be completely different from those in which they were formed.

In addition, in the case of sedimentary rocks, we can also distinguish some more
minor structural feature formed by erosion. These are of major importance to geologists
only. These features are as follows:

 Unconformity
 Inliers
 Outliers
 Overlap
Another feature in rock we should consider is the chemical action on rocks by
groundwater.

 JOINTS
The term, joint as shown in figure indicates a crack or a separation (or fracture) in a
rock without displacement, or along which no noticeable displacement has taken place. A
joint can be open or closed and closed joints may be invisible. In quarries, the spacing of
the joints gives the largest size of blocks of stone (like marble) which can be quarried. In
general, we can have three sets of joints in rocks, one along the bed and the other two at
right angles to it.

Figure 1. Joints in basalt

In Igneous rocks like basalt that has been formed by rapid cooling, the joints are

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closely spaced, like the columnar basalt which has regular close vertical joints as shown in
the figure 1. In contrast, rhyolite has closely spaced irregular joints.th coarse-grained
rocks like granites (cooled slowly) can have all the three sets of joints and they are
generally spaced at varying distances.

Sedimentary rocks such as sandstone usually contain all the three sets of joints. In
shales they are so close that no intact specimen can be taken from the deposit.

Joints are important in relation to the engineering works such as the following:

1. Quarrying of stones
2. Formation of “rock slides” along rock slopes after heavy rainfall (rockslides)
3. Availability of ground water for water supply.
4. As water can easily low through these joints, they are important also in all stages of
dam construction and tunneling.

 FOLDS
Even though sedimentary rocks are formed in layers, they rarely are found in the field
in a strictly horizontal position. Due to various forces, they are usually folded as shown.
These folds can be defined as undulations or bends that have been developed in rocks due
to he stresses caused (commonly caused by lateral compression) in the past.

These folds can be alternating, ups and downs or crests and troughs, the crests are
called anticlines and the troughs are called synclines. The monocline as shown in the
figure 2 are those which bend the rock so as to lie in different levels only. Isoclines (equal
inclinations) are folds whose limbs are parallel.

Figure 2. Folds in rocks (1) Anticline (2) Syncline (3) Monocline.

In many places, the anticlines may be erode and the rock may appear as the
outcrop. Folding is important in quarrying of sedimentary rocks. If the folding has made
the joints in rocks slanting, it may be desirable to make the quarry floor also slanting to
get good pieces of rock. This is also important in mining. In dams, their importance is
according to their inclination.

 FAULTS
Fault is commonly defined as a fracture in the rock along which displacement of one
side with respect to the other has taken place as shown in the figure 3. Faults are very
important in civil engineering. In the process of faulting, the earth’s crust is broken up to
individual strips. If one of the strips goes down with respect to its original position, it is

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called a normal fault. If the block rises up (which happens less often) from its original
level, it is called reverse fault. Faults which are approximately at the right angle to the
folds are called dip or cross faults. It well known that usually earthquakes take place due
to the movement of earth’s crust along the fault line. These faults are called active or live
faults.

Figure 3.

Faults (a) Normal fault (b) Reverse fault (c) Fault or block mountain (d) Rift valley

These faults are considerably important in dam construction, bridge construction

etc. A fault is considered “live” if displacements have occurred along it within “historic”
time which can be considered by its nature. A fault on which no recent slipping has taken
place is considered “dead”. Faults in the locality where civil engineering structures are
built, should be a “dead fault”; a fault which is not all active at present but in historic
times. Otherwise further movements can occur and it can considerably affect the dam or
bridge structure.

QUESTIONS:

1.) It indicates a crack or a separation in rock without displacement or along which no

noticeable displacement has taken place.

2.) This are folds which bends the rock so as to lie in different levels only.

3.) Defined as a fracture in the rock along which displacement of one side with respect
to the other has taken place.

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LESSON 5: ROCK MECHANICS
Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which
is usually solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.

There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed
from combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The
rock-forming minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite,
pyroxenes.

Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory

minerals”. Although accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may
provide valuable insight into the geological history of a rock, and are often used to
ascertain the age of a rock. Common accessory minerals are: zircon, monazite, apatite,
titanite, tourmaline, pyrite and other opaques.

The abundance and diversity of minerals depend on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of
the elements of which they are composed. Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s
crust: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. The
composition of minerals formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the
chemistry of the parent body. For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form
minerals such as olivine and pyroxene (as found in basalt). Magma richer in silicon will
form more silica-rich minerals such as feldspar and quartz (as found in granite). It is
unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock with dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike its
own; thus it is unlikely that andalusite (Al2SiO5) would be found in an aluminium-poor
rock such as a quartzite.

Physical properties of minerals

Some minerals are easily identifiable; others can only be recognized only by the use of a
petrographic microscope or by complex analytical techniques. The following criteria are
used to differentiate minerals in hand sample. Most minerals cannot be identified from
one particular property, and so it is advisable to use several of the diagnostic criteria
outlined below. A hand lens will assist you greatly.

 Colour

Colour is one of the most obvious characteristic of a mineral, but generally not the most
useful diagnostic feature. Depending on impurities, individual mineral types may come in
a vast variety of colours. For example, ruby and sapphire are differently coloured types of
the mineral corundum (Al2O3). The red colour of ruby is due to the presence of the element
chromium. Sapphires may come is a vast variety of colours; blue is the most familiar
colour, but yellow, orange, green, pink, orange and brown varieties are also known.
Garnets may also come in a large range of colours, depending on their composition. They
can be found with virtually any colour, although blue garnets are exceptionally rare. It is
therefore advisable not to rely on colour alone to identify a mineral.

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  Crystal habit

Crystal habit refers to the characteristic shape of a mineral unit (either an individual
crystal or an aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-developed faces are referred to as
“euhedral”; for example garnet crystals are often euhedral. Minerals may also occur as
aggregates of crystals; for example, asbestos is usually found as an aggregate of very fine
fibres. The following list gives examples of different crystal habits and examples of
common minerals that may exhibit each habit.

Acicular – needle-like, e.g. natrolite, rutile

Bladed – blade-like, slender and flattened, e.g. kyanite

Botryoidal – grape-like masses, e.g. hematite, malachite

Columnar – long, slender prisms, e.g. calcite, gypsum

Cubic – cube-shaped, e.g. pyrite, galena, halite

Dendritic – tree-like, branching in multiple directions, e.g. pyrolusite, native copper,

native silver

Fibrous – very slender prisms, e.g. asbestos, tremolite

Foliated or lamellar – layered structure, parts easily into very thin sheets, e.g. muscovite,
biotite

Granular – aggregates of crystals, e.g. bornite, scheelite

Hexagonal – six-sided, e.g. quartz, hanksite

Massive – no distinct shape, e.g. turquoise, realgar

Octahedral– eight-sided, e.g. diamond, magnetite

Platy – flat, tablet shape, e.g. wulfenite

Prismatic – elongate, prism like, e.g. tourmaline, beryl

Radial or stellate – radiating outwards from a central point, star-like, e.g. wavellite,
pyrophyllite

 Hardness

Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching. This physical property

is controlled by the chemical composition and structure of the mineral. Hardness is
commonly measured on the Mohs scale. This is defined by ten minerals, where each
mineral can scratch those with a lower scale number. Diamond (hardness 10) can scratch
everything below it on the Mohs scale, but cannot itself be scratched, whereas quartz
(hardness 5) can scratch calcite (hardness 3) but not corundum (hardness 9).

 Streak

The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of the mark it leaves behind after being rubbed
against a piece of unglazed porcelain. Hematite provides a good example of how streak

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works. While this mineral is usually black, silver or brown-red in hand sample, its streak
is always a dark blood-red. Chalcopyrite is usually golden-brown in hand sample, but has
a green-black streak. Streak can be used only for minerals with a Mohs hardness of 7 or
less, as minerals with a hardness greater than 7 will themselves scratch the streak plate.

Lustre

Lustre refers to the way in which the surface of a mineral reflects light, and is controlled
by the kinds of atoms present and their bonding. It is described by the following terms

Adamantine – diamond-like lustre; such minerals are usually transparent and have a high
refractive index; e.g. diamond, cerussite, cubic zirconia

Dull or earthy – no reflections; e.g. kaolinite

Greasy – the appearance of being coated with an oily substance; may also be greasy to the
touch; e.g. opal

Pearly – the whitish iridescence of materials such as pearls; e.g. stilbite

Vitreous – like glass; e.g. calcite, quartz, beryl

Silky – like silk fabric; e.g. satin spar (a variety of gypsum)

Resinous – like a resin; e.g. fire opal

Metallic – metal-like in appearance; e.g. pyrite

2. The Fabric of Rocks

 Foliated
The two basic fabric categories in
metamorphic rocks are foliated
and massive. Foliation means
layers; more specifically it means
that minerals with long or flat
grains are lined up in the same
direction. Usually, the presence of
foliation means the rock was under
high pressure that deformed it so
that the minerals grew in the
direction that the rock was
stretched. The next three fabric
types are foliated.

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  Scistos

Schistose fabric consists of thin

and abundant layers of foliation,
made up of minerals that are
naturally flat or long. Schist is
the rock type that defines this
fabric; it has large mineral grains
that are easily visible.

Phyllite and slate also have

schistose fabric, but in both cases,
the mineral grains are of
microscopic size.

 Gneissic

Gneissic (or gneissose) fabric consists

of layers, but they're thicker than in
schist and commonly are separated
into bands of light and dark minerals.
Another way to look at it is that
gneissic fabric is a less even,
imperfect version of schistose fabric.
Gneissic fabric is what defines the
rock gneiss.

 Mylonitic

Mylonitic fabric is what happens when

the rock is sheared—rubbed together
rather than merely squeezed. Minerals
that normally form round grains (with
equant or granular habit) may be
stretched into lenses or wisps. is the
name for a rock with this fabric; if the
grains are very small or microscopic it
is called ultramylonite.

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  Massive

Rocks without foliation are said to have a massive fabric. Massive rocks may have plenty
of flat-grained minerals, but these mineral grains are oriented at random rather than
lined up in layers. A massive fabric can result from high pressure without stretching or
squeezing the rock, or it can result from contact metamorphism when an injection of
magma heats the country rock around it. The next three fabric types are subtypes of
massive.

 Cataclastic

Cataclastic means "broken in pieces" in scientific Greek, and it refers to rocks that have
been mechanically crushed without the growth of new metamorphic minerals. Rocks with
cataclastic fabric are almost always associated with faults; they include tectonic or fault
breccia, cataclasite, gouge, and pseudotachylite (in which the rock actually melts).

 Granoblastic

Granoblastic is scientific shorthand for round mineral grains (grano-) that grow at high
pressure and temperature through solid-state chemical rearrangement rather then
melting (-blastic). An unknown rock with this generic kind of fabric may be called
granofels, but usually the geologist can look at it closely and give it a more specific name
based on its minerals, like marble for a carbonate rock, quartzite for a quartz-rich rock,
and so on: amphibolite, eclogite and more.

 Hornfelsic

"Hornfels" is an old German word for a tough stone. Hornfelsic fabric usually results from
contact metamorphism, when the short-lived heat from a magma dike produces extremely
small mineral grains. This quick metamorphic action also means that hornfels may retain
the extra-large metamorphic mineral grains called porphyroblasts.

Hornfels is probably the metamorphic rock that looks the least "metamorphic," but its
structure at the outcrop scale and its great strength are the keys to identifying it. Your
rock hammer will bounce off this stuff, ringing, more than almost any other rock type.

3. The mechanical nature of rock

 Practical Rock Mechanics

provides an introduction for graduate students as well as a reference guide for practicing
engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers. The book considers fundamental
geological processes that give rise to the nature of rock masses and control their
mechanical behavior. Stresses in the earth’s crust are discussed and methods of
measurement and prediction explained. Ways to investigate, describe, test, and
characterize rocks in the laboratory and at project scale are reviewed. The application of
rock mechanics principles to the design of engineering structures including tunnels,
foundations, and slopes is addressed. The book is illustrated throughout with simple
figures and photographs, and important concepts are illustrated by modern case examples.

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Mathematical equations are kept to the minimum necessary and are explained fully—the
book leans towards practice rather than theory.

This text:

 Addresses the principles of rock mechanics as it applies to both structural geology

and engineering practice

 Demonstrates the importance of and methods of geological characterisation to rock

engineering

 Examines the standard methods of rock mechanics testing and measurement as

well as interpretation of data in practice

 Explains connections between main parameters both empirically as well as on the

basis of scientific theory

 Provides examples of the practice of rock mechanics to major engineering projects

Practical Rock Mechanics

teaches from first principles and aids readers’ understanding of the concepts of stress and
stress transformation and the practical application of rock mechanics theory. This text can
help ensure that ground models and designs are correct, realistic, and produced cost-
effectively.

Questions:

1. What is the importance of rock mechanics ?

2. What is Rock Mechanics ?

3. What is the relationship of rock mechanics in civil engineering and how can be this
helpful to the engineers on the field

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LESSON 6: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

 ROCKS
The term “petrophysics” was created for physics of reservoir rocks. “Petrophysics” is
suggested as the term pertaining to the physics of particular rock types. This subject is a
study of the physical properties of rocks which are related to the pore and fluid
distribution.

Rocks in most cases are heterogeneous composite materials; only monomineralic

rocks like rock salt or anhydrite contain only one mineral type. Heterogeneity becomes
more contrasted if pores and fractures, filled with fluids, are present. Mineral composition,
porosity/fracturing, and internal rock structure therefore influence the physical rock
properties.

Rock properties and their main influence parameters and dependencies.

On the other hand, physical rock properties (e.g. elastic, electrical, nuclear
properties) can be used to characterize rocks with respect to properties and parameters of
interest (e.g. reservoir properties, geomechanical properties). This leads to a classification
of rock properties into the following two main groups:

 Properties of direct interest for application: reservoir properties (porosity,

saturation, permeability), geomechanical properties (deformation, strength),
mineralogical characteristics (shale content, fractional mineral composition),
content of substances of interest (ore content);

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  Properties relevant to the various geophysical methods (elastic/seismic properties,
density, electrical properties, nuclear properties, nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) response).
“Properties of interest” are subjects of interpretation of geophysical data from surface
and borehole measurement. This interpretation is a process of transformation of the
second type into the first using additional input information. For the transformation,
relationships are applied resulting from:

 Empirical correlations (e.g. Archie’s equation);

 Model-based theories (e.g. Gassmann’s equation for fluid substitution, capillary
pore channel models); in most cases “theoretical” equations need an empirical
modification or calibration with experimental data.
For the physics behind the individual properties, it is important to characterize
them with respect to their character as a “scalar property” (given as one value for the
property, no directional dependence of the property) or a “tensorial property” (given as a
tensor with several components with directional dependence).

Physical Rock Properties: Classification

Tensorial character is relevant for rocks with an anisotropy (originated by

lamination, preferred direction of fractures, grain axis or mineral orientation, etc.) the
terms isotropy and anisotropy refer to the directional dependence of considered (tensorial)
properties. Isotropic expresses that a vectorial property has at any point the same
magnitude for all directions; if the magnitude shows a directional dependence, then the
material is anisotropic.

Another set of terms is important: homogeneity and inhomogeneity. Homogeneity

expresses that any property (scalar or vector) is the same at different points (locations)
within the volume; if the properties have different values, then the material is
inhomogeneous or heterogeneous.

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 In rocks we find all four combinations as schematically presented in the figure
below.

The categories “homogeneous-inhomogeneous” and “isotropic-anisotropic” after Gassmann

(1964)

Both anisotropy and heterogeneity are terms connected with the scale of
consideration and definition of a property. A small sample size (core, plug) from a
sandstone layer may be homogeneous, whereas a sandstone bed with variation of grain
size, shale content, etc. is heterogeneous. The scale is also fundamental for anisotropy. A
typical example is a laminated sand; it may be that the individual small layers are
isotropic, but a section as resolved by an electrical logging tool “sees” an anisotropy.

 POROSITY
The porosity, n, of a rock can be defined as the percentage pore space within a given
volume and is expressed as follows:

𝑉𝑣
𝑛 = ( ) × 100
𝑉

where 𝑉𝑣 is the volume of the voids and 𝑉 is the total volume of the material concerned. A
closely related property is the void ratio, 𝑒, that is, the ratio of the volume of the voids to
the volume of the solids, 𝑉𝑆 :

𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠

where the ground is saturated, the void ratio can be derived from:

𝑒 = 𝑚𝐺𝑠

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𝑚 being the moisture content and 𝐺𝑠 the specific gravity. Both the porosity and the void
ratio indicate the relative proportion of void volume in the material, and the relationships
between the two are as follows:
𝑒
𝑛=
(1 + 𝑒 )

and
𝑛
𝑒=
(1 − 𝑛 )

Total or absolute porosity is a measure of the total void volume and is the excess of
bulk volume over grain volume per unit of bulk volume. It is usually determined as the
excess of grain density (i.e. specific gravity) over dry density per unit of grain density and
can be obtained from the following expression:

𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (1 − ) × 100
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

The effective, apparent or net porosity is a measure of the effective void volume of a
porous medium and is determined as the excess of bulk volume over grain volume and
occluded pore volume. It may be regarded as the pore space from which water can be
removed. Groundwater does not drain from occluded pores.

The factors affecting the porosity of soil include particle size distribution, sorting,
grain shape, fabric, degree of compaction, solution effects and, lastly, mineralogical
composition, particularly the presence of clay particles (Bell, 1978). The highest porosity is
attained when all the grains are of the same size. The addition of grains of different sizes
to such an assemblage lowers its porosity and this, within certain limits, is directly
proportional to the amount added. Irregularities in grain shape result in a larger possible
range of porosity, as irregular forms may theoretically be packed either more tightly or
more loosely than spheres. Similarly, angular grains may either cause an increase or a
decrease in porosity. After a sediment has been buried and indurated, several additional
factors help determine its porosity. The chief among these are closer spacing of grains,
deformation and granulation of grains, recrystallization, secondary growth of minerals,
cementation and, in some cases, dissolution. Hence, the diagenetic changes undergone by
a sedimentary rock may either increase or decrease its original porosity.

The porosity can be determined experimentally by using either the standard

saturation method or an air porosimeter. Both tests give an effective value of porosity,
although that obtained by the air porosimeter may be somewhat higher because air can
penetrate pores more easily than can water.

The porosity of a deposit does not necessarily provide an indication of the amount of
water that can be obtained therefrom. Nevertheless, the water content of a soil or rock is
related to its porosity. The water content, m, of a porous material usually is expressed as
the percentage of the weight of the solid material, Ws, that is:

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 𝑊𝑤
𝑚=( ) × 100
𝑊𝑠

where 𝑊𝑤 is the weight of the water. The degree of saturation, 𝑆𝑟 , refers to the relative
volume of water, 𝑉𝑤 , in the voids, 𝑉𝑣 , and is expressed as a percentage:

𝑉𝑣
𝑆𝑟 = ( ) × 100
𝑉𝑤

 PERMEABILITY
Permeability may be defined as the ability of soil or rock to allow the passage of
fluids into or through it without impairing its structure. In ordinary hydraulic usage, a
substance is termed permeable when it permits the passage of a measurable quantity of
fluid in a finite period of time, and impermeable when the rate at which it transmits that
fluid is slow enough to be negligible under existing temperature–pressure conditions
(Table 4.4). The permeability of a particular material is defined by its coefficient of
permeability or hydraulic conductivity, 𝑘. The transmissivity or flow in 𝑚3 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1 through
a section of aquifer 1 𝑚 wide under a hydraulic gradient of unity is sometimes used as a
convenient quantity in the calculation of groundwater flow instead of the coefficient of
permeability. The transmissivity, 𝑇, and coefficient of permeability, 𝑘, are related to each
other as follows:

𝑇 = 𝑘𝐻

where 𝐻 is the saturated thickness of the aquifer.

The flow through a unit cross section of material is modified by temperature,

hydraulic gradient and the coefficient of permeability. The latter is affected by the
uniformity and range of grain size, shape of the grains, stratification, the amount of
consolidation and cementation undergone, and the presence and nature of discontinuities.
Temperature changes affect the flow rate of a fluid by changing its viscosity. The rate of
flow commonly is assumed to be directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient but this is
not always so in practice.

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 Permeability and porosity are not necessarily as closely related as would be
expected. For instance, very-fine-textured sandstones may have a higher porosity than
coarser ones, though the latter are more permeable.

As can be inferred from above, the permeability of a clastic material also is affected
by the interconnections between the pore spaces. If these are highly tortuous, then the
permeability is reduced accordingly. Consequently, tortuosity figures importantly in
permeability, influencing the extent and rate of free-water saturation. It can be defined as
the ratio of the total path covered by a liquid flowing in the pore channels between two
given points to the straight line distance between them. The sizes of the throat areas
between pores obviously are important.

Stratification in a formation varies within limits both vertically and horizontally. It

frequently is difficult to predict what effect stratification has on the permeability of the
beds. Nevertheless, in the great majority of cases where a directional difference in
permeability exists, the greater permeability is parallel to the bedding. Ratios of 5:1 are
not uncommon in sandstones.

The permeability of intact rock (primary permeability) is usually several orders less
than in situ permeability (secondary permeability). Hence, as far as the assessment of flow
through rock masses is concerned, field tests provide more reliable results than can be
obtained from testing intact samples in the laboratory. Although secondary permeability is
affected by the frequency, continuity and openness, and amount of infilling of
discontinuities, a rough estimate of the permeability can be obtained from their frequency
(Table 4.5). Admittedly, such estimates must be treated with caution and cannot be
applied to rocks that are susceptible to solution.

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 Dykes often act as barriers to groundwater flow so that the water table on one side
may be higher than on the other. Fault planes occupied by clay gouge may have a similar
effect. Conversely, a fault plane may act as a conduit where it is not sealed.

 DENSITY
Is defines as the ratio of an object’s mass to its volume, as shown in the equation
above. Because it is a ratio, the density of a material remains the same without regard to
how much of that material remains the same without regard to how much of that material
is present. Density is therefore called an intensive property of matter. Mass is commonly
measured in units of grams (g). Volume is the amount of space taken up by a quantity of
matter and is commonly expressed in cubic meters (cm³) or in milliliters (ml) (1cm³=1ml).
Therefore, common units used to express density are grams per milliliters (g/ml) and
grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).

The following are physical properties:

1. Color
2. Streak
3. Hardness
4. Cleavage or Fracture
5. Crystalline Structure
6. Diaphaneity or Amount of Transparency
7. Tenacity
8. Magnetism
9. Luster
10. Odor
11. Taste
12. Specific Gravity

Mechanical properties include:

Elastic properties (Young’s modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, and Poisson’s ratio)

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 Inelastic properties (fracture gradient and formation strength)
Elasticity is the property of matter that causes it to resist deformation in volume or shape.
Hooke’s law describes the behavior of elastic materials and states that for small
deformations, the resulting strain is proportional to the applied stress.

 Stress is the force applied per unit area

 Strain is the fractional distortion that results because of the acting force
 The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain
Depending on the mode of the acting geological force and type of geological media the force
is acting upon, three types of deformation can result as well as three elastic moduli that
correspond to each type of deformation.

 Young’s modulus, E, is the ratio of uniaxial compressive (tensile) stress to the resultant
strain
 Bulk modulus, K, is the change in volume under hydrostatic pressure (i.e., the ratio of
stress to strain) (K is the reciprocal of compressibility.)
 Shear modulus, μ, is the ratio of shearing (torsional) stress to shearing strain.
 An additional parameter, Poisson’s ratio, σ, is a measure of the geometric change of
shape under uniaxial stress

 STRENGTH
The physical and dynamic properties of rock are governed by the nature of the
solid mineral grains, the nature and extent of voids within the mineral aggregate and
the nature of the bond, if any, between the mineral grains. These characteristics will also
govern rock behavior and should figure prominently in any explanation of the interplay
between landform evolution and rock type.

Erosional agencies attack rock in a variety of ways such as by wear, abrasion, impact,
crushing and plucking. The most important rock properties are those which reflect these
processes. Rock properties can be grouped into three classes:

(a) Properties which measure the hardness or toughness of rocks. Hardness is usually
taken to mean resistance to abrasion and toughness refers to resistance to crushing or
impact.

(b) Properties which relate to the ease with which water is absorbed and transmitted
through rocks, such as porosity, permeability, water absorption and specific gravity.
These properties enable an assessment to be made of a rock’s resistance to processes
such as frost action, swelling and softening.

(c) Properties which relate to the strength of rock. Strength can be assessed in a number
of ways, compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength.

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  HARDNESS

The hardness of a rock is governed by its mineral composition. The most commonly
used scale of hardness is that devised by Mohs based on the ability of one mineral to be
scratched by a harder substance (Tabor 1954). Thus, the fingernail will scratch substances
up to hardness 2·5 (gypsum, muscovite), ordinary glass up to hardness 5 (apatite,
hornblende) and a penknife will scratch minerals up to hardness 7 (quartz, tourmaline).
Mohs' scale has been quantified by measuring hardness with a diamond indenter.
Interestingly, the relationship between this hardness and Mohs' hardness number is
virtually log linear.
Chemical weathering is an important control on hardness because it usually results in the
formation of a softer product . Pyroxenes (5-7) are often converted to chlorite (2-2·5),
orthoclase feldspar (6-6·5) to kaolinite (2-2·5), biotite mica (2·5-3) to chlorite (2-2·5), and
plagioclase feldspar (6--6·5) may alter to epidote (6). Most rocks contain a range of
minerals and therefore will have a range of hardness values (Young & Millman 1964).
However, it is still possible to differentiate between rock types on the basis of hardness.
Shales and some sandstones are generally soft, slates and limestones intermediate and
granites, gneiss and quartzites are very hard. Hardness of minerals and rock generally
reflects the ease with which they are worn away by abrasion or attrition. Cleavage and
tenacity will influence abrasion characteristics. The breakdown of particles by abrasion
has been examined indirectly by noting particle size in deposits. Tanner (1958) noted gaps
in particle size distributions, which have been substantiated partially by the experimental
work of Rogers et al. (1963), indicating two modes of abrasion, one producing sand grains
and the other silt-size particles. However, sand particles may reflect the size of the
original mineral grains with very little abrasion (Smalley 1966b), and the two modes may
reflect the bimodality of quartz grain sizes which has been shown to exist in granites and
sediments (Blatt 1970).
Experimental work has shown that attrition is merely aiding the fracturing process and
that incipient fractures affect the ultimate size of the grains produced (Moss 1966, 1972).
The rate of abrasion may also be affected by the abrading medium. Mica is comparatively
resistant to abrasion in water but is readily destroyed by wind abrasion. The resistance of
a number of other minerals has been shown to change when attrition experiments have
been conducted in running water (Thiel 1940). Interesting insights into the process of
abrasion have been provided by Bigelow (1982, 1984). He simulated pebble abrasion by
waves on basaltic coastal benches. The gentle movements of clastic materials by waves on
the marine benches was not sufficiently energetic to exceed the breaking strength of the
rock, but the bench and rocks abrade each other producing fine mud rather than sand.

 ELASTICITY

Elastic properties of rocks are dominated by the properties of the solid rock skeleton
including “defects” like pores, fractures, and cracks. These defects have, in most cases,
dimensions smaller than the wavelength. The figure below illustrates the general
tendencies for the basic rock components:
● Solid minerals: minerals, matrix components

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 ● Fluids: liquids (water, oil), air, gas.

Compressional and shear modulus for main rock components.

For compressional wave velocities, 𝑉𝑝,𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 > 𝑉𝑝,𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟,𝑜𝑖𝑙 > 𝑉𝑝,𝑔𝑎𝑠 and for the
corresponding compressional modulus, 𝑘𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 > 𝑘𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟,𝑜𝑖𝑙 > 𝑘𝑔𝑎𝑠 .

The shear modulus shows a completely different behavior, because by definition,

fluids do not have a shear resistance (𝜇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠 = 0). Shear wave velocity therefore shows
only a minor dependence on pore fluids via the density term (see Section 6.5.3).

Immediately the following tendencies result:

● increasing porosity decreases both compressional and shear wave velocities;

● compressional wave velocity is controlled also by the type of pore fluid (gas,
liquid);

● shear wave velocity is not strongly controlled by type of pore fluid.

SOLID COMPONENTS, MINERALS

An orientation for the magnitude of wave velocities and parameters of some rock-
forming minerals; the data have been taken from various compilations. We note with
respect to:

● the composition of igneous rocks that acid or felsic components have lower elastic
moduli and velocities than basic or mafic components;

● the composition of reservoir rocks that there is a significant difference between

the three basic types of matrix substances quartz, calcite, and dolomite.

 PLASTICITY
A system of soil classification involves grouping the different soil types into
categories that possess similar properties and, in so doing, providing the engineer with a

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systematic method of soil description. Casagrande (1948) advanced one of the first
comprehensive engineering classifications of soil. In the Casagrande system, the coarse-
grained soils are distinguished from the fine on the basis of particle size. Gravels and
sands are the two principal types of coarse-grained soils and, in this classification, both
are subdivided into five subgroups on the basis of grading (Table 5.1). Well-graded soils
are those in which the particle size distribution extends over a wide range without excess
or deficiency in any particular sizes, whereas in uniformly graded soils, the distribution
extends over a very limited range of particle sizes. In poorly graded soils, the distribution
contains an excess of some particle sizes and a deficiency of others. A plasticity chart is
used when classifying fine-grained soils, that is, silts and clays (see Table 5.2).

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177 | P a g e
178 | P a g e
 On this chart, the plasticity index is plotted against liquid limit. The A line is taken
as the boundary between organic and inorganic soils, the latter lying above the line. Each
of the main soil types and subgroups are given a letter, a pair of which are combined in the
group symbol, the former being the prefix, the latter the suffix. Subsequently, the Unified
Soil Classification system was developed from the Casagrande system.

According to Anon (1999), a full description of a soil should provide data on its
particle size, plasticity, particle characteristics and colour, as well as its bedding,
discontinuities and strength. Anon divides soils into coarse and fine types. Coarse soils are
gravels and sands, and fine soils are silts and clays.

Boulders, cobbles, gravels, sands, silts and clays are distinguished as individual
groups on the basis of their particle size distribution (Table 5.3a). Gravel, sand and silt
have been subdivided into coarse-, medium- and fine-grained subgroups, and fine soils
have been subdivided on the basis of plasticity. Coarse soils are described as well graded
or poorly graded. Two further types of poorly graded coarse soils are recognized, namely,
uniformly graded and gap graded (Fig. 1.18). Silts and clays are subdivided according to
their liquid limits (Table 5.3b).

Most soils consist of more than one grade size type. If boulders and cobbles are
present in composite soil types, then they are removed before an attempt is made at
classification, their proportions being recorded separately. Their presence should be

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recorded in the soil description. Very coarse deposits should be described as boulders if
over half of the very coarse material is of boulder size. They may be described as cobbly
boulders if cobbles are an important second constituent in the very coarse fraction. If over
half of the very coarse material is of cobble size, then it is described as cobbles. Similarly,
it may be described as bouldery cobbles if boulders are an important second constituent in
the very coarse fraction. Mixtures of the very coarse material and soil can be described by
combining the terms for the very coarse constituent and the soil constituent as shown in
Table 5.4.

According to Anon (1999), further factors that should be incorporated in a soil

description, to help identification of soil, include the following:

1. Mass characteristics

(a) Field strength or compactness and indication of moisture condition. A scale for
estimating the strength of clays is given in Table 5.5, however, where assessment of
strength is important, appropriate testing should be undertaken. The relative
densities of sands and gravels may be determined by the standard penetration test
that, in turn, can be related to their angle of friction.

(b) The thickness of the bedding should be described as indicated in Table 2.1.
Where beds are too thin to be described individually, they may be referred to as
interbedded or interlaminated.

(c) Discontinuities include joints, fissures, and shear surfaces. Their orientation,
spacing, persistence, openness and surface texture (i.e. rough, smooth, polished,
striated) should be described.

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 2. Material characteristics

(a) The colour should relate to that of the overall impression of the soil. Soil with
more than one colour can be described as mottled or multicoloured. A colour chart
such as the Munsell chart should be used to help describe the colour of soils.

(b) Particle shape, particle grading and composition. In particular instances, it may
be necessary to describe the shape of soil particles (see Fig. 1.16). Grading of coarse
soils has been referred to earlier.

(c) Soil name (in capitals, e.g. SAND) is based on grading and plasticity. A coarse
soil (omitting any boulders or cobbles) contains around 65% or more coarse material
and is referred to as SAND or GRAVEL, according to the size fraction that
predominates. Gravel and sand are further divided into coarse, medium and fine
categories. Mixtures of coarse soil types can be described as shown in Table 5.6.
Anon (1999) recommended that fine soil should be described as SILT or CLAY
depending on its plastic properties (although it cautioned against the use of the A-
line on the plasticity chart as a reliable method of distinguishing between silts,
which are supposed to plot below, and clays that plot above). It also was
recommended that the terms should be mutually exclusive. In other words, terms
such as silty clay were regarded as redundant. Field identification of fine soils can
be made according to dilatancy, dry strength and toughness tests (see Table 5.2).
The terms outlined in Table 5.7 can be used to describe common soils that include a
mixture of soil types.

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 3. Geological formation, age and type of deposit.

4. Classification (optional).

When small amounts of organic matter occur throughout a soil, they can have a
notable effect on plasticity and therefore the engineering properties. Increase in the
quantities of organic matter can increase these effects. Nonetheless, soils in which the
organic contents may be up to 30%, by weight, behave primarily as mineral soils.

Peat is an accumulation of plant remains that has undergone some degree of

decomposition. Inorganic soil material may occur as secondary constituents in peat, and
should be described, for example, as slightly clayey or very sandy.

Rock dynamics has become one of the most important topics in the field of rock
mechanics and rock engineering. The spectrum of rock dynamics is very wide and it
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includes the failure of rocks, rock masses and rock engineering structures such as rock
bursting, spalling, popping, collapse, toppling, sliding, blasting, non-destructive testing,
geophysical explorations, science and engineering of rocks and impacts. The book
specifically covers fundamentals of rock dynamics, constitutive models, numerical analysis
techniques, dynamic testing procedures, the multi-parameter responses and motions of
rocks during fracturing or slippage in laboratory experiments, earthquakes and their
strong motion characteristics and their effect on various rock structures such as
foundations, underground structures, slopes, dynamic simulation of loading and
excavation, blasting and its positive utilization in rock engineering, the phenomenon of
rock burst in rock excavations, non-destructive testing of rock bolts and rock anchors and
impacts by meteors or projectiles. The main goal of this book is to present a unified and
complete treatise on Rock Dynamics and to represent a milestone in advancing the
knowledge in this field and in leading to new techniques for experiments, analytical and
numerical modelling as well as monitoring of dynamics of rocks and rock engineering
structures.

For determining the dynamic property of rocks we have the;

Typical Rock Properties

 Modulus of Deformation – Young’s Modulus - E

 Modulus of Rigidity – Shear Modulus – G
 Modulus of Volume Expansion – Bulk Modulus - K
 Poisson’s Ratio - μ
 Bulk Density – ρ
 Compressive Strength – σC
 Tensile Strength – σT

Referenced to Blasting Actions

Young’s modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to transmit load allows

transmission of longitudinal stress from shock wave impact.

Bulk modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to change in volume allows

transmission of transverse stress resulting shock wave impact.

Poisson’s ratio defines the amount of borehole expansion that can occur under
dynamic loading just before rock/ ore failure maximum amount of hoop stress that can be
tolerated before cracks are generated.

Compressive strength dictates the level of crushing that will occur at the borehole
wall.

While, tensile strength dictates the level of tensile stress when crack formation will
occur that can have supersonic cracking as well as interstitial cracking.

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QUESTIONS:

1. Enumerate the physical rock properties.

2. Define absolute porosity.
3. Differentiate permeability from porosity.
4. Enumerate the factors that should be incorporated in a soil description, to
help with the identification of soil.
5. Illustrate the compressional and shear modulus for main rock components.
6. Enumerate the physical properties of density.
7. Why is it chemical weathering important to control hardness?
8. Enumerate the three rock properties.

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LESSON 7: DYNAMIC PROPERTY OF
ROCKS
Rock dynamics has become one of the most important topics in the field of rock
mechanics and rock engineering. The spectrum of rock dynamics is very wide and it
includes the failure of rocks, rock masses and rock engineering structures such as rock
bursting, spalling, popping, collapse, toppling, sliding, blasting, non-destructive testing,
geophysical explorations, science and engineering of rocks and impacts. The book
specifically covers fundamentals of rock dynamics, constitutive models, numerical analysis
techniques, dynamic testing procedures, the multi-parameter responses and motions of
rocks during fracturing or slippage in laboratory experiments, earthquakes and their
strong motion characteristics and their effect on various rock structures such as
foundations, underground structures, slopes, dynamic simulation of loading and
excavation, blasting and its positive utilization in rock engineering, the phenomenon of
rock burst in rock excavations, non-destructive testing of rock bolts and rock anchors and
impacts by meteors or projectiles. The main goal of this book is to present a unified and
complete treatise on Rock Dynamics and to represent a milestone in advancing the
knowledge in this field and in leading to new techniques for experiments, analytical and
numerical modelling as well as monitoring of dynamics of rocks and rock engineering
structures.

Strength of rock masses is determined by two components: strength of rock matrix

and strength of rock discontinuities ( cracks, joints, fractures, pores, etc. at different scales
). Rock matrix, which contains microcracks, flaws, pores etc. but not significant larger
joints or fractures. Strength or failure of rocks can be described by stress criteria, energy
criteria or strain criteria. In general rock matrix strength is characterized by high
compressive strength and low tensile strength. It should be noticed, that strength of solids
including rocks under dynamic or cyclic loading (fatigue) conditions is characterized by
different parameters and partly different relations.

Rock bursting is a complex mining induced phenomenon that is difficult to capture

in precise mathematical terms. In particular geological conditions that contribute to rock
bursting are difficult to quantify: faults, intact rock properties, and other rock mass
conditions are difficult to quantify and vary, sometimes within small distance. Rock mass
strength or stress variations may change behavior, from strain softening/rock degradation
to strain energy storing eventual violent failure.

The mechanical properties of any substance are essential facts to understand its
behaviour and make the maximum use of the particular substance. Rocks are indeed an
important substance, as they are of significant use in the energy industry, specifically for
fossil fuels and geothermal energy. Attenuation of seismic waves is a non-destructive
technique to investigate mechanical properties of reservoir rocks under different
conditions. The attenuation characteristics of five different rock types, siltstone, shale,
Australian sandstone, Indian sandstone and granite, were investigated in the laboratory
using ultrasonic and acoustic emission instruments in a frequency range of 0.1–1 MHz.
The pulse transmission technique and spectral ratios were used to calculate the

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attenuation coefficient (α) and quality factor (Q) values for the five selected rock types for
both primary (P) and secondary (S) waves, relative to the reference steel sample. For all
the rock types, the attenuation coefficient was linearly proportional to the frequency of
both the P and S waves. Interestingly, the attenuation coefficient of granite is more than
22% higher than that of siltstone, sandstone and shale for both P and S waves.
The Pand S wave velocities were calculated based on their recorded travel time, and these
velocities were then used to calculate the dynamic mechanical properties including elastic
modulus (E), bulk modulus (K), shear modulus (µ) and Poisson's ratio (ν).
The P and S wave velocities for the selected rock types varied in the ranges of 2.43–4.61
km s−1and 1.43–2.41 km h−1, respectively. Furthermore, it was observed that the P wave
velocity was always greater than the S wave velocity, and this confirmed the first arrival
of Pwaves to the sensor. According to the experimental results, the dynamic E value is
generally higher than the static E value obtained by unconfined compressive strength
tests.

With the increase of property damage as well as human casualty caused by an

earthquake, the importance of an earthquake-resistant design for geotechnical structure is
being emphasized. The dynamic properties of geotechnical structure, especially, are
essential in earthquake-resistant design and can be achieved from both field and
laboratory tests. And the free-free resonant column test is known to be the most common
laboratory test. In general, the resonant frequency which can be obtained from the
resonant tests intends a natural frequency of the structure. When the ground vibration
occurs by an earthquake and the vibration frequency coincides with the natural frequency
of the structures, it is known that the ground vibration can be amplified and may cause
the unstability of the structures. In this study, consequently, the free-free resonant
column test has been performed to determine the characteristics of natural frequency of
rock mass. Among the dynamic characteristics of rock mass, the relationship between the
rock strength and the resonant frequency has been focused together with the relationship
between the joint distribution pattern and the dynamic properties of rock mass.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the spectrum of rock dynamics?

2. What are the two components that determined the Strength of Rock Masses?

3. Defined what is Rock Bursting?

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LESSON 8: TYPES OF WAVES THEORY

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and
around the earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic
waves. Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock
within the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.

 TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different
ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can
travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface
of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and
surface waves.

 BODY WAVES
Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface
waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface
waves.

 P WAVES
The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind
of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave
can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It
pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air.
Have you ever heard a big clap of thunder and heard the windows rattle at the same time?
The windows rattle because the sound waves were pushing and pulling on the window
glass much like P waves push and pull on rock. Sometimes animals can hear the P waves
of an earthquake. Dogs, for instance, commonly begin barking hysterically just before an
earthquake 'hits' (or more specifically, before the surface waves arrive). Usually people can
only feel the bump and rattle of these waves.

P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they
do. Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving in,
which is the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes called the 'direction
of wave propagation'.

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FIGURE A & B - A P WAVE TRAVELS THROUGH A MEDIUM BY MEANS OF
COMPRESSION AND DILATION.

FIGURE A FIGURE B

 S WAVES
The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second
wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move
through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S waves that led
seismologists to conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock
particles up and down, or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave is
traveling in (the direction of wave propagation).

FIGURE C & D - AN S WAVE TRAVELS THROUGH A MEDIUM.

FIGURE C FIGURE D

 SURFACE WAVES
Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency than body
waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after
body waves, it is surface waves that are almost entirely responsible for the damage and
destruction associated with earthquakes. This damage and the strength of the surface
waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes.

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  LOVE WAVES
The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a
British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in
1911. It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the
surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

 RAYLEIGH WAVES
The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in
1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an
ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to
the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

QUESTIONS:

1. Summarize the meaning of "P Waves".

2. Differentiate P waves from.S waves.
3. Give two examples of surface waves.

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LESSON 9: GEOLOGICAL WORKS OF
RUNNING WATER

 STREAM GRADIENT AND BASE LEVEL

Landform produced by running water are produced by stream erosion, stream deposition,
or combination of erosion and deposition. The gradient of a stream is the slope of the
stream bed, or surface of the stream in larger rivers, along its course. A longitudinal
profile of a stream shows that the gradient decrease in a downstream direction (fig. 3.1). A
stream tends to erode its channel bottom or bed in the upper or head ward reaches and
deposit sediment or erode its channel walls in the lower reaches.

Base level is the lowest level to which a stream can erode its bed. The base level for
stream that flow to the ocean is sea level, but other temporary base level may exist along
the stream course. These include lakes created by dams.

The surface of a lake behind a dam constitute a new base level for the segment of
the stream above the dam. Sediment is deposited where the stream enters the lake
because the stream gradient has been reduced. Below the dam, a new profile is formed
because the water discharged through the gates of the dam is relatively free of sediment,
thereby allowing the stream to erode its bed to a deeper level than before the dam was
built.

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  STREAM GRADIENT AND DRAINAGE DIVIDES
A stream together with tributaries is called a drainage system. Contiguous drainage
system are separated by drainage divide, an imaginary line connecting points of highest
elevation between the two system (fig. 3.2A).

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 The erosive of a stream is a function of the steam gradient. Stream with higher
gradients are more potent in eroding their beds than stream with lower gradients. If
adjacent drainage system have comparable gradient in their upper reaches, the divide
between the two system will remain more or less constant. If, however, the gradient of the
stream in the two system differ appreciably, the divide will move over time the system
with the smaller gradient (fig. 3.2B).

 ALLUVIAL FANS AND PEDIMENTS

These two landforms have similar but not identical topographic expression. An alluvial fan
is depositional feature produced where the gradient of a stream changes from steep to
shallow as it emerges from a mountainous terrain. At that point the course sediments
carried by the fast-flowing stream in the mountain are deposited in a form of a fan-shape
apron at the mountain front where the gradient decreases abruptly.

A pediment , on the other hand, is a gently sloping erosional surface covered with a
veneer of coarse sediment, pediments are common in arid regions. They form as the
weathered mountain in front recedes by attacked by heavy but infrequent rainfalls. Below
the coarse sedimentary cover in transit lies on the planned-off bedrock that was formerly
part of the mountainous range terrain. One description of a pediment is that is the end
product of mountain range consumed by weathering and stream erosion. A pediment may
contain remnants of mountain terrain standing as isolated bedrock knobs above the
pediment surface.

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  MEANDERING RIVERS AND OXBOW LAKES
In the lower reaches of a stream’s course where the gradient is low, the stream’s
erosive action is directed toward the channel walls (fig. 3.4A). This process of lateral
erosion produces a flat valley floor called a floodplain (fig. 3.4B). A flood plain is not
produced by flood stages of the river but rather by constant shifting of the stream channel
through lateral erosion across the valley floor. A floodplain does become inundated when
the stream channel is unable to accommodate the volume of spring runoff or of heavy rains
in the drainage basin at any time of the year.

The circuitous course of a stream flowing across its floodplain is called meandering
course, and the individual bends are called meanders (fig. 3.4C). When a meander loop is
isolated from the main channel by erosion of the narrow lake of land between the
upstream and downstream segment of the meander loop, an oxbow lake is formed (fig.
3.5). With passage of time an oxbow lake gradually becomes filled with sediments brought
in by flood waters and eventually is reduced to a swampy scar on the floodplain as
testimony to its former existence as an active channel of the river.

Floodplains are attractive sites for agriculture and land development. To protect
structures built on them such a roads, buildings, and airports, levees are built along both
sides of a meandering river to contain flood waters.

The lower Mississippi River is a classic example of meandering stream flowing

across a broad floodplain. Hundreds of miles of levees have been constructed by the U.S
Army Corps of engineers has cut off meanders from the main channel through the
excavation of channel across meander necks. These artificial cutoff shortened the river
course in deference to the barge traffic plying the river cargoes of various sorts. The

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Mississippi River forms the boundary between many states from Minnesota to its mouth
in Louisiana where it enters the Gulf of Mexico. The state of Mississippi and Arkansas
generally lie east and west of the river, respectively. Some small segment of each of these
state, however, lie on the opposite side of the river. The reason for this is based on the
meandering nature of the river and the need to fix the boundary so that the shifting course
of the river does not also shift the state boundary. To reduce interstate conflict that might
arise through a constant shifting boundary, the United State Supreme Court ruled in 1820
that where a stream forms the boundary between the states, and the channel of the
stream changes by the “natural and gradual process known as the erosion and accretion,
the boundary follows the varying course of the stream; while if the stream from any cause
natural or artificial, suddenly leaves its old bed and forms a new one, by the process
known as avulsion, the resulting change of channel works no change of boundary, which
remains in the middle of the old channel , although no water maybe following in it.”

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the two landforms that have similar but not identical topographic
expression?
2. What is the lowest level to which a stream can erode its bed?
3. Differentiate Alluvial fan and pediments.
4. A circuitous course of a stream flowing across its floodplain is called?
5. It forms the boundary between many states from Minnesota to its mouth in
Louisiana where it enters the Gulf of Mexico.
6. It is attractive sites for agriculture and land development.

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LESSON 10: STATIC AND DYNAMICS MODULI
OF ELASTICITY

An elastic modulus (also known as modulus of elasticity) is a quantity that

measures an object or substance's resistance to being deformed elastically (non-
permanently) when a stress is applied to it. Static moduli of rocks are usually different
from the corresponding dynamic moduli. The ratio between them is generally complex and
depends on several conditions, including stress state and stress history. Different drainage
conditions, dispersion (often associated with pore fluid effects), heterogeneities and strain
amplitude, are all potential reasons for this discrepancy. Moreover, comparison of static
and dynamic moduli is often hampered and maybe mistaken due to insufficient
characterization of anisotropy. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of
its stress–strain curve in the elastic deformation region. A stiffer material will have a
higher elastic modulus.

Specifying how stress and strain are to be measured, including directions, allows for
many types of elastic moduli to be defined. The three primary ones are:
Specifying how stress and strain are to be measured, including directions, allows for many
types of elastic moduli to be defined. The three primary ones are:

1. Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity,

or the tendency of an object to deform along an
axis when opposing forces are applied along that
axis; it is defined as the ratio of tensile
stress to tensile strain. It is often referred to
simply as the elastic modulus.

FORMULA #1

2. The shear modulus or modulus of

rigidity (G) describes an object's tendency to
shear (the deformation of shape at constant
volume) when acted upon by opposing forces; it
is defined as shear stress over shear strain.
The shear modulus is part of the derivation
of viscosity.

FORMULA #2

3. The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric

elasticity, or the tendency of an object to
deform in all directions when uniformly
loaded in all directions; it is defined

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 as volumetric stress over volumetric strain, and is the inverse of compressibility.
The bulk modulus is an extension of Young's modulus to three dimensions.

 STATIC MODULI OF ELASTICITY

The static-elastic modulus is calculated from the stress-strain diagram. The
chord-modulus method, as recommended is used. The cord modulus is the slope of
the line drawn between two fixed points on the stress-strain diagram.

The lower point, established to eliminate the effect of crack from the initial
portion of the stress-strain curve, is the point where strain is 5*10-5 mm, while the
up point is the point where stress equals 40 percent of the ultimate stress.

Figure: STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM, Static moduli are measures of the

relationships between a change in stress and the corresponding deformation.
Therefore, a finite strain rate may always be associated with static moduli.

The strain rate experienced by a rock volume due to a passing elastic wave is
a periodic function, with amplitude related to the strain amplitude.

Table 1: Value of modulus of elasticity for some materials

MATERIAL MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (GPa)

ALUMINUM AND ALLOY 65-73

CERAMICS 8-12

CONCRETE 15-40

COPPER 125

DIAMOND 1000

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE 0.8-2

LOW ALLOY STEELS 200-210

POLYSTYRENE 3.2-3.5

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 SILICA GLASS 60-90

 DWOOD 11-16
Y
N
AMIC MODULI OF ELASTICITY
One of the methods used for determining the dynamic modulus of elasticity is
the resonant frequent method. This test is carried out on beams subsequently used
for flexural strength; the test is done according to using the Erudite resonant
frequency tester. The longitudinal resonant frequency is measured for each
specimen immediately after removal from water curing tanks.

The test is conducted with output voltage of about 1 volt and it is repeated
twice for each sample. Two specimens (prisms) are tested for each batch at the
specified age and three (cylinders) for each batch. The weight (w) in kilograms of the
wet beam in air is measured in addition to the average length, L, and the average
width, b, and depth, d, in millimeters.

RESONANT FREQUENT METHOD

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODULI ELASTICITY

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  STRAIN RATE
Static moduli are measures of the relationships between a change in stress
and the corresponding deformation. Therefore, a finite strain rate may always be
associated with static moduli. The strain rate experienced by a rock volume due to a
passing elastic wave is a periodic function, with amplitude related to the strain
amplitude.

 DRAINAGE CONDITIONS
Compression of a porous rock implies compression of the pore space. If the
pores are fluid filled, compression of the pore. To eliminate drainage conditions as a
possible cause for a difference between static and dynamic moduli in a laboratory
test, the static drainage conditions have to be similar to the dynamic conditions. If
the rock is fully saturated, this implies that the static deformation has to be
performed under undrained conditions.

 HETEROGENEITIES
Rock stiffness may vary a lot from one location to another, on all length
scales. Even within the few centimeters covered by a core plug from a uniform
formation, there may be large variations in stiffness. Within 100 m range
corresponding to the wavelength of a seismic wave, even larger variations will
normally occur due to the presence of different rock types. Such variations in
stiffness have to be taken into account when comparing static and dynamic moduli.
The effective stiffness of a heterogeneous rock volume is a combination of the
stiffness, amount and location of each homogeneous sub-volume.

 ANISOTROPY
Anisotropy is a potential pitfall while comparing static and dynamic moduli. It may
be tempting to estimate, for instance, dynamic bulk modulus based on equation or
dynamic Young’s modulus based on equation,ignoring anisotropy. However, this
simplification may introduce large errors if the rock is anisotropic, which is usually
the case for sedimentary rocks. When sufficient data are available, an anisotropic
dynamic stiffness tensor may be established by combining wave velocities measured
in different directions.

 STRAIN AMPLITUDE
Difference in strain amplitude is considered to be a major cause for the differences
between static and dynamic moduli. In a heterogeneous material like a sedimentary
rock, a stress increment not only induces an elastic, recoverable deformation, it also
tends to involve non-elastic processes, such as slip and sliding of internal surfaces.
These processes induce additional, non-elastic strain components that do not alter
the strain energy in the material. Stiffness, defined as the stress increment divided
by the total strain increment, Figure 4 Ratio between static and dynamic uniaxial
compaction modulus along a loading–unloading–reloading stress path. is therefore
reduced as a result of such non-elastic processes.

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SUMMARY

Static and dynamic moduli of rocks are generally different for a number of potential
reasons: different strain rates, different drainage conditions, different strain amplitudes
and spatial variations in rock properties. Relations between the static and dynamic moduli
are complex, and meaningful comparison requires precise description of several conditions,
in particular saturation and drainage conditions, dynamic frequency and static strain
rate, and stress state and stress history. In addition, the rock volumes involved must be
representative, and anisotropy must be properly accounted for. In order to study each of
the various mechanisms causing differences between static and dynamic moduli, the other
effects need to be eliminated through careful design and execution of tests.

QUESTIONS:

1. Modulus of elasticity of concrete can be defined in several ways. What type of modulus
of elasticty calculation is used to determine the modulus of elasticity for concrete?

2. What is the most densest particle in among the concrete making ingredients?

3. Concrete tensile strength can be assessed by a bend test (flexural strength) or can be
indirectly assessed by indirect bending strength test for a given concrete test what would
be the order of the three strength values?

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 CHAPTER 5:

GEOLOGICAL
AND PHYSICAL
INVESTIGATION
IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING

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LESSON 1: SITE INVESTIGATION

The foundation of any structure, roads, railroads, bridges, etc. in Civil Engineering
are built from the ground up which is why it is necessary to study the ground conditions of
a potential site. It is very important to know and consider the key factors involving a
successful building of structure that would hold up as years pass. A site investigation is
the overall process for the collection of information, appraisal of data, assessment and
reporting. This data must be gained competently, in a timely manner and to a degree
which is adequate and appropriate to each stage of design and development.

Site Investigation plays a major role because the geological history is crucial when
planning as it predetermines the strength or weakness of a project. Inadequate site
investigations may lead to the wrong choice of design, incorrect dimensioning, inadequate
foundation solution, encroachment on neighboring properties or easements (road reserves,
pipelines, overhead supply lines), ill-judged or dangerous execution of ground construction
work as well as damage to neighboring buildings or other structures.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is a great example of a difficulty occurring when the
site investigation done is insufficient. The stabilization of the Tower of Pisa has been a
very difficult challenge for geotechnical engineering. The Tower is founded on weak,
highly compressible soils and its inclination has been increasing inexorably over the years
to the point at which it was about to reach leaning instability. Any disturbance to the
ground beneath the south side of the foundation is very dangerous.

For site investigations, we need the following general information:

1. Topology (“landform” of the region)

2. Lithology (the nature and composition of the rocks in the area)
3. Nature of the regolith (materials above the bedrock)
4. The groundwater conditions during dry season and also the maximum water levels
during the rainy season.

 DESIGN OBJECTIVES
Site investigations should be conducted and managed to ensure that:

 the design requirements are understood

 the engineer understands the importance of having an accurate knowledge of the
site and sub-soil conditions
 Physical investigations are conducted to collect all relevant samples and data
required for design and construction (e.g. geotechnical, environmental, topographic
constraints)
 Natural and manmade features are accurately recorded
 in-situ soils are adequately characterized.

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  GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Geotechnical investigations obtain information on the physical properties of soil,
rock and/or shallow groundwater around a site to assess suitability of material for
construction and to allow accurate design of earthworks and foundations.

The most common methods of observing the soils below the surface, obtaining
samples and determining physical properties of the soils and rocks include

• excavation of test pits/trenches using a backhoe and various sized excavators

• hand augers
• drilling/boring, i.e. rotary, hollow-stem auger, continuous flight auger.
Test pits/open cuts have the advantage of displaying the soil profile more clearly.
The soil should be laid out around the test pit in the order of extraction so that the profile
can be described accurately and appropriate samples taken for subsequent laboratory
testing. Test pits and open cuts are usually 3–5m in depth but this depends on the size of
the equipment being used and design requirements.

For safety reasons, no one should enter an unstable pit.

Drilling augers tend to mix the different layers of the soil profile together and may
not be suited for all applications. Evidence is sought of natural groundwater seepage (e.g.
springs). In extended dry periods, local knowledge should be used to determine if any
springs may break out in wet weather.

If water is encountered during investigations, its depth should be recorded. Rising

water levels should also be noted as they tend to indicate the presence of pervious layers
that should be investigated further before construction.

If rock is encountered during investigations, study and record the type of rock, its
condition (i.e. cracked, jointed or weathered) and its depth. The presence of rock can pose
problems during construction and can also provide ‘seams’ along which water might
escape in the construction of a dam.

Geotechnical investigation should be undertaken in accordance with AS1726 –

Geotechnical Site Investigations. Collection of information and its appraisal should
continue during the construction works to confirm the geology and soil types of the
proposed feedlot site. Typically, a geotechnical investigation is undertaken by a suitability

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qualified and experienced geotechnical engineer or a company specializing in geotechnical
investigations.

 LOCATION OF TEST PITS

The approximate location of test pits over the proposed construction site should
be decided before the site visit, based on information from soil maps and the probable
location of all earthworks plus potential borrow pits. Test pits or boreholes will
characterize the variability and extent of on-site soils, and could look at locations that
may also contain material suitable for the construction of pen and road surfaces (e.g.
gravel) and/or sand for concrete, and clay for embankments.

Once completed, the test pits should be photographed and their locations
marked on a site plan for future reference; GPS units provide a quick and accurate
method for marking test pits and other locations. The location of each borehole or test pit
should be accurately surveyed and recorded to assist when comparing relative levels (RL)
and slope grades to those expected in the subject landscape. The expected accuracy (ie. ± x
metres) of the GPS or survey equipment used should also be recorded.

 SOIL SAMPLE COLLECTION

Depths of soil layers and descriptions using the nomenclature of the Australian
Standard for ‘Geotechnical site investigations AS 1726 – 1993’, should be logged for all soil
types encountered. Particular attention should be paid to the description of soil
consistency and structure and if encountered, any auger refusal on shallow rock. Shallow
water tables and the presence of fill should be noted. The size of the sample should be
based on the number and type of tests to be performed.

Table 1

Laboratory tests Soil samples collected during site investigation are usually
preserved and protected against any possible disturbance or moisture changes and sent to

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a soil testing laboratory for determination of various geological and engineering
properties. The following engineering tests are recommended on the collected soil samples

• Engineering classification of soils (USCS classification)

• Liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index tests and linear shrinkage to classify fine-
grained soils (clays and silts) and other geotechnical correlations
• Particle size analysis (by sieve analysis for coarse-grained fraction of soils, by
hydrometer test for fine-grained fraction of soils)
• Optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD)
• Soaked CBR value for pen surfacing and/or road material
• Hydraulic conductivity for pen and pond lining material
• Slaking and dispersion – Emerson class number. Slaking and dispersion is a
structural stability indicator and is important from the perspective of embankment
stability and erosion.
A materials quality test should be conducted in accordance with relevant Australian
Standards, as detailed in Table 2.

Table 2

These recommended engineering tests are used to determine the soil properties required
for each material used in

• pen and road surface construction, and composting and/or stockpiling areas
• clay liners for holding ponds and sedimentation basins

If a sample fails any of the preliminary tests for the intended use, the material
represented by the sample should be rejected as unsuitable for the intended works.

 DETAILED GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION NEEDED

A detailed geological information will be needed about the regions where cuttings and
fills are to be constructed.

1. In the hilly areas, the formation of the bedding of the rocks or weathered rocks are
important. Excavations in rocks, especially sedimentary rocks with their beds

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 inclined towards the roads or railway lines should be carefully handled. Similarly,
the cuts made in jointed rocks and and weathered rocks like laterites, require
special attention. We need to know the following aspects as regards rocks in which
cuts are to be made.
a) The type, nature and composition of the rocks in the regions we have to make
the cuts.
b) Dip and strike of the bed
c) Nature of the structural features like joints, folds, faults etc.
2. Marshes and peat deposits have to be carefully noted. Fills in these regions can be
subjected to subsidence.
3. Regions which will be waterlogged during rainy season should be identified so that
they can be raised or the water table lowered by drainage or other means.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the importance of site investigation?

2. What are the things considered for site investigation?

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LESSON 2: GEOLOGICAL METHOD

Geological methods rely on the identification of rocks and minerals and an

understanding of the environment in which they formed. These surveys aim to find what
rock types occur at or close to the surface and how these rock types are related to each
other i.e. their boundaries, ages, and structure. They are done for getting an
understanding of the environment in which they are formed.

Geological surveys aim to find what rock types occur at or close to the surface and
how these rock types are related to each other. The surveys orient to know about the
disposition of rocks and minerals, their boundaries, ages, and structures. At the end of
the surveys, geologists prepare the geological maps.

Geological survey is the basic professional work normally done by the geologists. A
geological survey is a systematic investigation of the geology of an area. It reflects the
geology and structure beneath a given piece of land. Surveys are conducted for the purpose
of preparing a geological map. Any geological surveying method employs several
techniques including the traditional traverses, walk-over surveys, studying the exposures,
outcrops and landforms. It also adopts some intrusive methods, like hand auguring and
machine drilled boreholes.

Geological surveys also use the geophysical techniques and remote sensing
methods, such as aerial photography and satellite imagery. Geological surveys are
normally undertaken by private agencies, state government departs of mines and geology,
and national geological survey organizations. They maintain the geological inventory of
various formations, mineral deposits and resources. They keep all records for the
advancement of knowledge of geosciences for the benefit of the nation.

Geological mapping is done to obtain and provide basic knowledge about the
prevailing field conditions, not only through direct observations but also by collecting and
analyzing rock, mineral and sediment samples. A geologist conducts field surveys and
prepare accurate geological maps by collecting samples and measuring the geometrical
aspect of outcrops. There is no substitute for a geological map. It is normally done in a
project mode with people in a team, a set of special equipment, and a topographic base
map. Careful observations are done during the geological mapping.

Geologic mapping is a highly interpretive, scientific process that can produce a

range of map products for many different uses, including assessing ground-water quality
and contamination risks; predicting earthquake, volcano, and landslide hazards;
characterizing energy and mineral resources and their extraction costs; waste repository
siting; land management and land-use planning; and general education. The value of
geologic map information in public and private decision-making (such as for the siting of
landfills and highways) has repeatedly been described anecdotally, and has been
demonstrated in benefit-cost analyses to reduce uncertainty and, by extension, potential
costs.

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  METHODS OG GEOLOGIC ILLUSTRATION
Geologic information gathered by study of outcrops is displayed in a number of ways
in order to depict the overall structural features and relative age relations of the strata
involved. There three main types of geologic illustrations - geologic map, geologic cross-
section and block diagram.

1. Geologic map: This is a map that shows the distribution of geologic

formations. Contacts between formations appear as lines, and the formations
themselves are differentiated by various colors. The map may also show
topography by standard contour lines.

2. Geologic Cross-Section: A diagram in which the geologic formations and other

pertinent geologic information are shown in a vertical section. It is a three -
dimensional interpretation of geology seen at the surface. The line along
which the cross section is drawn is indicated on the map, the cross section
uses the same map units and symbols as the map proper and attempts to
show the geometric relationships inferred to exist among those units.

3. Block diagram: A perspective drawing in which the information on geologic

map and geologic cross sections are combined. This mode of geologic
illustration is used to show the three- dimensional aspects of a geologic
structure.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is geological methods in Civil Engineering?

2. What is the difference of geological methods to geophysical method?
3. What is the importance of geological methods?

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LESSON 3: GEOPHYSICAL METHOD

A geophysical exploration may be included in a site investigation for an important

engineering project in order to provide subsurface information over a large area at
reasonable cost.

The use of Geophysical methods confers advantages as they generally speed up the
process of investigation, provide continuous streams of information not otherwise
available in discrete sampling or invasive procedures and give advance information on
what to expect for a given locality before a more detailed and costly soil exploration is even
planned. Geophysical methods are generally non-invasive or non-destructive methods long
used in the construction industry for investigation of the subsurface. Principally, these are
used for the detection of geologic anomalies such as cavities and voids, detection of buried
pipes and other utilities, detection of water bearing aquifers for well development,
exploitation of quarries and in determining soil stratification or layering. In addition, the
methods provide a means for verifying as constructed pavement thicknesses in a
continuous unbroken image of the pavement structural configuration or determining rebar
embedment and layout non destructively

Borehole
Inclinometer

The information obtained may help eliminate less favourable alternative sites, may
aid the location of test holes in critical areas and may prevent unnecessary repetitive
boring or drilling in fairly uniform ground. A geophysical survey not only helps to locate
the position of boreholes or drill holes but also detects variations in subsurface conditions
between them. Boreholes and drill holes provide information about the strata where they
are sunk but provide no information about the ground in between. Nonetheless, boreholes
or drill holes to aid interpretation and correlation of the geophysical measurements are an
essential part of any geophysical survey.

Geophysical methods are used to determine the geological sequence and structure of
subsurface rocks by the measurement of certain physical properties or forces. The
properties that are made most use of in geophysical exploration are density, elasticity,
electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility and gravitational attraction. In other

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words, seismic and resistivity methods record the artificial fields of force applied to the
area under investigation, while magnetic and gravitational methods measure natural
fields of force. The former techniques have the advantage over the latter in that the depth
to which the forces are applied can be controlled. By contrast, the natural fields of force
are fixed and can only be observed and not controlled. Seismic and resistivity methods are
more applicable to the determination of horizontal or near horizontal changes or contacts,
whereas magnetic and gravimetric methods generally are used to delineate lateral
changes or vertical structures.

In a geophysical survey, measurements of the variations in certain physical properties

usually are taken in a traverse across the surface, although they may be made in order to
log a borehole. Generally speaking, observations should be close enough for correlation
between them to be obvious, so enabling interpolation to be carried out without ambiguity
(McDowell et al., 2002). Anomalies in the physical properties measured generally reflect
anomalies in the geological conditions. The ease of recognizing and interpreting these
anomalies depends on the contrast in physical properties that, in turn, influence the choice
of method employed.

The actual choice of method to be used for a particular survey may not be difficult to
make. The character and situation of the site also have to be taken into account,
especially in built-up areas, which may be unsuitable for one or other of the geophysical
methods either because of the presence of old buildings or services on the site, interference
from some source or lack of space for carrying out the survey. When dealing with layered
rocks, provided their geological structure is not too complex, seismic methods have a
distinct advantage in that they give more detailed, precise and unambiguous information
than any other method. On the other hand, electrical methods may be preferred for small-
scale work, where the structures are simple. On occasions more than one method may be
used to resolve the same problem. However, as McCann et al. (1997) pointed out, if there
is any doubt about the feasibility of a geophysical survey, then a trial survey should be
undertaken to determine the most suitable method. McCann et al. also noted that modern
geophysical equipment allows downloading of the results to a suitable portable PC so that
a preliminary interpretation can be carried out daily. In this way data can be checked,
plotted and evaluated, and then can be compared with data gathered by other means. As a
result, any errors can be recognized and, if necessary, traverses re-run to gather better
information. Indeed, the survey programme can be modified in the light of any new
information obtained.

QUESTIONS:

1. How does geophysical differ from geological?

2. Can geophysical be considered as advantageous? Why? Why not?

3. How to determine what choice of method to be used?

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LESSON 4: SIESMIC AND
ELECTRICAL METHOD

 SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

This method of prospecting is the most popular method used for determining the depth
of bedrock. This method is useful where the lower strata is denser than the upper strata
and there is a sharp difference in the velocity of seismic (means earthquake type) waves
between the two. This method is especially applicable when the surface of the lower layer
is not steeply sloping or irregular. It is commonly used to find the thickness of the top
loose soil deposit above the bedrock. It is also used for finding the groundwater level.

The setup of instruments is shown in Figure A. Let there be two beds, 1 and 2,
where bed 2 is denser. The velocity of seismic waves V2 produced by a detonation at O
(source) will be faster in bed 2 than the velocity V1 of bed No I (V2 > V1 ).

Figure B Seismic refraction method of exploration from ground level.

The geophones are placed in a straight line from the shot point at equal distances
equal to 𝑎. This distance should be lesser distances than the estimated depth of the denser
layer from the top. When a shot is fired at O this will be instantly recorded in the
oscillograph from the surface wave. The time taken by the other reflected waves to reach
the station 1, 2, 3 etc., to 7 is also recorded. From this data a travel time curve is plotted

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as also shown Figure 25.2. Then the seismic velocity of layer V1 and that in V2 can be
easily found.

The slope of the straight line (equal to distance divided by time) gives the velocity of
the waves in meters per second. This velocity is about 180 to 350 m/s sea in sand, 400 to
760 m/s in rock and 1400 to 1800 m/s in water in loose deposits. Hence data from this
experiment enables us to know the nature of materials below ground, whether it is sand,
rock, water etc. It also helps us to fired the depth at which they occur. The distance of the
velocity change point is the depth of the second layer. It is given by the following formula:

𝑎 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝐷= √
2 𝑉2 + 𝑉1

 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVELY METHODS OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

There are many electrical methods in geophysical prospecting and we will deal only
with the electrical resistivity method. This method is commonly used in civil engineering
projects like (1) finding the depth of bedrock at dam sites (2) locating structure of rocks,
like fold, fracture etc. and (3) for location of aquifers (groundwater level). In this field test
we measure the electrical resistivity of the deposit below the ground level.

The principle used is as follows. If we can measure the resistivity of the different
layers of materials below the ground level and if there is an abrupt change in the
resistivity between different layers then we can determine the depth of these different
layers. Also we know that if we apply a direct current to the earth by two electrodes placed
at a distance 3d, the depth of penetration of the electrical current is nearby equal to d.

In the field-test, according to the Wenner’s method, we arrange a setup as shown in

Figure 25.3. We put the current electrodes 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 at equal distances 3𝑎.

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 Figure C Field resistivity survey using the Wenner’s method

The voltmeter points for measuring the voltage are marked at the central points 𝑃1 ,
𝑃2 . The resistivity data is plotted as electrode spacing on the X axis and resistivity value
on the Y axis as shown in the diagram. A rising curve with this plot indicates hard
stratum with depth and falling curve with this plot indicates softer ground with depth.
The measured values of resistivity also help to indicate the types of rock strata.

This apparent resistivity is given by the following equation:

2𝜋𝑎𝐸
𝑃=
𝐼

Where 𝑎 the spacing of electrodes in centimeters, E is in volts, I in amperes and P will be

in ohm-centimeters per ampere.

In another method known as the Sclumberger’s method the distances between

adjacent electrodes are not made equal and the current electrodes are spaced much farther
apart than the potential electrodes. We will not go into the details of these tests as it is a
special field of study and can be studied from books on geo

QUESTIONS:

1. Differentiate between Seismic and Electrical Method.

2. What are the commonly used in civil engineering projects?
3. What is the commonly used to find the thickness of the top loose soil deposit?

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LESSON 5: CORE BORING

Core boring is a sampling technique used to research mineral resources in the

subsoil by boring wells in order to analyze the ground, and for other digging activities for
civil engineering purposes. In core boring a cylinder-shaped sample of rock or ice is
extracted, which is known as a core.

From these cores, it is possible to obtain a large amount of information on the

climate variations of the past, thanks to what remains imprisoned in the ice, such as gas,
bubbles, chemical elements that form the ice, sediments, fossils and many other elements.
These traces are true witnesses of past periods, and are useful in order to reconstruct the
climatic history of the earth. Ice cores, in fact maintain the chemical and isotopic
characteristics obtained from the snow in the atmosphere at the time of condensation and
precipitation, characteristics that remain mostly unaltered in the ice.

Boring refers to advancing a hole in the ground.

BORING IS REQUIRED FOR THE FOLLOWING:

 To obtain representative soil and rock samples for laboratory tests.
 To identify the ground water conditions.
 Performance of in-situ tests to assess appropriate soil characteristics

This is the method commonly used to drill through the hard rock formation. The
equipment used to form the boring is called as core barrel. It consists of a hardened steel
rod with a tough cutting bit, possessing commercial diamond or tungsten carbide chips.
The core barrels are regularly 5 to 10 cm in diameter and about 30 to 300 cm long.

This soil exploration is conducted through attaching core barrel plus cutting bit assembly
with the rods. The core is advanced by the rotary drilling. Water or air used as coolant.
The coolant will be pressed through the rods and barrel. The water will emerge at the end
of bit. The soil stays inside the core barrel. It is separated to perform examination of soil,
by getting the barrel on to the surface.

After collection of sample, the core rock is sent to laboratory. In the laboratory, rock type,
texture, orientation of rock formation is found. Compression test and permeability test are
performed on core sample to know about the compressive strength.

The depth of recovered sample must be properly recorded. Based on depth of recovery, the
recovery ratio can be found. The expression for computing the recovery ratio is given
below.

Ice core boring is possible in the internal areas of Greenland and the Antarctic as
the temperature always remains below zero and therefore then is no surface fusion, and

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the snow that accumulates each year forms a regular and continuous stratigraphic
succession of layer upon layer of snowball. With the passing of the time the snow is
compacted and the empty spaces are decreased and the snow is transformed first into firm
or ńevé and then into ice, the pores become occluded and the air bubbles are trapped and
therefore provide samples of the atmosphere in the past.

 TYPES OF CORE BARREL

 single tube core barrel

 double tube core barrel

 PROCESS

1. Drilling a hole and visually examining the cuttings coming out from different
depths.
2. Lifting the soil samples from different depths by using mechanical devices called
samplers.

 METHODS OF BORING

1. Auger Boring - This is simplest method of boring a hole by hand drilling. These can be
used for shallower depths generally confined to depths of about 5 m or so. In cohesive
and other soft soils above water table, augers may be used. This method is fast and
economical, using simple, light, flexible and inexpensive instruments for large to small
holes. It is very suitable for soft to stiff cohesive soils and also can be used to determine
ground water table. Soil removed by this is disturbed but it is better than wash boring,
percussion or rotary drilling. It is not suitable for very hard or cemented soils, very soft
soils, as then the flow into the hole can occur and also for fully saturated cohesion less
soil.

 AUGERS TYPES

a. Spiral auger - The spiral auger operates similar to a

corkscrew and does not cut off the soil. The auger is usually applied
when hard layers need to be penetrated. The spiral auger has a
negative end, i.e. the center of the auger end is whetted away. For
profile research (soil mapping) the spiral auger is seldom used. Its
use is confined to auguring through very hard layers, e.g. bore ore,
brick layers, chalk and lime profiles in combination with other auger
types. The single spiral auger is standard equipped with a contact
for electrodes.

Benefits Hand auger equipment

 High tensile strength forged auger bodies

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  Perfect auger body shapes for optimal drilling

 Nontoxic steel for all types of analyses

 Rapid connectible extension rods

Remarks

 Leave augers to air-dry after use

 Decontaminate with soap

 One man operated until 10 m depth

Availability
This auger is available in several diameters, and/or various connections.

Connections
Divisible spiral auger. To penetrate hard layers at greater depths, available with standard
bayonet or conical screw thread connection.

b. Post-hole Auger - Post-hole augers may minimize the

effort you'll have to expend on digging the holes because they are
mechanized tools. Unless you have a lot of time, these power tools
are almost indispensable if you're installing a long fence. Post-hole
augers can often be rented from your local rental store.

But do not think of a post-hole auger as being a silver bullet or a

sure-fire solution to digging holes for fence posts. There are at least
two potential problems associated with using these "giant
corkscrews"

1. They are difficult to control. In fact, you may need to enlist

someone else's help in operating this power equipment.
2. They are not very effective at penetrating soils laden with clay or
studded with stones.

 SUITABILITY:
i. Auger boring is generally suitable in soils where the walls of the borehole can
stand without casing or stabilization with a drilling fluid above the GWT

ii. Augers are found to be particularly suitable for highway, railway, or airfield
projects, where low cost, rapid drilling, and high mobility of the equipment make them
ideally suited for such projects.

 DISADVANTAGES:
i. The main disadvantage with auger boring is that the samples are highly
disturbed and mixed.

ii. Work may be held up and auger boring is not suitable if large cobbles, boulders,
or other obstructions are present at any depth.

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 iii. It is generally difficult, if not impossible, to locate the exact changes in the soil
strata.

2. Auger and Shell Boring - Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at
Lower end can be used for making deep borings. Hand operated rigs are used for depths
unto 25 m and mechanized rigs up to 50 m. Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells
for very stiff and hard clays, and shells or sand pumps for sandy soils. Small boulders, thin
soft strata or rock or cemented gravel can be broken by chisel bits attached to drill rods.
The hole usually requires a casing. Fig. 2.13 shows a typical sand pump.

3. Wash Boring - Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types
of soils. Boulders and rock cannot be penetrated by this method. The method consists of
first driving a casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp chisel or chopping
bit at the lower end is inserted. Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which
is alternatively raised and dropped, and also rotated. The resulting chopping and jetting
action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil. The cuttings are forced up to the ground
surface in the form of soil-water slurry through the annular space between the drill rod
and the casing. The change in soil stratification could be guessed from the rate of progress
and colour of wash water. The samples recovered from the wash water are almost
valueless for interpreting the correct geo-technical properties of soil.

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WASH BORING:

 PROCEDURE:
i. A casing is first driven into the ground to a depth of 1.5-3 m. A hollow drill rod,
with a chisel-shaped chopping bit at its bottom, is inserted inside the casing.

ii. Water is pumped down into the drill rod that emerges as a strong jet through the
small openings of the bit at the bottom of the drill rod.

iii. The jet disintegrates the soil in the borehole and carries the broken fragments
upward through the annular space between the casing and the drill rod.

iv. This return water, carrying soil fragments, known as cuttings, is collected in a
sump tank through a T-shaped pipe fixed at the top of the casing.

v. The hole is further advanced by alternately raising and dropping the chopping bit
by a winch. The drill rod is supported through a swivel joint, wire rope, and a pulley by a
triangular or equivalent frame. The swivel joint facilitates turning of the drill rod.

vi. The process of raising, dropping, and turning of the drill rod is continued even
below the bottom of the casing until the borehole begins to collapse.

vii. At this stage, the casing is further driven into the borehole and extended at the
top by providing additional pieces.

viii. Soil samples can be collected by attaching soil samplers to the bottom of the
drill rod, after removing the chopping bit. The soil sampler is pushed into the bottom of

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the borehole vertically after cleaning and then withdrawn. The undisturbed soil sample is
brought along with the soil sampler.

ix. Bentonite slurry (5% bentonite mixed in water as solution) may be generally
used instead of water as the drilling fluid, which stabilizes the walls of the borehole.

Changes in the soil profile are indicated by:

i. The rate of progress of drilling.

ii. Color of the drilling fluid.

iii. Examination of the soil cuttings.

Applicability:

The soil cuttings are not representative of the soil in situ, due to breakdown of
particles, loss of fines during transport to ground level, and segregation in the sump tank.
However, the wash boring method today is primarily useful as a means of advancing a
borehole in the interval between the collections of soil samples at different levels in the
borehole.

 ADVANTAGES:
i. Wash boring method is one of the simplest and fastest methods of soil exploration
in soft- to medium-stiff cohesive soils and in sand or gravels without boulders.

ii. The equipment used for this method is light and inexpensive.

iii. It can also be adopted in inaccessible locations, such as on water, in swamps, or

in between buildings.

iv. Undisturbed soil sampling or field testing, such as SPT or vane shear test, can be
readily done in this method.

 DISADVANTAGES:
i. The method is slow in the stiffer and coarse-grained soils and is not efficient in
materials such as hard or cemented soils, rock, and soils that contain boulders.

ii. The method is not suitable for collecting undisturbed soil samples above GWT
since the drilling fluid enters the soil mass and may increase its water content.

4. Displacement Boring - It is combined method of sampling & boring operation. Closed

bottom sampler, slit cup, or piston type is forced in to the ground up to the desired depth.
Then the sampler is detached from soil below it, by rotating the piston, & finally the
piston is released or withdrawn. The sampler is then again forced further down & sample
is taken. After withdrawal of sampler & removal of sample from sampler, the sampler is
kept in closed condition & again used for another depth.
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Features

 Simple and economic method if excessive caving does not occur. Therefore, not
suitable for loose sand.
 Major changes of soil character can be detected by means of penetration resistance.
 These are 25mm to 75mm holes.
 It requires fairly continuous sampling in stiff and dense soil, either to protect the
sampler from damage or to avoid objectionably heavy construction pit.

5. Rotary Boring or Drilling - Rotary drilling method of boring is useful in case of highly
resistant strata. It is related to finding out the rock strata and also to access the quality of
rocks from cracks, fissures and joints. It can conveniently be used in sands and silts also.
Here, the bore holes are advanced in depth by rotary percussion method which is similar
to wash boring technique. A heavy string of the drill rod is used for choking action. The
broken rock or soil fragments are removed by circulating water or drilling mud pumped
through the drill rods and bit up through the bore hole from which it is collected in a
settling tank for recirculation. If the depth is small and the soil stable, water alone can be
used. However, drilling fluids are useful as they serve to stabilize the bore hole. Drilling
mud is slurry of bentonite in water. The drilling fluid causes stabilizing effect to the bore
hole partly due to higher specific gravity as compared with water and partly due to
formation of mud cake on the sides of the hole. As the stabilizing effect is imparted by
these drilling fluids no casing is required if drilling fluid is used. This method is suitable
for boring holes of diameter 10cm, or more preferably 15 to20cm in most of the rocks. It is
uneconomical for holes less than 10cm diameter. The depth of various strata can be
detected by inspection of cuttings.

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The drilling fluid serves the ff. three functions:

i. It carries the cuttings of the material penetrated from the bottom of the borehole
to the ground surface, through the annular space between the drill rod and the walls of the
borehole.

ii. It also cools the cutting bit.

iii. It supports the walls of the borehole in uncased boreholes. Casing is usually not
required except near ground surface.

Sample Collection:
When sampling is required, the drill rod is raised and the cutting bit is replaced by a soil
sampler. When the rotary boring is done through rock and when it is required to collect
rock core samples, a coring bit is used at the bottom of the drill rod, instead of the cutting
bit.
The coring bit cuts an annular hole around an intact core that enters the barrel and is
recovered. Thus, the core barrel is used primarily in bedrock, which is usually cored
continuously up to the required depth.

 Types of Rotary Boring:

a. Straight Rotary Method - The direct rotary drilling method was developed to
increase drilling speeds and to reach greater depths in most formations. The bore hole is
drilled by rotating a bit, and cuttings are removed by continuous circulation of the drilling
fluid as a bit penetrates the formation. The bit is attached to the lower end of a string of
drill pipe, which transmits the rotating action from the rig to the bit. In the direct rotary
system, drilling fluid is pumped down through the drill pipe and out through the ports or
jets in a bit, the fluid then flows upward in the annular space between the hole and the
drill pipe, carrying the cuttings and suspension to the surface. At the surface, the fluid is
channeled into a settling pit or pits where most of the cuttings drop out. Cleaning fluid is
then picked up by the pump at the far end of the pit or from the second pit and is
recirculated down the hole. For a relatively shallow well, 150 to 500 gallons portable pits
may be used, much larger portable pits ten thousand and twelve thousand gallons, are
used for deeper wells. Mud pits may also be excavated for temporary use during drilling
and backfilled after completion of the well.

Direct rotary drilling, the most common method, offers the following advantages:

1. Penetration rates are relatively high in all types of materials.

2. Minimal casing is required during the drilling operation.
3. Rig Mobilization and demobilization are rapid.
4. Well screens can be set easily as part of the casing installation.

Major disadvantages include the following:

1. Drilling rigs are costly.

2. Drilling rigs require a high level of maintenance.

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 3. Mobility of the rigs may be limited depending on the slope and condition (wetness)
of the land surface.
4. Most rigs must be handled by a crew of at least two persons.
5. Collection of accurate samples requires special procedures.
6. Use of drilling fluids may cause plugging of certain formations.
7. Rigs cannot be operated economically in extremely cold temperatures.
8. Drilling fluid management requires additional knowledge and experience.

b. Reverse Rotary Method - Reverse circulation drilling was developed to allow for
larger borehole drilling without limiting the factors of drilling fluid pump capacities.
Rotary rigs designed for reverse circulation have larger-capacity mud pumps and air
compressors to allow for increased pressures that are needed to ensure the removal of
cuttings from large boreholes. These drill rigs are far larger than those used for domestic
purposes.

Advantages of Reverse Circulation Mud Rotary

a. The near-well area of the borehole is relatively undisturbed and uncontaminated

with drilling additives, and the porosity and permeability of the formation remains close to
its original hydrogeological condition.
b. Large-diameter holes can be drilled quickly and economically.

c. No casing is required during the drilling operation.

d. Most geologic formations can be drilled, with the exceptions being igneous and
metamorphic rocks.

e. Little opportunity exists for washouts in the borehole, because of the low velocity
of the drilling fluid.

 Limitations of Reverse Circulation Mud Rotary

 Large water supply generally is needed.

 Reverse-rotary rigs and components are large and expensive.

 Large mud pits are required.

 Some drill sites are inaccessible because of the rig size.

 For efficient operation, more personnel generally are required than for other drilling
methods.

6. Percussion Drilling - In case of hard soils or soft rock, auger boring or wash boring
cannot be employed. For such strata, percussion drilling is usually adopted. Here

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advancement of hole is done by alternatively lifting and dropping a heavy drilling bit
which is attached to the lower end of the drilling bit which is attached to the cable.

Addition of sand increases the cutting action of the drilling bit in clays. Whereas, when
coarse cohesion less soil is encountered, clay might have to be added to increase the
carrying capacity of slurry.

After the carrying capacity of the soil is reached, churn bit is removed and the slurry is
removed using bailers and sand pumps. Change in soil character is identified by the
composition of the outgoing slurry.

The stroke of bit varies according to the ground condition. Generally, it is 45-100cm in
depth with rate of 35-60 drops/min.

It is not economical for hole of diameter less than 10cm. It can be used in most of the soils
and rocks and can drill any material.

One main disadvantage of this process is that the material at the bottom of the hole is
disturbed by heavy blows of the chisel and hence it is not possible to get good quality
undisturbed samples. It cannot detect thin strata as well.

PRECUSSION
DRILLING:

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  ADVANCE OF THE BOREHOLE IN THIS METHOD IS MADE BY THE
FOLLOWING PROCEDURES

i. Alternately raising and dropping a combination of heavy drilling tools to break

down the material at the bottom and to form slurry of the material.

ii. The combination of drilling tools consists of a drill rod with a chisel-shaped
chopping bit at its lower end. The chopping bit has beveled edges for cutting the material
at the bottom of the borehole.
iii. Periodically removing the slurry using bailers.
iv. The amount of water introduced into the hole in this method is kept to the
minimum required to form the slurry. In soft soils and cohesion less material below GWT,
no water is generally used in this method.
v. Changes in the soil profile are indicated by the rate of progress of drilling, color of
the slurry, and examination of the contents of the slurry.

Removal of Soil Slurry:

Bailers or sand pumps are used for removal of the slurry from the bottom of the
borehole. A bailer consists of a pipe having a one-way valve at its lower end and a bail at
its upper end. When the bailer is pushed into the bottom of the borehole, the valve opens
and the slurry enters the bailer. When the bailer is lifted, the valve closes and the slurry is
retained in the bailer.
The process is repeated several times to collect the entire slurry into the bailer. The bailer
is then lifted to ground level and tipped upside down to remove the slurry from the bailer.

There are two types of bailers.

i. Flat-valve bailer. - requires more time for emptying than the dart-valve
bailer. A sand pump is costlier than a bailer.

ii. Dart-valve bailer - therefore, more commonly used than the other.

 ADVANTAGES:

i. The main advantage of percussion drilling is that it can be used in all types
of soil or rock and particularly useful for soils containing boulders and rock.

ii. It may also be useful to probe cavities and weakness in rock, by observing
changes in the drill rate.

 DISADVANTAGES:

i. The main disadvantage of percussion drilling is that the blows of the chisel
disturb the soil at the bottom of the borehole heavily.
ii. It is also not economical for boreholes of diameter less than 100 mm.

223 | P a g e
 iii. It is difficult to trace thin layers or slight changes in soil strata when this
method is used

7. Test Pits or Trial Pits - Trial pits are a simple and economical method of soil exploration
to shallow depths. In this method of exploration, a square pit is excavated and soil
samples are collected at required depths.

A trial pit (also known as a test pit or inspection pit) investigation is a highly effective way
of obtaining data on the subsurface soil and rock conditions which underlie a site. It allows
for the various soils and rock types to be logged, the soils to be sampled and a preliminary
assessment of the groundwater regime to be made.

 METHOD OF EXCAVATION:
Pits can be excavated manually with crowbars by local labor. Small tractor-mounted
mechanical excavators can also be used, if locally available, which makes the exploration
faster and economical.

SIZE OF PITS:

The size of the excavation depends primarily on the space required for efficient
excavation and sample collection and on economic limits. Test pits normally are square or
circular in plan, of size 1.2-3 m. Test trenches usually are 1-2 m wide and may be extended
to any length, as required, to reveal soil conditions along a specific line.

224 | P a g e
In general, test trenches are relatively shallow, whereas test pits may be deep. It is
common to limit even test pit depths to a minimum, as the cost increases with depth.
Deeper excavations are justified in countries where labor is inexpensive.

STABILIZING SIDE WALLS:

Excavations to depths of approximately 1.5 m often do not require lateral support to

side walls. Shallow test pits can be stabilized more economically by sloping the side walls.
Deeper excavations are generally more economical if sheeted.
Excavation for test pits below GWT requires proper dewatering arrangements to ensure
stability of the side-walls, to prevent the bottom of the pit from heaving, and to keep the
test pit dry to facilitate collection of undisturbed soil sample.

COLLECTION OF SOIL SAMPLES:

After excavating the test pit up to the required depth, the soil sample can be
collected from the bottom of the test pit. An undisturbed soil sample is collected by driving
the thin-wall soil sampler into the bottom of the test pit. This is done by placing the
sampling tube vertically on the bottom of the test pit, after making the surface level and
horizontal.
A flat metal plate is placed on the top of the sampler and the sampler is driven by
smooth blows of a hammer on the flat plate up to the required depth. The soil surrounding
the sampler outside is removed and then the sampling tube, along with the soil inside, is
carefully lifted from the ground.
Any loose soil on both ends of the sampling tube is removed and the surfaces are
made level. Molten wax is poured on the surface of the soil in the sampling tube on either
ends to prevent evaporation of water from the soil sample. The sampling tube is properly
labeled with sample number, depth, test pit number, and project or site number. The
sample is then carefully transported to the laboratory for testing.

After collecting the undisturbed soil sample, the loose soil at the bottom of the pit is
taken in sufficient quantity and collected into a bag. The bag is properly labeled and
transported to the laboratory along with other samples.

 ADVANTAGES OF TEST PITS:

i. The method is simple and fast.
ii. Test pits are one of the most economical means of soil exploration to shallow
depths.
iii. Undisturbed samples can be collected with minimum disturbance.
iv. It is possible to directly observe the soil profile and its variation in the vertical or
lateral direction by observing the walls of the test pit.

v. The presence of any lenses or pockets of weaker material can be readily

identified.

225 | P a g e
 vi. Test pits are particularly valuable in investigating the nature of fill material,
where voids, loosely deposited layers, or deleterious material can be readily recognized.

vii. Test pits or trenches are the only reliable means of obtaining adequate
infor
matio
n on a
filled
groun
d or
very
varia
ble
natur
al
depos
its.

 S
OIL SAMPLES AND SAMPLING FOR BORING METHOD OF SOIL
EXPLORATION

1. Disturbed sample

In disturbed sampling, the natural structures of soils get partly or fully modified or
destroyed, although with suitable precaution the natural water content may be preserved.
Disturbed sample can be obtained by direct excavations by auger and thick wall samplers.

2. Undisturbed sample

In undisturbed sample, the natural structure and properties remain preserved.

These samples are used to tests for shear, consolidation and permeability.

3. Non-representative sample

It consists of a mixture of soil from different soil strata. Size of the soil grains as
well as the mineral constituents, might thus, have changed in such samples. Soil samples
obtained from auger cuttings and settling in some well of wash borings, can be classified
in this category. Such samples may help in determining the depths at which major
changes may be occurring in subsurface soil strata.

 SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

This depends on the design of samplers and methods of samplings.

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  DESIGN FACTORS GOVERNING THE DEGREE OF DISTURBANCE

1. Cutting edge: A typical cutting edge of a sampler is shown in the figure

The important design features of the cutting edge are

a) Area ratio

Where D1 and D2 are internal and external diameters of the cutting edge respectively.

The area ratio should not exceed 25%. For soft sensitive soils, it should not exceed 10%.

b) Inside clearance: It allows elastic expansion of sample when it enters the tube.

Where D3= inside diameter of the sample tube.

The inside clearance must lie between 1 to 10%, for undisturbed sample it should be
between 0.5 and 3%.

c) Outside clearance: It should not be much greater than the inside clearance. Normally it
lies between 0 and 2 percent. It helps in reducing the force required to withdraw the tube.

227 | P a g e
Where D4 is the external diameter of the sample tube.

2. Inside wall friction: The walls of the sampler should be smooth and kept properly oiled.

3. Non-return valve: The non-return valve should permit easy and quick escape of water
and air when the sample is driven.

 SUBSURFACE SOUNDING TESTS

These tests are carried out to measure the resistance to penetration of a sampling
spoon, a cone or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loading. These tests are used
for exploration of erratic solid profiles for finding depth to bedrock or stratum and to get
approximate indication of the strength and other properties of soil.

METHODS OF SUBSURFACE SOUNDING TESTS ARE:

i. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

This test is carried out in a clean hole of diameter about 55 to 150mm. the sides of
the holes are supported by casing or drilling mud. A split tube sampler with 50.8mm outer
diameter, 38mm inner diameter is driven into the undisturbed soil, placed at the bottom of
the hole under the blows of 65kg drive weight with 75cm free fall.

The minimum open length of the sampler is 60cm, the samplers is first driven through
15cm as a seating drive and then through 30 cm or until 100 blows have been applied.
Number of blows required to drive sampler 30cm beyond the seating drive is known as
penetration resistance and it is denoted by N.

When N is greater than 15, Terzaghi and Peck have recommended the use of an
equivalent penetration resistance, Ne in place of the actually observed value of N.

Gibbs and Holtz have studied experimentally the effect of overburden pressure on the
value of N and their modification for air dry or moist sand can be represented by the
relation

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Where Ne= Corrected value of overburden effect

= effective overburden pressure (kN/sq.m)

Note: The overburden correction is applied first and then dilatancy correction is applied.

ii. Cone penetration test or Dutch cone test

This type of test is carried out to get a continuous record of the resistance of the soil
by penetrating steadily under static pressure, a cone with base of 10 sq.cm (3.6 cm in dia.)
and an angle of 60 degree at the vortex.

To find out the cone resistance, the cone alone is first forced down for a distance of 8cm
and the maximum value of resistance is recorded. This test is very useful in finding
bearing capacity of pits in cohesionless soil. Cone resistance qc (kg/sq.cm) is approximately
equal to 10 times the penetration resistance N.

 GEOGRAPHICAL METHODS OF SOIL EXPLORATION

i. Electrical resistivity method

This method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the mean
resistivity or apparent specific resistance of various soils. The test is done by driving four
metal spikes to act as electrodes into the ground along a straight line at equal distances.
This is shown in the figure.

Direct voltage is applied between the two outer potentiometer electrodes and then mean
for the potential drop between the inner electrodes is calculated.

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Mean resistivity (ohm-cm)

Where D= distance between the electrodes (cm)

E= potential drop between outer electrodes (volts)

I= current flowing between outer electrodes (amperes)

R= resistance (ohms)

Resistivity mapping: This method is used to find out the horizontal changes in the sub soil,
the electrodes kept at a constant spacing, are moved as a group along the line of tests.

Resistivity sounding: This method is used to study the vertical changes; the electrode
system is expanded, about a fixed central point by increasing the spacing gradually from
an initial small value to a distance roughly equal to the depth of exploration desired.

ii. Seismic refraction method

This method is very fast and reliable in establishing profiles of different strata,
provided the deeper layers have increasingly greater density, higher velocities and greater
thickness.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is Core Boring in your own opinion?

2. What are the methods in boring?
3. What are the requirements in boring?
4. Among the methods in boring. What is the best method for you? Explain why.
5. What are the regularly size of the core barrel used in boring?

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LESSON 6: LOGGING OF CORES
Logging core is a job that most every petroleum geologist is required to do on
occasion, but few (aside from academics, consultants and oil sands geologists) do with
regularity or in great detail. Usually done to solve problems not readily dealt with using
more “office-friendly” data, or when looking at the rock with an eye towards reservoir
characterization. There are private labs, and government labs. The EUB lab in Calgary is
the behemoth. The purpose of the Core Logging Committee of the South Africa Section of
the Association of Engineering Geologists was to prepare a guide for core logging for rock
engineering purposes in South Africa.
For such a guide to be generally accepted it should fulfil the following requirements:

(a) It should be sufficiently detailed to ensure that the resulting core log contains enough
information to enable reliable interpretations of geological and rock engineering conditions
for most typical engineering structures.

(b) It should not be so complex as to render its use impractical or unnecessarily

cumbersome.

(c) It must take due regard of such standardized procedures as may already exist and,
where feasible, incorporate these with a minimum of variations.

A distinction is drawn between the borehole log and the core log. The borehole log includes
a description of relevant data applicable to the drilling of the borehole and to the core
recovered. It includes information on the drilling machine, tools and materials used,
progress, difficulties encountered and tests performed. Part of the borehole log is the core
log which is purely a description of the recovered core.
It is the core log which is the subject of this paper. A core log cannot be considered in
isolation from the borehole log in which it is to be included and the parameters comprising
the borehole log are therefore also given brief consideration in this paper.
The preparation of a core and borehole log presupposes that an adequate driller's record is
available. Preparation and nature of the driller's record is outside the scope of this paper.
The complexity of rock, as a variable material subject to fractures and weathering, and its
complicated inter-related behavior with the structures formed in or on it, has resulted in
the development of a large variety of descriptive systems for logging cores. These systems
vary considerably both in the degree of complexity and nature of the parameters
described.
Of necessity, the guide proposed by this Committee cannot include for all possible
eventualities and in the interest of usability has been kept as simple as possible. Only
those parameters which are commonly of interest in rock engineering are described using
qualitative descriptions dependent only on visual inspection and simple mechanical field
tests.
Where a specific investigation requires the description of additional parameters or the use
of other specific or more detailed classifications or descriptions of properties, these may be
added to the suggested core log.

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The adoption of the proposed guide ensures that descriptions of the most commonly
required rock mass parameters are included in the log in accordance with a set of standard
descriptions, the interpretation of which is known to anyone who has available a copy of
this paper.

 PROPOSED METHOD OF CORE LOGGING

The purpose of the core log is to enable the person reading the log to visualize the
cores (as seen by the compiler of the log) and hence to draw inferences on the likely
behavior of the actual rock mass. Only those parameters which are significant to the rock
mass behavior or which enable correlations between boreholes to be made or give a better
understanding of the general geology of the site are recorded.
Whenever possible, classifications with five class intervals are adopted since the extremes,
middle and two intermediate values of such a group are often self-evident. Class interval
limits are defined using visual criteria or simple field tests with equipment commonly
carried by the core logger (knife, geological pick, etc.).
Many boreholes start in soil or pass through soil strata. Descriptions of these soil horizons
form an integral part of the borehole log. An excellent system of soil profiling has been
proposed, by Jennings, et al which has been widely accepted in Southern Africa. The
adoption of a system of core description which is similar and compatible with the soils
system would be a tremendous advantage. With such similar compatible systems, the
logger and reader would not be required to work to a "different set of rules" or terms of
reference when comparing the soil and rock of a profile.
Unfortunately, the soil profiling system was not developed with rock descriptions in mind,
and its simple extension into rock does not produce an adequate rock mass description. It
has therefore been necessary to modify and adapt the soil profiling system for its
application to rock. The resulting system is compatible with the soil profiling system but
varies considerably in detail.
The core description includes not only the description of rock material, but also the
discontinuity surfaces that occur through it and the fracture filling materials. It is
recognized that while discontinuity surfaces and their filling are of great importance to
rock mass behavior they are often given a secondary role in the rock core description. A
core description comprising three parts is therefore proposed:

(1) The primary description is that of the parameters affecting the basic rock mass
properties.

(2) To supplement the above a description of the discontinuity surfaces may be given.

(3) Finally, a description of the fracture filling may be relevant.

Depending on the nature of the engineering problem, a decision may be made to describe
only (1), the basic rock mass parameters, alternatively two or all three parts of description
may be required.
The core log should be a factual description of the core. Any interpretation or assessments
on the part of the core logger should clearly be distinguished from the factual information.

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It is recognized that assessments and interpretations are best made when actually looking
at the core in its fresh and least disturbed state. The logger of the core is therefore often in
a very favorable position to make such assessments and interpretations and to exclude
these from the core log is to reduce the value of the log. Such interpretations or
assessments should be included in parentheses, following the factual core description.

 DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIMARY ROCK MASS PARAMETERS

In the description of the rock mass, six basic parameters were selected as being of
primary importance for rock engineering purposes. These are illustrated in Table 1 in
which they are compared with the descriptive parameters chosen for soil descriptions.

TABLE 1. ROCK AND SOILS: COMPARISON OF DESCRIPTIVE PARAMETERS

SOIL DESCRIPTION ROCK MASS DESCRIPTION
Moisture
Colour Colour
Consistency Weathering
Fabric and Discontinuity
Structure
Surface Spacing
Hardness
Soil type Rock name
Origin Stratigraphic Horizon

Definitions of each of these parameters are given in the following sub-sections.

It is recommended that all the parameters be described even in situations where one or
more do not appear to be significant at the time of logging.
It is not intended that the logger should accept that these are the only rock mass
parameters which are significant and which are to be described. In specific applications,
3
other parameters may be of equal and greater importance and should be included in the
descriptions. The inclusion of such additional parameters and the definitions of their
application is left to the specialist core logger in question. He should, however, indicate
clearly the additions to the core log that he is making.

 COLOUR

Colour is one of the most obvious characteristics of a rock stratum and therefore one
of the most basic and useful in the description of a rock to both the specialist and layman
alike. It often provides an excellent guide for rock strata correlation and may be used to
identify various "marker" horizons. Colour variation is a primary indication of weathering.
Colour is usually one of the most variable of rock characteristics and a single rock type
may exhibit a large range of colours. Nevertheless, when judiciously used, it will afford a
valuable indication as to the probable nature and composition of the rock. Colours of
igneous rocks are related to their rock forming minerals, the light coloured minerals,
quartz, feldspar and felspathoids giving rise, for instance, to granite and syenite, while
dark rock forming minerals mica, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine give rise, for instance,
to dolerite and gabbro.

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 The colour of shales and slates generally result from a pigmentation of some kind,
which may be carbonaceous material or iron oxide. The colour difference in these rocks
often reflects only the state of oxidation of the iron produced by the process of weathering.
Since colour varies with moisture content it is essential that all colours are described at a
known moisture content. It is recommended therefore that core should be wet when
described. Where descriptions are made of core at other moisture contents this should be
described in accordance with Jennings as dry, slightly moist, moist, wet, very wet. To
ensure that surfaces are representative of the rock material only recently broken surfaces
should be used for the description. Surfaces altered by weathering, contaminants or
surface abrasion should be avoided. It is usually good practice to wash the core before
commencing core description. Every colour sensation comprises two dominant qualities;
each of which may vary without disturbing the other. These qualities are firstly, the hue
or name of the colour and secondly, the quality of lightness or value, whereby we
distinguish a light colour from a dark one.

Colour descriptions should be kept as simple as possible and the actual terms used
should, where possible, correspond with those on accepted colour charts. The use of the
Munsell Colour Chart is recommended.
The rock colour is its predominant colour i.e. brown, green, red, pink, khaki. Where a
secondary colour is also evident this colour can be included in the description as an
adjective i.e. reddish brown, greyish green, yellowish khaki. Where significant, the colour
should be further amplified by using the following descriptions for value: very light, light,
medium, dark, very dark i.e. dark reddish brown, light yellowish khaki.

In many rock types especially igneous and metamorphic rocks, the rock texture
may give rise to an ill- defined or variable colour. In these cases, the colour of the
dominant minerals or the overall ground mass should be described and the colours of
secondary features should be described separately. The secondary coloration usually has a
characteristic geometric pattern which may be described by one of the following terms:

Approximately parallel bands of

Banded
varying colour
Streaked Randomly oriented streaks of colour
Large irregular patches of colour
Blotched
(>75mmø)
Mottled Irregular patches of colour
Very small, less than 10mm diameter,
Speckled
patches of colour
Local Colour variations associated with
Stained
other features, i.e. bedding, joints, etc.

An example: Light greenish grey speckled black and streaked white.

The colour of inclusions such as lenses, veins, vesicles, amygdales or discrete and large
crystals should also be described if they are considered to be significant features, e.g. dark
greyish brown mottled white with pink veins.

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  WEATHERING

Weathering of rocks takes place under the influence of the hydrosphere and the
atmosphere as a result of their instability in environments which differ from those in
which they were formed. It is a process of alteration by means of mechanical, chemical and
biological action which drastically affects the engineering properties of both the rock
material and the rock mass. Some of the more important effects of weathering on rock is
the decrease in strength, density and volumetric stability and the increase in
deformability, porosity and weather ability. Weathering normally starts at the earth's
surface but its development and extent depend on a large number of variables, the most
important of which are the rock types, climatic environment and rock fabric. The zones of
weathering are often very irregular and variable over small distances.
As it is not intended to describe or define the mechanisms of decomposition or
disintegration, the more general term "weathering" is used throughout.

DIAGNOSTIC
SURFACE GRAIN
FEATURE/ DISCOLOURA FRACTURE ORIGINAL
CHARACTERI BOUNDARY
DESCRIPTION TION EXTENT CONDITION TEXTURE
STICS CONDITION
TERM

Closed or
Unweathered None Unchanged Preserved Tight
discoloured
20% of fracture
Discoloured Partial
Slightly spacing on both
may contain Discolouration Preserved Tight
weathered sides of
thin filling
fracture
Partial to
20% of fracture complete
Discoloured
Medium spacing on both discolouration
may contain Preserved Partial
weathered sides of not friable
thick filling
fracture except poorly
cemented rocks
Highly Friable and Mainly Partial
Throughout
weathered possibly pitted preserved separation
Completely Resembles a Mainly Complete
throughout
weathered soil preserved separation

The classification contained in the Working Party Report of the Geological Society
Engineering Group of Great Britain has been used as a basis for this guide.
TABLE 2. DEGREES OF WEATHERING

The British system has been modified to meet the following requirements:
1. A five-fold instead of seven-fold classification system has been adopted.
2. The definitions of degrees of weathering have been altered so as to eliminate the
use of the terms "weathering" or "decomposed".
3. The term "fresh" is replaced by "unweathered" in order to avoid confusion when it is
not used in conjunction with other weathering terms.

235 | P a g e
 4. The effect of the drilling process on the external appearance of the core is taken into
account.

The definitions of weathering are as follows:

Unweathered - No visible signs of alteration in the rock material out fracture planes may
be stained or discoloured.

Slightly weathered - Fractures are stained or discoloured and may contain a thin filling of
altered material. Discolouration may extend into the rock from the fracture planes to a
distance of up to 20% of the fracture spacing (i.e. less than 4o% of the core is discoloured).

Medium weathered - Slight discolouration extends from fracture planes for a distance
greater than 20% of the fracture spacing (i.e. generally greater part of the rock). Fractures
may contain filling of altered material. The surface of the core is not friable (except in the
case of poorly cemented sedimentary rocks) and the original texture of the rock has been
preserved. Partial opening of grain boundaries may be observed.

Highly weathered - Discolouration extends throughout the rock. The surface of the core is
friable and usually pitted due to washing out of highly altered minerals by drilling water.
The original texture of the rock has mainly been preserved but separation of grains has
occurred.

Completely weathered - The rock is totally discoloured and the external appearance of the
core is that of a soil. Internally the rock texture is partly preserved but grains have
completely separated.

Note: That the boundary between soil and rock is defined in terms of strength or hardness
and not in terms of weathering.

Only those sections of core which are present in the core box can be described out
any core loss must be considered. The degree of weathering observed is not always
representative of the section under consideration. Other properties of the rock such as rock
type, core recovery, rock strength, fracture spacing and condition must be taken into
account in combination with the degree of weathering to determine the true condition of
the section. An approximate guide is presented in Table 2. Where slaking of the core is
observed or suspected its nature and degree should be recorded after the description of the
basic parameters.
Where the assessed condition of the rock intersected in a drill run differs from that
observed in the core this should be noted at the end of the core description.
An example:
Grey slightly weathered fine grained medium jointed hard rock dolerite. (Core loss
and fracture filling suggest rock mass is highly weathered to spheroidal boulders. 50%
boulders + 50% matrix not recovered)

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  FABRIC

Fabric is the term used to describe the micro structural and textural features of the
rock material. It is these structural or textural features which affect rock material
behaviour and would therefore be accounted for in the testing of laboratory samples.
Larger structural features are termed discontinuity surfaces. These are of such a scale
that their effects cannot be determined on laboratory specimens and they are not
considered to affect the rock material properties but influence rock mass properties. Fabric
description can usefully be subdivided into two parts, namely texture and micro structure.
(i) Texture Rocks are composed of assemblages of minerals. The arrangement and
size of the individual grains of these minerals give the rock an individual form or texture.
Since the size or arrangement of the individual minerals can affect the physical properties
of the rock such as permeability or angle of internal friction, it is necessary to describe
them so that their engineer- log significance can be assessed.
The most noticeable textural feature is grain size. The majority of sedimentary rock names
imply a grain size distribution and therefore a formal classification equivalent to that of
soil" particle size is not considered to be necessary. The obvious exceptions are the
sandstones where a grain size qualification is considered to be valuable. A five-fold grain
size classification has been chosen based on visual identification using a hand lens. For
metamorphic and igneous rocks the same reasoning is applicable, with a grain size
qualification only being necessary in the coarser grained rocks. The suggested terminology
and grain sizes are given in Table 3.
(ii) Micro Structure - Many rock types exhibit a definite structure characteristic of
their origin. For example, bedding planes in sedimentary rocks, foliations in metamorphic
rocks and flow banding in igneous rocks. These preferentially oriented features impart to
the rock material a distinct anisotropy of physical properties. It is therefore usually
necessary to include their description in the core log. It is recognized that the scale of
many of these features varies from very small (and can therefore be evaluated as affecting
rock material properties in the laboratory) to very large (affecting rock mass behaviour
which cannot be measured by laboratory testing). The smaller scale features are therefore
considered to be part of the fabric of the rock material while the larger scale features form
part of the discontinuity surface pattern of the rock mass. The boundary between micro
structure and discontinuity surface spacing is defined here as a feature spacing of 10 mm.
It is proposed that the terms defined in Table 4 be used.
TABLE 3. GRAIN SIZE CLASSIFICATON

EQUIVALENT
DESCRIPTION SIZE (mm) RECOGNITION
SOIL TYPE
Individual grains
Very fine grained <0.06 cannot be seen Clays and silts
with a handless
Just visible as
Fine grained 0.06-0.2 individual grains Fine sand
under hand lens
Grains clearly
Medium grained 0.2-0.6 visible under hand Medium sand
coarse sand lens,

237 | P a g e
 just visible to the
naked eye
Grains clearly
Coarse grained 0.6-2.0 Coarse sand
visible to naked
Grains
Very close grained >2.0 Gravel
measurable

For very coarse-grained rock the average grain size may be recorded.

 DISCONTINUITY SURFACE SPACING

Discontinuity surface is defined as any surface across which some property for a
rock mass is discontinuous. This includes fracture surfaces, weakness planes and bedding
planes. The term is restricted only to mechanical continuity.
Fracture is the general term for any mechanical discontinuity in the rock; it is therefore
the collective term for joints faults, cracks etc.

Joint is a break of geological origin in the continuity of a body of rock occurring

either singly, or more frequently in a set or system, but not attended by a visible
movement parallel to the surface of discontinuity.
Discontinuity surfaces include two major categories. Firstly, features characteristic of the
origin of the rock such as bedding, foliations and flow bands, and secondly features
occurring as a result of tectonic rupture (fractures) such as joints, faults and shear-zones.
It is recognized that rock mass behaviour is influenced and often controlled by the
discontinuities that occur within in. It is therefore necessary to include a description of
these features in the core log. In the primary rock mass description only the discontinuity
surface spacing is indicated. Where a more detailed description of the discontinuity
surfaces is required this is given separately following the primary rock mass description.

The proposed description of discontinuity surface spacing is given in Table 4

238 | P a g e
 DESCRIPTION FOR STRUCTURAL DESCRIPTION FOR
FEATURES: BEDDING, FOLIATION 5 JOINTS, FAULTS, OR
SPACING
OR FLOW BANDING IN mm OTHER FRACTURES

Very thickly (bedded foliated or Very widely (fractured or

Greater
banded) jointed)
than1000
300 - 1000
Thickly Widely

100 - 300 Medium

Medium

Thinly 30 – 100 Closely

10 - 30
Very thinly Very closely

DESCRIPTION FOR MICRO -

STRUCTURAL FEATURES:
LAMINATION, FOLIATIONS OR
CLEAVAGE
Intensely laminated (foliated or
3 – 10
cleaved)
<3
Very intensely

TABLE 4. DISCONTINUITY SURFACE AND MICRO STRUCTURE SPACING

In the determination of discontinuity surface spacing only natural discontinuities

are included. In some instances, it may be necessary to record separately the spacing of
man-made fractures such as those caused by blasting. Where discontinuity surfaces are
parallel or sub-parallel the spacing is taken in the direction normal to the surface
orientation. An example of the two-fold spacing description could be "thinly bedded, widely
fractured". This description would apply to a rock mass of sedimentary origin with a
bedding plane spacing of 30 mm to 100 mm and a spacing between other natural breaks,
most probably joints, of 300 mm - 1 000 mm. Where the end terms are used the actual
spacing should be placed behind the description e.g. very thickly banded (1,8 m) or very
intensely laminated (0,5 mm).

 ROCK HARDNESS

In rock engineering, the rock material strength plays a dominant role. Excavation
methods, permissible bearing pressures and tunnel support requirements are usually
directly related to this rock property.
Rock mass strength is determined not only by the strength of the rock material but also by
the discontinuities occurring in the mass.
Rock hardness, defined as the resistance to indentation or scratching may be used as an
index type test which provides some measure of rock material strength. Studies conducted
by Miller have shown that there is a relationship between the uniaxial compressive
strength and the product of hardness and density as expressed ln the following formula;
logσa (ult) = 0,00014 γa R + 3,16
3
where γa = dry unit wt (lb/ft )

239 | P a g e
 R = Schmidt hardness (L-hammer)
For the lower ranges, up to medium hard rock (Table 5) hardness is more readily
and consistently described in the field than is strength as it can be assessed from visual
inspection and simple mechanical tests such as scratching with a knife and striking with a
hammer. It has been shown by Jennings et al that there is a correlation between hardness
derived from these tests and the minimum uniaxial rock material strength. This
relationship is illustrated in Figure 1 which is adapted from Jennings et al.

Knowing the rock type and rock material hardness, it is possible for the experienced
engineer or engineering geologist to make fairly accurate estimates on rock material
strength. These can be readily verified by uniaxial compressive strength or point load
tests. In view of the ease of testing and the portability of the point load test apparatus, the
extensive use of point load tests, as a more precise index of strength is recommended for
field use on samples with a strength of more than 25 MPa. Experience has shown that
there are two distinct ranges of rock material strength required. The engineer responsible
for the design of foundations or slope stability, where stress levels are usually low, is
generally particularly interested in obtaining a fairly close subdivision in the lower
strength ranges. The mining or tunneling engineer on the other hand, working in
environments where stress concentrations are greater and where excavation tools and
techniques are of great importance, generally requires a close subdivision in the higher
strength ranges. To accommodate the small subdivision of the range at both ends of the
scale it is necessary to adopt six classifications in the range of rock material hardness.
These are defined in Table 5. These classifications and their possible uniaxial compressive
strength ranges are also shown on Figure 1. It will be observed that there is a terminology
change from that proposed by Jennings et Al.

TABLE 5. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK HARDNESS

RANGE OF MINIMUM
CLASSIFICATION FIELD TEST
COMPRESSSIVE
STRENGTH (MPa)
Can be peeled with a kl1ife, material
Very soft rock crumbles under firm blows with the
1 to 3
sharp end of a geological pick
Can just be scraped with a knife
Soft rock indentations of 2 to 4 mm with firm blows 3 to 10
of the pick point
Cannot be scraped or peeled with a knife,
Medium hard rock hand held specimen breaks with firm 10 to 25
blows of the pick
25 to 70
Hard rock Point load tests must be carried out in
order to distinguish between these
70 to 200
Very hard rock classifications. These results may be
verified by uniaxial compressive strength
Extremely hard
tests on selected samples.
rock >200

240 | P a g e
 FIGURE 1. PROPOSED ROCK HARDNESS CLASSIFICATION

 ROCK TYPE AND STRATIGRAPHIC HORIZON

Rock name or type is most significant in core logging. Not only does it identify the
rock but it also provides an immediate picture of the likely engineering behaviour of the
rock.
Problems posed by construction on, in or through mudstone, schist, dolerite or granite are
vastly different. From previous experience the design engineer may recognize the effect
that weathering produces on mudstones on exposure; he may identify the problems caused
by sound dolerite boulders in a soft clay matrix; he would appreciate the significance of
widely spaced weak joints in a massive granite.
It is recommended that the individual core logger should identify and classify rock cores in
terms of standard conventions. Rocks are classified chemically, petro graphically or in
terms of their origin, depending on the purpose of the classification. When classified in
terms of origin, there are three rock types, namely igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary. Standard classification charts for igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks, usually based on mineralogy and texture, are readily available in most geological
textbooks. From an examination of the rock core, and knowing the regional geology, it is
relatively easy to make the primary division and to apply a purely descriptive name to the
rock. Simple descriptive names are usually sufficient. More precise identification may
have to be accomplished with a microscope.

241 | P a g e
 The stratigraphic horizon from which the core was taken is often of engineering
significance; for example, the slaking characteristics of the Beaufort mudstones. It also
indicates what other rock types that maybe anticipated on the site. The stratigraphic
horizon is recorded following the rock type. It is usually sufficient to record this once per
core log.
Examples of the primary core rock descriptions are:
(i) Light yellowish green streaked grey unweathered intensely laminated widely
9
fractured medium hard rock mudstone, Ecca Group, Karoo Supergroup .
(ii) Dark greyish green speckled white slightly weathered very fine-grained
medium fractured very hard rock amygdaloidal andesite, Ventersdorp Supergroup.

 DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCONTINUITY SURFACE

The engineering behaviour of rock masses is often controlled by the discontinuity

surfaces which occur within them. Discontinuity surface frequency or spacing is often the
most effective feature to use singly to convey the effect of the discontinuities on rock mass
behaviour. It is therefore selected for inclusion in the primary rock mass description. It is
not necessarily the most significant feature controlling rock mass behaviour of any
particular type. · The extent of joints and their separation may control permeability while
orientation and fracture filling may be more significant to shear failure.
Depending on the nature of the engineering problem for which the core logging is being
done, a number of other discontinuity surface features may be described in the core log.
These are:
(i) Discontinuity surface type- or origin
(ii) Separation - of fracture walls
(iii) Filling - its presence or absence
(iv) Roughness -or the nature of the asperities on the fractures
(v) Orientation
In view of the disturbance of fracture filling and core orientation in the drilling process
and the limited extent of any discontinuity surface exposed in the core, the accuracy or
validity of the discontinuity surface descriptions made from core is often dubious. The use
of special drilling techniques (core orientation) or exploratory methods (down-the-hole
periscope or cameras) may be warranted. The primary description of the rock mass
properties may be followed by a description of the discontinuity surfaces which occur
within it, which is in turn may be followed by a description of the fracture filling. Where
individual discontinuity surfaces are recognizable as significant features, such as faults,
shear zones or narrow dykes, they may be described singly. Where they are observed to
fall into distinct groups, that is, joint sets, with distinctly different group properties, each
group may be described separately. The extent and complexity of the discontinuity surface
description is at the discretion of the core logger. Sufficient detail should be included to
enable a valid assessment of the rock mass behaviour to be made for the specific
engineering problem at hand, but unnecessary and often costly detail should be avoided. It
should be borne in mind that the cost of logging is small by comparison with the cost of
recovering the core and that the core log is often more durable than the core.

242 | P a g e
  DISCONTINUITY SURFACE TYPE

Discontinuity surfaces are any surfaces across which there is a discontinuity of

physical properties. Only those surfaces which have occurred as a result of natural
geological processes are described. Fractures resulting from the drilling process or
subsequent to core removal from the borehole are not described.
The properties of a discontinuity surface (extent, separation, filling, roughness, waviness
and orientation) are often characteristic of its origin. Recognition of surface type in terms
of its origin can therefore be extremely useful. For example bedding planes clearly have a
much greater extent than cross joints in the same sedimentary rock.
A comprehensive description of fracture types and their properties has been published by
10
Price . Classification of discontinuity surfaces from the information contained in the core
is usually limited to the more obvious surface types. These may be divided into two main
categories:
(i) Discontinuity surfaces originating during the rock forming processes such as
bedding planes in sedimentary rocks, flow banding in igneous rocks, foliation in
metamorphic rocks and lithological contacts between rocks of different types or ages. Such
discontinuity surfaces are usually of great extent with considerable uniformity of
properties.
(ii) Fractures due to local overstress of the rock material producing rupture
surfaces. The stress source may be tectonic, producing shear or tension joints, normal,
thrust or transverse faults or shear zones. Where such tectonic joints occur in sedimentary
rocks they are often referred to collectively as bedding joints or cross joints depending on
whether they are parallel to or cut across bedding planes. Where stress occurs as a result
of overburden removal or cooling, exfoliation and cooling joints result. Where fracturing
has been accompanied by the intrusion of magma or the deposition of secondary materials,
terms such as dykes, sills and veins may be appropriate. The competent core logger should
be aware of the different discontinuity surface types and be able to associate with each its
origin and typical properties. Discontinuity surfaces may occur singly (such as geological
contacts) or in multiple sets (such as joint sets). Single features should be described
individually while multiple features may be described collectively.

 SEPERATION

The separation between fracture surfaces controls the extent to which the opposing
surfaces can interlock. In the absence of interlocking of the fracture walls the fracture
filling controls entirely the shear strength along the fracture. As the fracture separation
decreases the asperities of the fracture walls tend to become more interlocked and both
the filling and rock material contribute to the fracture shear strength. The shear strength
along the fracture is therefore dependant on the degree of separation, presence or absence
of filling materials, nature of asperities or roughness of the fracture walls and the nature
of the filling material. The first three of these are included in the discontinuity surface
description. The latter is included, where necessary, in a description of the filling material
11
which follows the discontinuity surface description. From a description by Piteau the
effect of degree of separation and filling can be classified as follows:
(i) With no separation (no filling) the sliding plane passes entirely through or along
wall rock: the shear strength is entirely dependent on the properties of the wall rock.
243 | P a g e
 (ii) Slight separation (filling appears as a stain): The filling or separation is
considered only as modifying the friction angle
(iii) Appreciable separation (filling measurably thick) but still appreciable
interlocking of the wall asperities: The shear strength will be a complex combination of
filling and all rock material strengths.
(iv) Complete separation with no interlock of wall asperities: the filling material
determines the fracture shear strength.
The suggested terminology for the separation of fracture walls is shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6. DESCRIPTION OF SEPERATION OF FRACTURE WALLS

DESCRIPTION SEPARATION OF WALLS (mm)
Closed 0
Very narrow 0-0.1
Narrow 0.1-1
Wide 1-5.0
Very wide 5.0-25
Where separation is more than 25 mm, the fracture should be described as a major
fracture.

 FRACTURE FILLING (PRESENCE AR ABSENCE)

All materials occurring between the fracture walls are referred to as fracture
filling. The term includes in-situ weathered materials, fault zone materials and foreign
materials either deposited or intruded between the fracture surfaces.
Only the presence or absence of fracture filling is noted in the discontinuity surface
description. Where applicable a separate description of the fracture filling is given after
the discontinuity surface description.
The suggested terminology to be used to indicate the present or absence of fracture filling
materials is given in Table 7.

TABLE 7. TERMINOLOGY FOR PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF FRACTURE FILLING

MATERIALS
DESCRIPTION DEFINITION
Clean No fracture filling material
Stained Colouration of rock only.
No recognizable filling material
Filled Fracture filled with recognizable filling material
 ROUGHNESS CLASSIFICATION

Asperities which occur on fracture walls interlock, if the fractures are clean and
closed, and inhibit shear movement along the mean fracture surface. This restraint on
movement is of two types. Small high angle asperities are sheared off during shear
displacement and effectively increase the peak shear strength of the fracture. Such
asperities are termed roughness. Large low angle asperities cannot be sheared off and

244 | P a g e
"ride" over one another during shear displacement, changing the initial direction of shear
displacement. Such large order asperities are termed waviness and cannot be reliably
measured in core.
Roughness asperities usually have a base length and amplitude measured in terms of
millimeters and are readily apparent on a core sized exposure of a fracture. The applicable
descriptive terms are defined in Table 8.

TABLE 8. ROUGNESS CLASSIFICATION

CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION
Smooth Appears smooth and is essentially smooth to the touch.
May be slicken sided.
Slightly rough Asperities on the fracture surfaces are visible and can be
distinctly felt
Medium rough Asperities are clearly visible and fracture surface feels
abrasive
Rough Large angular asperities ca be seen. Some ridge and high
side angle steps evident
Very rough Near vertical steps and ridges occur on the fracture
surface
Where slickensides are observed the direction of the slickensides should be recorded after
the standard discontinuity surface description.

 ORIENTATION

The two necessary and sufficient conditions for the definition of the orientation of a
particular plane are its dip and dip direction.
There are at present a number of specialized methods that can be used to obtain the dip
and dip direction of discontinuity surfaces in drill core. One method is to remove an
orientated core from the rock mass using a special core orienteer barrel. Alternatively, the
discontinuity surface orientation can be measured in the wall of the borehole using an
orientated borehole periscope, camera or devices capable of taking an impression so the
borehole sides. Where a feature of known dip and dip direction, i.e. bedding, intersects the
core at an angle this may be used to orientate the core. A further method requires the
presence of at least one easily identifiable marked band and the use of a minimum of three
boreholes. This latter method enables three-dimensional geometry, usually aided by
stereographic projection, to be used to establish the attitude of the maker horizons. The
above methods are costly and are only employed where the attitude of the discontinuity is
critical to the solution of the problem. The dip of a particular surface is the maximum
angle between the plane containing the surface and the horizontal and is recorded in
o o
degrees from 0 to 90 . The dip direction is the compass bearing, from true north, of the
o
direction of maximum dip and is recorded in degrees (e.g. 045 and not NE) measured
clockwise from north. A complete definition of the orientation of any one surface is given
o o
by recording the dip and dip direction, for example: 30 at 036 would indicate a surface
o
dipping at 30 from the horizontal with the direction of maximum dip having an

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 o
orientation of 36 measured clockwise from true north. A note should be made when the
reading refers to true or magnetic north.
Discontinuity surfaces rarely exist in isolation and usually occur in sets. It is the
definition of a number of sets and their relationship to each other that is necessary for
design purposes. The definition of these sets and their orientation is simplified if all the
field readings are plotted on a stereogram. The stereographic plot enables the distribution
of individual discontinuity surfaces to be seen and permits the definition of discontinuity
surface sets and their orientation.
On the core log the dip and dip direction of each discontinuity surface set is recorded at
the end of the discontinuity surface description.
Examples of discontinuity surface descriptions are as follows:
o o
(i) Bedding joints are narrow oxide stained slightly rough dipping 30 at 145 .
o o
(ii) Set "A" cross joints are closed clean very rough dipping 10 at 270 .
 DESCRIPTION OF THE FRACTURE FILLING
The influence of fracture filling is two-fold.
(a) Depending on the thickness, the filling prevents the interlocking of the fracture
asperities.
b) It possesses its own characteristic properties, that is, shear strength,
permeability and deformational characteristics.
The effect of the former can be deduced from the description of the fracture
separation and fracture roughness. For the effect of the latter to be assessed, the nature of
the infilling materials must be adequately described.
The following parameters should be described.
Moisture
Colour
Consistency or Hardness
Soil or Rock Type
Origin

Moisture, consistency, soil type and origin should be described in accordance with soil
profiling techniques as described by Jennings et al. Colour, hardness and rock type should
be described as indicated under the appropriate sections in this paper. Where porosity is
important, an estimate of the porosity should be given; as a percentage. It should be
remembered that the drilling technique employed to recover rock cores may not be suited
to the recovery of relatively thin bands of softer material within the rock mass. Recovery of
fracture filling may therefore be only partial and recovered material may be disturbed.
Where drilling muds or fluids are used this may contaminate the filling materials and
moisture conditions are altered by drilling water.

 THE BOREHOLE LOG

The borehole log serves to describe not only the rock core produced by drilling but
also any other relevant information which may be obtained from the drilling process, and
from tests on cores or in boreholes.

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Data relative to the borehole, the tools and materials used to form it, the casing installed
for sidewall support and the tests conducted in it are significant in as much as they
greatly influence the condition of the core recovered, or provide indications of rock or soil
mass properties. Such information is obtained from the drillers record and forms an
integral part of the borehole log.
In the description of the borehole core it is usually advantageous to include a number of
other parameters or indices. These indices, for example "Rock Quality Designation" (RQD)
and "Standard Penetration Blow Count" (N), have been correlated with rock and soil
behavioral characteristics and are indicative of certain rock and soil mass properties.

 LAYOUT OF LOG SHEET

Illustrated in Figure 2 is a typical borehole log sheet of a form suggested for general
purpose usage. Where specific requirements necessitate additional information, this can
be added at the logger's discretion.
The information recorded on such a log is as follows:
(i) Borehole Number - This number should be used only once on any site and kept as
simple as possible.
(ii) Location
(a) Project - Name of Project e.g. Alrode Brewery
(b) Site - Particular site e.g. Workshops
(c) Location - Grid reference or chainage
(d) Elevation given above M.S.L. and orientation if not vertical.
(iii) Drilling Technique
(a) Machine - Make of machine with model number
(b) Drilling method and size; including type of flush, core barrel and bit.
(iv) Contract Details
(a) Contractor
(b) Driller
(c) Project Number - Consultants reference
(d) Name of Logger
(e) Date of logging
(f) Date drilling started and drilling completed.

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 The suggested log sheet has been compiled so that the name of the Institute or
Consultant, the borehole number, location and contract details are given at the top of the
sheet. Conventionally, the sheet is divided into vertical columns to permit the sequential
logging of the various borehole details against a single depth scale. At the base of the
sheet a space is allowed for a key to the various symbols used on the log and for relevant
remarks.
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  DRILLING METHOD AND SIZE

This column is to be used for recording the drilling technique, flush type, drilling or
sampling tool and bit. Where casing is used, the type and size should be indicated. The use
of conventional symbols such as NXM as defined by the Diamond Core Drill
12
Manufacturers Association (DCDMA) or Swedish Method (Craelius)

 PERCENTAGE CORE RECOVERY

This is the measured core recovery per drill run expressed as a percentage. This
value may exceed 100% if core drilled during the previous run is recovered in the run
described. As it is only possible to describe the core seen in the core box it is necessary to
know on what proportion of the rock mass, intersected by the borehole, the description in
the log is based. It may generally be anticipated that weak rock and fracture zones are
most likely to be present in the sections of core not recovered. Poor core recovery is
therefore indicative of poor rock mass strength. This parameter is considerably affected by
the quality of drilling and drilling tools used. When recording the core recovery in any drill
run, the core should be reassembled as far as is possible, as many drillers tend to spread
the core out in the core box which gives a misleading impression of the recovery. Wherever
possible the logger should indicate the probable reasons for core loss.

 ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION

This column is used for recording Rock Quality Designation, RQD, as proposed by
Deere. Measurement of the RQD provides a method of assessing the quality of a rock
mass, based on the size of individual core sticks obtained when drilling NX (54 mm
diameter) size core. This method yields a numerical figure between 0 and 100. RQD is
measured per drill run and is defined as the total length of the individual core sticks
greater than 100 mm in length divided by the length of the drill run and expressed as a
percentage.

 FRACTURE FREQUENCY

The fracture frequency is obtained by counting the number of natural fractures

(complete separations) that occur per meter length of core recorded over the actual length
of core over which that frequency occurs. Unlike RQD, this parameter is not based on a
specific size of core. The fracture frequency is recorded as a number. It has been found
that where the number of fractures is greater than 20 the specific number is not
significant and therefore only numbers for 0 to 20 and >20 need be recorded. The fracture
spacing can readily be recorded as a histogram in order to illustrate graphically, for
example, where very closely or closely jointed zones are located within the core.

 TEST OR SAMPLE

The location and nature of any tests conducted in the borehole or on the core taken
from the borehole should be indicated in this column. Tests commonly conducted in the
borehole include standard penetration, shear vane, point load, permeability, pressure

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meter and geophysical tests. Tests on selected core samples may include index, shear
strength, consolidation or permeability tests. Where symbols are used to indicate test
types, these should be defined in the key.

 VALUE

Where appropriate, the value obtained in the various tests conducted can be shown
in this column. The nature of the value and the units in which it is quoted must be
apparent from the manner in which it is recorded or the definitions given in the key. For
example, standard penetration test blow counts may be recorded in this column following
the symbol N = with the appropriate definition in the key indicating that the number
following N = indicates the number of blows per 300 mm advance in a Standard
Penetration Test.

 DEPTH

This column records depth to a definite scale. All other records on the borehole log
should be referenced to this scale according to the depth in the borehole at which the data
or description applies.

 WATER REST LEVEL

The level at which the water comes to rest in the borehole and the date at which
this level is reached must be recorded on the log sheet in the test and value columns.

 LEGEND

This column is used for the pictorial description of material type. The suggested
symbols to be used for soils are those given by Jennings et al.
The suggested symbols for rock are those recommended by the International Standards
Organization. An example of the symbols representing some rock type is included in
Figure 3. The reference should be consulted for a complete description of this symbolic
system. At the time of writing a standard had not been proposed for metamorphic rocks.

 DESCRIPTION

This column is used for recording the core log in accordance with the proposals in
this paper.
The proposed borehole log sheet can be used in the field as a field sheet or alternatively,
specially constructed field sheets can be used from which the final log is completed in the
office.

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  CORE HANDLING, LOGGING AND STORAGE TECHNIQUES

It is not the object of this section to prescribe standard methods for handling,
logging and storage of core, but to provide a number of useful hints which make core
logging easier, more accurate and consistent. It is assumed that the core has been
obtained with due care and in accordance with current good practice.
Most of the points mentioned under 1 and 2 below are the responsibility of the drilling
contractor but the core logger must be aware of these requirements in order to ensure that
they are met.

 EXTRACTON AND PROTECTION OF BOREHOLES BORE

Core drilling is an expensive and highly specialized operation aimed at the recovery
of a core which is as complete and undisturbed as possible. It is therefore of utmost
importance that great care be taken not only when drilling but also when extracting the
core from the barrel to avoid the further breaking up and loss of material. Extraction
under steady, carefully applied pressure or the use of split inner tubes is to be preferred.
Hammering or jetting of the core barrel should not be allowed under any circumstances.
Weathered cores or cores susceptible to weathering should be wrapped in thin plastic
tubing, tied at either end to retain moisture conditions.
Cores of slaking material must not be exposed to the sun but foil-wrapped and waxed as
soon as possible after recovery (within an hour). Logging should be done before waxing, if
possible, or otherwise as soon as possible thereafter. Wax should be removed without heat
and after logging, cores must be re-waxed.

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  ARRANGEMENT AND LABELLING OF CORE IN CORE BOXES

Core boxes should be of light but robust construction and of such a size that they
can be handled with ease (maximum size recommended is 1,5 x 0,5 m). Wooden boxes are
recommended. Boxes should be made to hold the particular size of core tightly, in rows
separated by wooden slats. The lid of the core box may have a foam rubber lining to keep
the core in position during transportation.
Core boxes should be clearly identified by painting the project number, site name, borehole
number, core box number, top and bottom depths of core contained and the drilling
contractor's name on the outside and inside of the lid as well as on at least one side of the

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core box. Core must be laid out in the core box to read in book fashion, that is with the
shallowest cores in the left side of the top row next to the lid hinge and the next row of
core starting again with its shallowest depth in the left side and deepening towards the
right. At the beginning and end of every core run, a wooden block of appropriate
dimensions should be placed. On these blocks, and if possible also on the core, the
direction of drilling and the depth must be written in well-spaced figures with a size of at
least 20 mm. The marking of depths on the core box is not recommended. Core loss should
be indicated by placing a wooden block, with length equal to that of the loss, in the
appropriate position and by writing the depths at both ends of the block. Blocks indicating
core loss are often painted red. Where core samples are removed for laboratory testing,
yellow blocks equal in length to the core removed, should be instituted in the box. Before
logging or photographing is undertaken, it is advisable to make sure that the core is
properly packed and marked in a core box. It is usually necessary to turn cores around in
order to orientate according to a known marker feature such as bedding, schistosity or a
major joint set and to fit pieces of core together in order to measure core recovery etc. At
this stage, it may be necessary to rewrite depths on the core or to add further depth
marks.

 CORE PHOTOGRAPHY

It is recommended that colour photographs of all borehole core be obtained as a

permanent record and for comparison with the descriptive log. Core photography must be
carried out before the core is removed for description and testing. The following procedures
are recommended:
(i) One core box must be photographed at a time.
(ii) A label with the name of the site and borehole number must be attached to the
core box.
(iii) All lettering must be well-spaced and have a minimum size of 20 mm.
(iv) A colour chart must be attached to the core box.
(v) A frame is useful to support the camera vertically above the core box or to
o
support the core box in a tilted (60 ) position so that its surface is normal to the direction
of photography.
(vi) The best results are achieved if photography is carried out under roof and with
flood lights. Good results can however be obtained in the field with the use of natural
light.
(vii) Machine printing of photo's is not recommended and it is useful to obtain
prints on a scale of 1:10.

 CORE LOGGING

Only persons trained and experienced in engineering geology or geotechnical

engineering should be allowed to log borehole core. It is recommended that the method of
description as presented in this paper be adopted.

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Equipment that is considered essential for the logging of rock cores includes the drillers
log, paper, pencil, metric tape, compass, clinorule, water, brush or cloth, knife, geological
pick and magnifying glass. A laborer to assist in the moving of core boxes can be most
helpful. Useful additional equipment includes pre-printed logging forms, clip-board,
geological compass, clinometer, annular protractor to fit core, orientator box, insecticide
type garden spray for wetting cores, table or stand for core box, point load apparatus,
camera and accessories, and colour chart. The best place to log core is at the borehole
position which avoids unnecessary handling and disturbance of the core. The best time to
log is as shortly after the core is removed from the core barrel as is possible, due to the
rapid deterioration of cores (especially sedimentary rocks) and core boxes. It is preferable
that the driller be present while logging, in order to draw on his intimate knowledge of
drilling and rock conditions and to obtain drilling information required on the core log.
The following comments apply to the filling in of the log sheet:

(i) Drilling method and size: This information is obtained from the driller's log.
(ii) Core recovery, RQD and fracture frequency: These measurements are normally
carried out after the core has been properly arranged and before pieces are removed for
laboratory testing. A 3-m retractable steel tape is a most useful tool and it is advisable to
record information on a special sheet with space for calculations and the entering of
percentages. Fracture frequency is measured by counting all fractures intersecting an
imaginary line drawn along the top of the core.
(iii) Colour: Wetting of the core is best achieved by means of a garden insecticide
type spray, filled with water. Otherwise a bucket with water and a soft brush or a cloth
can be used.
(iv) Weathering and fabric: A magnifying glass is useful.
(v) Fracture spacing: The average spacing of all fractures intersecting an imaginary
line drawn along the top of a core is determined.
(vi) Hardness can be determined by using a knife (1-3 MPa), geological pick (3-25
MPa) and a portable point load apparatus (> 25 MPa).

 LONG TERM STORAGE OF CORE BOXES

Cores are normally stored for a period of several years (until construction has been
completed). Core boxes must be stored in well ventilated, weatherproof rooms with
concrete floors and should preferably be placed on racks rather than in stacks. Provision
must be made for space around the racks or stacks in order to reach individual boxes for
re-examination.

QUESTIONS:
1. What are the requirements in core logging?
2. What is the purpose of the core logging?
3. What are the different degrees of weathering? Explain.
4. What is Borehole Log?

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LESSON 7: GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION

 DAMS
A dam may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location
across a river valley with a view of impounding water flowing through that river
generation of hydropower energy;

 SELECTION OF SITES

TOPOGRAPHICALLY

It would be a narrow gorge or a small valley with enough catchments area

available behind so that when a dam is placed there it would easily store a
calculated volume of water in the reservoir created upstream. This should be
possible without involving significant uprooting of population, loss of cultivable land
due to submergence or loss of existing construction.

TECHNICALLY

 The site should be as sound as possible: strong, impermeable and stable.

 Strong rocks at the site make the job of the designer much easy: he can evolve best
deigns.
 Impermeable sites ensure better storage inventories.
 Stability with reference to seismic shocks and slope failures around the dam,
especially upstream, are a great relief to the public in general and the engineer in
particular.
 The slips, slides, and slope failures around and under the dam and susceptibility to
shocks during an earthquake could prove highly hazardous.

CONSTRUCTIONALLY

The site should not be far off from deposits of materials which would be required
for its construction. All types of major dams require millions of cubic meters of natural
materials - earth, sand, gravel and rock -for their construction.

ECONOMICALLY

The benefits arising out of a dam placed at a particular site should be realistic and
justified in terms of land irrigated or power generated or floods averted or water stored.

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Dams are invariably costly structures and cannot be placed anywhere and everywhere
without proper analysis of cost-benefit aspects.

ENVIRONMENTALLY

 The site where a dam is proposed to be placed and a reservoir created, should
not involve ecological disorder, especially in the life cycles of animals and
vegetation and man.
 The fish culture in the stream is the first sector to suffer a major shock due to
construction of a dam. Its destruction may cause indirect effects on the
population.
 These effects require as thorough analysis as for other objects. The dam and the
associated reservoir should become an acceptable element of the ecological set up
of the area.

 GEOLOGY OF THE AREA

Preliminary geological surveys of the entire catchments area followed by
detailed geological mapping of the reservoir area have to be conducted. These
should reveal main topographic features, natural drainage patterns, general
characters and structures of rock formations such as their stratification, folding and
faulting and igneous intrusions, and the trend and rate of weathering and erosion
in the area.

 GEOLOGY OF THE SITE LITHOLOGY

The single most important feature that must be known thoroughly at the site
and all around and below the valley up to a reasonable depth is the Lithology, i.e.
types of the rocks that make the area. Surface and subsurface studies using the
conventional and latest techniques of geological and geophysical investigations are
carried out. Such studies would reveal the type, the composition and textures of the
rocks exposed along the valley floor, in the walls and up to the required depth at the
base. Rocks are inherently anisotropic materials, showing variation in properties in
different directions. Complex lithology definitely poses challenging design problems.

 STRUCTURES
This involves detailed mapping of planes of weakness like bedding planes,
schistosity, foliation, cleavage, joints, shear zones, faults and fault zones, folding
and the associated features. While mapping these features, special attention is
given to recording their attitude, spacing and nature. Shear zones have to be
searched, mapped and treated with great caution. In some cases, these may be
developed to such an extent that the rock may necessitate extensive and intensive
rock treatment (e.g. excavation, backfilling and grouting etc.

Following is a brief account of the influence of more important structural features of

rocks on dam foundations

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  DIP AND STRIKE
The strength of sound, un fractured stratified rock is always greater when the
stresses are acting normal to the bedding planes than if applied in other directions.
This being so, horizontal beds should offer best support for the weight of the dam. But
as is shown in a latter section, the resultant force is always inclined downstream. The
most UNFAVOURABLE strike direction is the one in which the beds strike parallel to
the axis of the dam and the dip is downstream. It must be avoided as far as possible.
Therefore, other conditions being same, beds with upstream dips are quite favorable
sites for dam foundations.

 FAULTS
These structures can be source of danger to the dam in a number of ways. Thus, the
faulted rocks are generally shattered along the rupture surfaces;

Different types of rocks may be present on either side of a fault plane. Hence, sites
with fault planes require great caution in calculating the design strength in various
sections of the dam. Dams founded on beds traversed by fault zones and on major fault
planes are more liable to shocks during an earthquake compared to dams on non-faulted
rocks.

 GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS NECESSRY FOR CONSTRUCTION IN

TUNNELLING
Tunnels may be defined as underground routes or passages driven through the
ground without disturbing the overlying soil or rock cover. Tunnels are driven for a variety
of purposes and are classified accordingly.

Chief classes of tunnels are:

 Traffic Tunnels hydro-power tunnels and

 Public utility tunnels.

GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

These determine to a large extent solutions to following engineering problems

connected with tunneling:

 Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment).

There might be available many alternate alignments that could connect two points
through a tunnel. The final choice would be greatly dependent on the geological
constitution along and around different alternatives

 Selection of Excavation Method.

Tunnelling is a complicated process in any situation and involves huge costs which
would multiply manifolds if proper planning is not exercised before starting the actual
excavation. And the excavation methods are intimately linked with the type of rocks to be

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excavated. Choice of the right method will, therefore, be possible only when the nature of
the rocks and the ground all along the alignment is fully known. This is one of the most
important aim and object of geological investigations.

 Selection of Design for the Tunnel.

The ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a proposed tunnel are

controlled, besides other factors, by geological constitution of the area along the alignment.
Whether the tunnel is to be circular, D-Shaped, horse-shoe shaped or rectangular or
combination of one or more of these outlines, is more often dictated by the geology of the
alignment than by any other single factor. Thus, in self-supporting and strong rocks,
either, D-shape or horse-shoe shape may be conveniently adopted but these shapes would
be practically unsuitable in soft ground or even in weak rocks with unequal lateral
pressure.

 Assessment of Cost and Stability.

These aspects of the tunnelling projects are also closely interlinked with the first
three considerations. Since geological investigations will determine the line of actual
excavation, the method of excavation and the dimensions of excavation as also the
supporting system (lining) of the excavation, all estimates about the cost of the project
would depend on the geological details. Similarly tunnels passing through hard and
massive rocks even when left unsupported may be regarded as stable.

Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in relation to tunneling:

consolidated and unconsolidated or soft ground. Only a brief account is given below.

CONSOLIDATE ROCKS

Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are greatly influenced by
following geological conditions: lithology, geological structures and ground water
conditions.

LITHOLOGY

It has already been mentioned that information regarding mineralogical

composition, textures and structures of the rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to
pass is of great importance in deciding the method of tunneling the strength and extent of
lining and, thus the cost of the project.

HARD AND CRYSTALLINE ROCKS

These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting methods and also by
tunnel boring method. In the blasting method, full face or a convenient section of the face

258 | P a g e
is selected for blasting up to a pre-selected depth. These are loaded with predetermined
quantities of carefully selected explosives of known strength. The loaded or charged holes
are ignited or triggered and the pre-estimated rocks get loosened as a result of the blast.
The blasting round is followed by a mucking period during which the broken rock is
hauled out of the excavation so created. The excavations in hard and crystalline rocks are
very often self supporting so that these could be left unlined and next round of blasting in
the new face created is undertaken, ensuring better advance rate. Rocks falling in this
group include granites, diorites, syenites, gabbros, basalts and all the related igneous
rocks, sandstones, limestones, dolomites, quartzites, arkose, greywackes and the like from
sedimentary group and marbles, gneisses, quartzites, phyllites and slates from the
metamorphic groups.

When any one of these rocks is stressed, such as during folding or fractured as
during faulting, tunnelling in these rocks proves greatly hazardous rock bursts which
occur due to falling of big rock blocks from roofs or sides due to release of stresses or
falling of rock block along fractures already existing in these rocks often cause many
accidents. Soft Rocks This group includes shales, friable and poorly compacted sandstones,
chalk and porous varieties of limestones and dolomities, slates and phyllites with high
degree of cleavage and also decomposed varieties of igneous rocks.Their excavation cost,
volume for volume, might be lower than those in hard rocks. Hence, temporary and
permanent lining becomes necessary that would involve extra cost and additional time.
Rocks like clays, shales, argillaceous and ferruginous sandstones, gypsum bands and
cavernous limestones have to be viewed specially with great caution during tunneling the
Fissured Rocks form a category in themselves and include any type of hard and soft rock
that has been deformed extensively due to secondary fracturing as a result of folding,
faulting and metamorphic changes of shearing type.

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES DIP AND STRIKES

These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the attitude (disposition in

space) of the rocks and hence influence the design of excavation (tunnel) to a great extent.

Three general cases may be considered.

Horizontal Strata

When encountered for small tunnels or for short lengths of long tunnels,
horizontally layered rocks might be considered quite favorable. In massive rocks,
that is, when individual layers are very thick, and the tunnel diameter not very
large, the situation is especially favorable because the layers would then over bridge
flat excavations by acting as natural beams but when The layers are thin or
fractured, they cannot be depended upon as beams; in such cases, either the roof
has to be modified to an arch type or has to be protected by giving a lining. Sides of
tunnels, however, could be left unsupported except when the rocks are precariously
sheared and jointed.

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Moderately Inclined Strata.

Such layers that are dipping at angles up to 45 o may be said as moderately

inclined. The tunnel axis may be running parallel to the dip direction, at right angles
to the dip direction or inclined to both dip and strike directions.

In the first situation, that is, when the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip direction
the layers offer a uniformly distributed load on the excavation. The arch action where
the rocks at the roof act as natural arch transferring the load on to sides comes into
maximum play. Even relatively weaker rocks might act as self-supporting in such
cases. It is a favourable condition from this aspect. It also implies that the axis of the
tunnel has to pass through a number of rocks of the inclined sequence while going
through parallel to dip

In the second case, that is, when the tunnel is driven parallel to strike of the
beds (which amounts to same thing as at right angles to the dip. The pressure
distributed to the exposed layers is unsymmetrical along the periphery of the tunnel
opening; one half would have bedding planes opening into the tunnel and hence offer
potential planes and conditions for sliding into the opening. The bridge action, though
present in part, is weakened due to discontinuities at the bedding planes running along
the arch.Such a situation obviously requires assessment of forces liable to act on both
the sides and along the roof and might necessitate remedial measures.

In the third case, when the tunnel axis is inclined to both the dip direction and
the strike direction, weak points of both the above situations would be encountered.

Steeply Inclined Strata

In rock formations dipping at angles above 45 quite complicated situations

would arise when the tunnel axis is parallel to dip or parallel to strike or inclined to
both dip and strike directions. In almost vertical rocks for example, when the tunnel
axis is parallel to dip direction, the formations stand along the sides and on the roof of
the tunnel as massive girders. An apparently favourable condition, of coarse, provided
all the formations are inherently sound and strong.

 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

The process of tunnelling, whether through rocks or through soft ground, and for
whatsoever purpose, involves disturbing the environment of an area in more than one
way

The tunnelling methods might involve vibrations induced through blasting or

ground cutting and drilling, producing abnormal quantities of dust and last but not the
least, interference with water supply system of the nearby areas.

A correct appreciation of geological set up of the area, especially where tunnel

alignment happens to be close to the populated zones, would enable the engineer for
planning and implementing plans aimed at minimizing the environmental hazards in a
successful manner.

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These stages are:

Preliminary Surveys

Following geological characters are broadly established for the entire area in which
the tunnel project is to be located as a result of preliminary surveys:

The general topography

The topography of the area marking the highest and the lowest points, occurrence of
valleys, depressions, bare and covered slopes, slide areas, and in hilly regions and cold
climates, the snow-line.

The lithology

The lithology of the area, meaning thereby, the composition, attitude and thickness
of rock formations which constitute the area.

The hydrological conditions

The hydrological conditions in the area, such as depth of water table, possibility of
occurrence of major and minor aquifers of simple type and of artesian type and the likely
hydrostatic heads along different possible routes or alignments.

The structural condition

The structural condition of the rock, that is, extent and attitude of major structural
features such as folding, faulting, unconformities, jointing and shearing planes, if
developed.

Existence of buried valleys are also established during the preliminary surveys.

Bore-Hole Drilling

Bore-hole drilling along proposed alignments and up to desired depths; the number
of bore-holes may run into dozens, scores or even hundreds, depending upon the length of
the tunnel, rock samples obtained from bore holes are analysed for their mechanical and
geo-chemical properties in the laboratories;

Drilling Exploratory

Drilling shafts and adits, which allow direct approach to the desired tunnel for
visual inspection in addition to the usual advantages of drilling;

Driving Pilot Tunnels

Driving pilot tunnels which are essentially exploratory in nature but could better be
used as a main route if found suitable by subsequent enlargement. The actual number of
bore holes and shafts and adits and their depth and length are decided by the length and

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location of the proposed tunnel. For tunnels with little overburden, these may be driven
close to the proposed tunnel.

The foundation design of a building is dependent on the nature of the ground/land it

is being build upon. Ground conditions are determined by geological factors while the
selection of a suitable type of foundation for building, entirely depends on the skills of the
engineer. The ground nature at a building site is dependent on the presence or absence of
bedrock. Therefore, while selecting the design of the foundation, following factors must be
considered:

(i) if the bedrock is far below the surface, the load of the building must be borne
by soil stratum only
(ii) if the bedrock lies somewhat below the ground, it is possible to transfer the
load onto the rock
(iii) if hard bedrock lies directly below the foundation, the entire load of the
building can be rested directly on the bedrock.

 FOUNDATION OF SOILS
Soil foundations are common load-bearing conditions. Soil is the result of a
geological process. Small load-bearing foundations require a study of the nature of the soil
up to the footing of the foundation level. In some conditions it is necessary to analyze the
soil structure. Heavy load-bearing buildings on loose soils resuscitate the analysis of soil
type, texture and binding capacity. In some situations, it is required to collect core soil
sample of the site document sub-surface soil conditions. Structural engineers design the
required foundation type in such conditions. In some field conditions, deep foundations
encounter problems of ground water.

In such conditions the water-bearing capacity of the soil has to be ascertained in

order to adopt preventive measures against ground water seepage into foundation.
Building foundations on a soil stratum near surface water bodies such as tanks,
reservoirs, rivers, etc., require extra precautions so as to maintain a barrier within the soil
zone, otherwise a water squeezing problem will occur in the foundation. In such situations,
civil engineers have to study the hydro geological conditions of the region in order to
design suitable foundation.

 FOUNDATION CARRIED TO BEDROCK

A major building requires a hard foundation, preferably over a hard bedrock. In
certain field conditions, hard rocks are not exposed at the surface but lie below the ground.
In such situations, the civil engineer has to confirm the depth of the bedrock when he
wants to transfer the load of the building. Geophysical surveys, in particular the electrical
resistivity method, helps to determine saturated zone and depth of the bedrock.

Selection of a suitable foundation design depends on the ground conditions, quality

and occurrence of ground water, type of building, etc. If the bedrock lies below the
weathered and ground water zone, the foundation piles have to carried down to the
bedrock. In such a situation, selection of piles depends on the depth of the bedrock, ground
water quality and type of bedrock also. If steel piles are to be designed, it is necessary to

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study to study the corrosion problem. In such conditions, the quality of the water has to be
determined, if the engineer has to design concrete piles, sulphate content in the ground
water must be ascertained. Excess sulphate content in the water reacts with concrete and
gradually weakens the pile. The structural engineer will design the foundation type based
on all the characteristics listed above.

Heavy building-load foundations, directly on hard bedrock are relatively easier for
the engineer to design as compared to other bedrock at deeper zones. Hard bedrock rarely
occurs at surface at the site of urban localities. Nevertheless, major buildings are
constructed in industrial localities of urban areas. If bedrock is situated in an area, Of the
bedrock is situated in an area, it is necessary to established its depth and continuity and
also to ascertain the strength parameters of the rocks. If the rocks are highly dislocated, it
is necessary to study the structural features of the bedrock. The type of bedrock and kind
of the building play a vital role for the engineer in the selection of a suitable foundation
design.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION

1. Distribution of load
2. Reduction of differential settlement
3. Stability against sliding and overturning
4. Reduction of distress against soil movement
5. Provides level surface

Basic requirement of foundation

1. The foundation should be capable of bearing the design load without exceeding the
permissible stresses on the foundation materials
2. The building load should be capable of transmitting the foundations to the subsoil
zone. The bearing pressure of the supporting soil must be within the permissible
limits of the settlement.
3. The building foundation should be laid preferably on stable hard soil or hard rock to
control shrinkage or swelling of the subsoil zone.

 TYPES OF FOUNDATION STRUCTURE

The design of foundations embodies three essential operations, namely,
calculating the loads to be transmitted by the foundation structure to the soils or
rocks supporting it, determining the engineering performance of these soils and
rocks, and then designing a suitable foundation structure.

 FOOTINGS
Distribute the load to the ground over an area sufficient to suit the pressures to the
properties of the soil or rock. Their size therefore is governed by the strength of the
foundation materials. If the footing supports a single column, it is known as a spread or

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pad footing, whereas a footing, beneath a wall is referred to as a strip or continuous
footing. Footings usually provide the most economical type of foundation structure, but the
allowable bearing capacity must be available to provide an adequate factor of safety
against shear failure in the soil and to ensure that settlements are not excessive.
Settlement for any given pressure increases with the width of footing in almost direct
proportion on clays and to a lesser degree on sands.

 RAFT
Permits the construction of a satisfactory foundation in materials whose strength is
too low for the use of footings. The chief function of a raft is to spread the building load
over as great an area of ground as possible and thus reduce the bearing pressure to a
minimum. In addition, a raft provides a degree of rigidity that reduces differential
movements in the superstructure. The settlement of a raft foundation does not depend on
the weight of the building that is supported by the raft. It depends on the difference
between this weight and the weight of the soil that is removed prior to the construction of
the raft, provided the heave produced by the excavation is inconsequential. A raft can be
built at a sufficient depth so that the weight of soil removed equals the weight of the
building. Hence, such rafts are sometimes called floating foundations.

 PILES
May be divided into three main types according to the effects of their installation,
namely, displacement piles, small-displacement piles and non-displacement piles.
Displacement piles are installed by driving and so their volume has to be accommodated
below ground by vertical and lateral displacements of soil that may give rise to heave or
compaction, which may have detrimental effects on any neighbouring structures. Driving
also may cause piles that are already installed to lift. Driving piles into clay may affect its
consistency. In other words, the penetration of the pile, combined with the vibrations set
up by the falling hammer, destroy the structure of the clay and initiate a new process of
consolidation that drags the piles in a downward direction, indeed they may settle on
account of their contact with the remolded mass of clay even if they are not loaded.
Sensitive clays are affected in this way, whereas insensitive clays are not. Small
displacement piles include some piles that may be used in soft alluvial ground of
considerable depth. They also may be used to withstand uplift forces. They are not
suitable in stiff clays or gravels. Non-displacement piles are formed by boring and the hole
may be lined with casing that is or is not left in place. When working near existing
structures that are founded on loose sands or silts, particularly if these are saturated, it is
essential to avoid the use of methods that cause dangerous vibrations that may give rise to
a quick condition.

For practical purposes, the ultimate bearing capacity may be taken as that load
which causes the head of the pile to settle 10% of the pile diameter. The ratio between the
settlement of a pile foundation and that of a single pile acted upon by the design load can
have almost any value. This is due to the fact that the settlement of an individual pile
depends only on the nature of the soil in direct contact with the pile, whereas the
settlement of a pile foundation also depends on the number of piles and on the

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compressibility of the soil located between the level of the tips of the piles and the surface
of the bedrock.

 BEARING CAPACITY
Foundation design is concerned primarily with ensuring that movements of a
foundation are kept within limits that can be tolerated by the proposed structure without
adversely affecting its functional requirements. Hence, the design of a foundation
structure requires an understanding of the local geological and groundwater conditions
and, more particularly, an appreciation of the various types of ground movement that can
occur.

 SETTLEMENT
Generally all buildings settle down, however, this depends on the foundation-
bearing subsoil or rock formation. Excessive settlement will lead to failure of the
foundation and will consequently result in the collapse of the structure. Monumental
buildings constructed a long time ago have experienced settlement of structures. For
instance, the Taj Mahal in Agra shows cracks in the cellar, beneath the plinth terrace on
the northern side and in the eastern side superstructure of the mausoleum. Remedial
measures were however, carried out to repair this damage. Settlement of buildings is
mainly traceable to causes of settlement and causes of differential settlement.

Causes of settlement

1. Elastic compression of the foundation and subsoil

2. Consolidation
3. Shrinkage and swelling of clays
4. Mining subsidence of the region

Cause of differential settlement

1. Geological Discontinuities, structural dislocation, lithological variations

2. Non-uniform pressure distribution from foundation
3. Excessive ground water seepage into the foundation
4. Unequal freezing, thawing, swelling of soils

Prevention of excessive settlement

Excessive settlement of building foundations can be minimized through detailed

study of the geological features of the region. Generally, civil engineers tend to give much
importance to the soil zone and overlook the regional geological aspects. In many
instances, it is required to study the field problems based on the geological setup and to
advocate engineering skills to design foundations of the buildings depending on the
subsurface conditions of the area. However, the following few guidelines will help the
engineer to take preventive measures against excessive settlement.

1. Regional geology of the area has to be studied

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 2. Subsurface geological features have to be delineated with geophysical and test
boring methods
3. Hydro geological conditions of the region have to be studied in detail. Fluctuation of
water or excessive mining of water table will influence the substratum zone. When
the engineer is designing foundation structures, especially in the ground water
zone, he should study aquifer characteristics and quality of the ground water. In
some conditions, the civil engineer selects a suitable foundation pile depending upon
the quality of the subsurface water.
4. In designing a building foundation footing, in a mining region, the civil engineer has
to take extra precautions. He must seek the help of a mining geologist and mining
engineer for demarcation of any abandoned mines in the region and an
understanding of the mining geological conditions of the region. Generally a town
will be build above the mining region. In the case of heavy process plants or
metallurgical plants, deep foundations have to designed with careful analysis of
subsurface features. Subsidence of the mining region influences the deep
foundations of the region.
5. While laying foundations on sloping grounds, it is better to take even strata as far
as possible. Sloping strata are generally not chosen for buildings, but however,
people living in montane and elevated regions are bound to construct building there.
In such situations all geological features must be studied before designing any
foundations.
6. While constructing buildings in high seismic zones, the seismic intensity of the
region has to be studied in the detail before adopting any design. It is necessary to
refer to seismic zoning maps of the region. The civil engineer has to design
foundations in such zone based on the safety seismic factors.

 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF BUILDING

A detailed description of the causes, effects, seismic zoning and seismic provisions
for earthquakes has been given in chapter on earthquakes and seismic hazards. It has
been noted that during earthquakes loss of life and property is due to the damage arising
from the structure failure. In Uttarkashi in 1990, during an earthquake more than 150
people lost their lives and several buildings got damaged. It is known that loss of life and
property is very less in regions where earth quakes occur frequently, because in the
anticipation of seismic hazards, earthquake-resistance structures are built and people are
aware of the general precautionary measures to be taken during earthquakes.

The earthquake-resistance design of the building may be broadly classified into three
types:

1. Standard method
2. Seismic coefficient method
3. Dynamic design method

STANDARD METHOD

Standard methods are adopted on the basis of past experience of earthquakes and
by designing earthquake-resistant building structures.

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SEISMIC COEFFICIENT METHOD

In this method, dynamic forces acting on the building structures are minimized.
This method is utilized for low and medium height reinforced concrete buildings, steel
buildings and wooden buildings.

DYNAMIC DESIGN METHOD

This method is adopted for very high, special and important buildings. In such cases
the expected seismic wave forms are to be calculated below the ground on the basis of
shake-response vibrations of the building structure.

The Height of the buildings is restricted in the seismic-intense zone. Extensive

research is underway in the field of earthquake-resistant structures. Japanese scientists
have worked in the field for long and have succeeded in designing earthquake-resistant
buildings. The architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) has high-rise buildings, few points
which are listed below:

1. The configuration of the building (planned elevation) should be as simple as

practicable.
2. The foundation should generally be based on hard ground
3. The structure resisting horizontal forces should be arranged as much as practicable
so that tortional deformation is not produced
4. The structure of the building should be dynamically simple and definite.
5. The frame of the building structure should have adequate ductility besides the
required strength.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the benefits provided by large dams?

2. What forms of power generation do large dam critics support?
3. Are dams an effective method of stopping flood damage?
4. How can you model deep tunnel in rock mass?
5. What is the joint sets and how it can use in tunnel construction?
6. What are some parameters for geological rick analysis in tunneling projects?
7. What are the significance of engineering geology to construction?
8. Why does differential settlement cause problems in a building?
9. What is bearing capacity, how do you determine it?

267 | P a g e
 REFERENCES
Chapter 1: GENERAL GEOLOGY

 Geology in Civil Engineering

[1] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineering (P.C. Varghese)

 Branches of Geology

[1] Prof. A. Balasubramanian, 150 Branches of Geology (Earth Sciences), Centre for
Advanced Studies in Earth Science University of Mysore. Mysore-570 006

 Earth Structure and Composition

[1] https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/the-composition-and-
structure-of-earth/

 Elementary knowledge on Continental drift and Plate tectonics

[1] Montgomery, C. W., Environmental Geology, 5th Edition, The McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc., New York, 2011.

[2] Varghese, P. C., Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers, PHI Learning Private
Limited, New Delhi, 2012.

 Earth Processes

[1] Donald J. Easterbrook. Surface Processes and Landforms.

[2] Landscapes on the Edge. New Horizons for Research on Earth's Surface (2010).
THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL. 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001

 Weathering

[1] Varghese, P.C., Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations, PHI Learning, New
Delhi, 2009. Foundation Engineering (Deals with Soil Mechanics and Design of Pile
Foundations), PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2005.

[2] Bell, F.G. and Lindsay, P. 1999. The petrographic and geomechanical properties of
some sandstones from the Newspaper Member of the Natal Group, near Durban, South
Africa. Engineering Geology

 Work of river, wind and sea and their engineering importance

[1] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineering P.C. Varghese

 Origin, occurrence of earthquake

[1] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers by P.C. Varghese

268 | P a g e
 REFERENCES
 Mode of occurrence

[1] https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/2-6-mineral-properties/?fbclid=IwAR0dQFjF-
C-VbBJ53a3zUK1DaKkdJC4MGGOJFtM1e7mtGzWTJnAw49zA5WI

[2] Rashinkar, D. 2014. Role of Geology in Civil Engineering.

[3] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers by P.C. Varghese

 Geological Prospecting

[1]Smirnov, V. I. Geologicheskie osnovy poiskov i razvedok rudnykh mestorozhdenii, 2nd e

d. Moscow, 1957.
[2]Kreiter, V. M. Poiski i razvedka mestorozhdenii poleznykh iskopaemykh, 2nd ed. parts
1-2. Moscow, 1960–61.
Poiski i razvedka mestorozhdenii poleznykh iskopaemykh. Moscow, 1968.

 Ground Water

[1] Rics, H. and Thomas, L. Watson, Elements of Engineering Geology, Wiley and Sons,
London, 1947.

[2] Joseph, M. Trefethen, Geology for Engineers, Affiliated East-west Press, New Delhi,
1964.

[3] Garg, P.K., Physical and Engineering Geology (4th ed.), Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi, 2009.

[4] Varghese, P.C., Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers

 Importance in Civil Engineering

[1] Balasubramanian, A. 2017.Scope of Studying Engineering Geology. Centre of

Advanced [2]Studies in Earth Science, University of Mysore, Mysore-6.

[3] Rashinkar, D. 2014. Role of Geology in Civil Engineering.

[4] Bell,F.G.2007.Engineering Geology (Second Edition). Elsevier Ltd., Linacre House,

Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP,UK.

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 REFERENCES
Chapter 2: MINERALOGY

 Elementary knowledge on symmetry elements of crystallographic systems

[1] https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-3-crystallization-of-magma/

 Physical properties of minerals

 Study of following rock forming minerals

 Quartz family, fieldspar family, augite, hornblende, biotte, muscovite, calcite,

garnet

 Properties, process of formation of all minerals

[1] Physical Geology By: Steven Earle

 Coal and petroleum

[1] The Geology of Fossil Fuels by: Nayera Abelaziz & Upasana Banerejee

[2] Coal and petroleum by: Brenda martinez

 Their origin and occurrence in India

[1] Mineral of India by D.N. Wadia

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 REFERENCES
Chapter 3: PETROLOGY

 Classification of Rocks

[1] GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS by A.C.McLean C.D. Gribble 2 nd edition

revised by C.D Gribble

 Distinction between Ingenious, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks

[1] Geology for civil engineer A.C. McLean , C.D. Gribble Second edition Revised by
C.D. Gribble

 Description occurrence, properties and distribution of following rocks:

 Igneous Rocks

[1] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers by P.C. Varghese

 Sedimentary Rocks

[1] Geology for civil engineer A.C. McLean , C.D. Gribble Second edition Revised by
C.D. Gribble

 Metamorphic Rocks

[1] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers by P.C. Varghese

Chapter 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

 Attitude of Beds
[1] Earth Science, Steve I. Dutch, James S. Monroe, Joseph M. Moran. Instructor's
Resource Manual (Wadsworth Earth Science and Astronomy Series) Authors: Steven I.
Dutch, Joseph M. Moran Publisher: Thomson Wadsworth, 1998
[2] Science 101: Geology (Science 101) Author: Mark A. S. McMenamin Publisher:
HarperCollins, 2007
[3] Earth Science Author: Dr. Alessandro Grippo, Ph. D.
 Outcrops
[1] Structural geology lab 2: outcrop patterns and structure contour

 Geological Maps
[1] Rics, H. and Thomas, L Watson, Elements of Engineering Geology, Wiley and Sons,
London, 1947.

[2] Dimitri, P. Keynine and William ,R. Judd, Principles of Engineering Geology and
Geotechnics, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2005.

271 | P a g e
 REFERENCES
[3] Garg, PK, Physical and Engineering Geology (4th ed..), Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi, 2009.

[4] Ranjan Gopal and Rao, ASR, Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, New Age
International Publisher, New Delhi, 1991. Garg, op. cit.

[5] Karandikar, DV., Failure of Undersocketed Bored Cast in situ Piles in Weathered
Rock in Mumbai, Proceedings Vol. I, Indian Geotechnical Conference, Chennai, 2006

 Study of Structures, Folds, Faults and Joints

[1] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers by P.C Varghese

 Their bearing on Engineering Construction

 Rock Mechanics

[1]https://books.google.com.ph/books/about/Fundamentals_of_Rock_Mechanics.html?id=Pb
MqM8GH9-
IC&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=true
[2] https://www.crcpress.com/Practical-Rock-Mechanics/Hencher/p/book/9781482217261
 Physical Properties and Mechanical Properties
[1] Bell, F.G. 2007. Engineering Geology (Second Edition). Elsevier Ltd., Linacre
House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK.

[2] Schön, J.H. 2011. Physical Properties of Rocks (Handbook of Petroleum Exploration
and Production Vol. 8). Elsevier B.V., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford,
OX5 1GB, UK.

 Dynamic Property of Rocks

[1] Omer Aydan, Department of Civil Engineering, University of the Ryukyus,
Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan, Rock Dynamics, Publisher CRC Press/Balkema 2017

[2] W.A.M. Wanniarachchi, P.G. Ranjith, M.S.A Perera, T.D. Rathnaweera, Q. Lyu and
B. Mahanta, Assessment of dynamic material properties of intact rocks using seismic
wave attenuation, Published Royal Society 2017

[3] Choi, S. O.; Hwang, H.; Lee, S., AA(Dept Energy & Resources Eng, Kangwon Nat'l
University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea; choiso@kangwon.ac.kr), AB(Dept Energy &
Resources Eng, Kangwon Nat'l University, Chuncheon, Republic of
Korea; hhy0923@kangwon.ac.kr), AC(Dept Energy & Resources Eng, Kangwon Nat'l
University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea; lhj3601@kangwon.ac.kr), The study on
Measurement of Dynamic Properties of Rocks, Published by American Geophysical Union,
Fall Meeting 2011

[4] Introduction into Geomechanics, Chapter 23, Publisher Geotechnical Institute TU

Bergakademie Freiberg, Angela Griebsch 2017

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 REFERENCES
[5] B.P. Simser, Rock Dynamics and Applications 3, Trondheim, Norway, Published
CRC Press 2018

 Types of Waves Theory

[1] Garg, P.K., Physical and Engineering Geology (4th ed.), Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi, 2009.

[2] GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS by A.C.McLean C.D. Gribble 2nd edition
revised by C.D Gribble

 Geologic Work of Running Water

[1] Carla W. Montgomery, Physical Geology, 3rd ed.

[2] 1993 McGraw Hill Company, Inc. Dubuque, Lowa.

[3] Charles C. Plummer and David McGeary, Physical Geology, 8th Edition

[4] Van Zandt, Franklin K. 1976. Boundaries of the United States and the Several
States. U.S.G.S. Professional Paper 909, p. 4.

 Static and Dynamic Moduli of Elasticity

[1] Simmons, G. and Brace, W.F. 1965. Comparison of static and dynamic
measurements of compressibility of rocks

[2] Suarez‐Rivera, R. and Fjær, E. 2013. Evaluating the poroelastic effect on

anisotropic, organic‐rich, mudstone systems. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering

 Site Investigations
[1] Peter Watts and Rod Davis, Feedlot Design and Construction
J. B. BURLAND, M. JAMIOLKOWSKI, C. VIGGIANI, THE STABILISATION OF THE
LEANING TOWER OF PISA

[2] P.C. Varghese, Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers

 Geological Methods
[1] Montgomery, Carla W., 1997., Environmental Geology, 5th Edition., WCB/
McGraw Hill., United States of America

[2] Bell, F.G., 2007., Engineering Geology, 2nd Edition., Butterworth-Heinemann., USA

[3] Price, David George.,2009., Engineering Geology Principles and Practice., Springer
– Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

[4] Zumberge., Physical Geology., 10th edition

 Geophysical methods

[1] F.G.Bell, Engineering Geology Second Edition

 Seismic and Electrical Methods

[1] Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers by P.C. Varghese
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 REFERENCES
 Core Boring
[1] Bishwajit Chowdhury. Displacement boring Wash boring Auger boring Rotary
drilling Percussion drilling Continuous sampling.

[2] Acker, W.L. III. 1974. Basic procedures for soil sam- pling and core drilling. Acker
Drill Company, Scranton, PA. 246 pp.

[3] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1997. Engineer Regula- tion, ER 1110–1–1807,
Procedures for drilling in earth embankments, Washington, DC.

[4] U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclama- tion. 1998. Engineering

geology field manual. Second edition, 2001 reprint. Washington, DC.

[5] Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Braja M. Das, Khaled Sobhan.

[6] Foundation Engineering Second Edition. Ralph B. Peck. Walter E. Hanson. Thomas
H. Thornburn.

[7] Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering Second Edition. Braja M. Das.

 Logging of Cores
[1] JENNINGS, J.E., BRINK, A.B.A., WILLIAMS, A.A.B. "Soil Profiling for Civil
Engineering Purposes in South Africa". TRANS. OF THE SAICE, Jan 1973, pp. 3 - 11.

[2] Commission on Terminology, Symbols and Graphic Representation. "Terminology".

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF ROCK MECHANICS. Final draft July 1975.

[3] Commission on Recommendations on Site Investigation Techniques.

"Recommendations on Site Investigation Techniques". INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF
ROCK MECHANICS. Final Report July 1975.

[4] MILLER, R. P. "Engineering Classification and index properties for Intact Rock".
PhD THESIS UNIV. ILLINOIS 1965.

[5] J.E. de Beer, A.J. Hammond, A. MacG. Robertson, A. van Schalkwyk and J.M.
Weaver.

[6] PITEAU, D.R. "Geological Factors significant to the stability of slopes in rock".
PLANNING OPEN PIT MINES. ED. P.W.J. VAN RENSBURG. A.A. BALKEMA, CAPE
TOWN 1970. pp. 33 - 53.

[7] WEAVER, J.M., "Exploratory Drilling for Rock Masses". THIS SYMPOSIUM.

[8] DEERE, D.U. "Technical Description of rock cores". ROCK MECH. ENG. GEOL.
Vol. 1, pp. 16 - 22.

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 Geological Condition Necessary For Construction

[1] https://www.scribd.com/document/370489591/Geological-Conditions-Necessry-for-
Construction-of-Dams

[2] https://www.brainkart.com/article/Geological-Considerations-In-Tunnelling_3817/

[3] Engineering Geology by F.G Bell

[4] Engineering Geology by D.V Reddy

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