Reading and Writing Skills
Definition
Lesson 1: Patterns of Paragraph
Development
▪ are emphasize by writers to make the
relationships between ideas clear to readers,
e.g., writers use specific transitions that help
readers connect sentences.
▪ give readers a way of organizing information
in long-term memory, e.g., readers can
mentally categorize information into causes
and effects, steps in a process, similarities and
differences, etc.
▪ are characteristic, or typical, methods of
developing idea in writing.
NOTE: Patterns of organization in paragraphs don’t
always come in the purest form. Sometimes they are
mixed together in exactly equal measure. Much of the
time, though, one pattern is primary, or the most
important. The primary pattern is used for the
majority of sentences in the passage and is central to
explaining the main idea.
Types of Patterns of Paragraph Development
1. Narration
▪ Sequential presentation of events is
observed
▪ Contains action words verbs or adverbs
▪ Use transitions
▪ Contains “story” components
The following are some transition words used to
signal time or sequence: first, second etc., after, next,
then, eventually, meanwhile, short time later, during,
at the same time, simultaneously, suddenly, instantly,
momentarily.
2. Description
▪ Elucidates the nature of people, places,
and things you see
▪ Starts with the physical description
2 Types of Description
a. Subjective – describes an impression of what
is observed
Ex: “It was dark and lonely night.”
b. Objective – fiction description. Presents an
impartial and actual picture of an object or scene
Ex. “The dirt of the girl’s cotton dresses continued on
their legs, feet, arms, and faces to make them all of a
piece. Their greasy uncolored hair hung down,
uncombed, with a grim finality. I knelt to see them
better, to remember them for all time. The tears that
had slipped down my dress left unsurprising dark
spots, and made the front yard blurry and even more
unreal. The world had taken a deep breath and was
having doubts about continuing to revolve.”
The signal words are: above, across, along
alongside, amidst, around, away from, back of,
behind, below, beneath, besides, between, beyond,
by, down, farther, here, in front of, inside, into, near,
off, on top of, opposite to, outside, over, throughout,
to the right, under.
3.
▪ Identifies a term and sets it apart from all
other terms that may be related to it
▪ Generally, it begins by citing the general
class to which the terms belong.
▪ What follows are the particulars to
differentiate the term from other members
of that class providing clear details to
support the term’s definition.
The signal words are is defined as, as defined,
means, refers to, to define, to illustrate.
4. Exemplification
▪ The writer develops a general statement-
topic sentence, with one or more
examples
▪ Making the general idea clear by
exemplifying
The signal words are after all, as an example,
consider the following, for example, for instance, in
other words, in particular, in short, namely, put
another way, specifically, stated differently, that is,
to be specific, to clarify, to illustrate
5. Comparison and Contrast
▪ Examines how given subjects are either
similar or different
▪ Effective use of appropriate transitional
words
▪ Comparisons allow you to analyze and
evaluate two or more concepts
▪ You can compare two concepts by
showing either the differences or the
similarities between them
▪ This type of organization is especially
effective in showing how one concept is
better than another
There are two ways on how ideas can be
arranged:
a. SEPARATELY which involves describing
one item first followed by the second item
b. SIDE -BY- SIDE- discussing both items based
on each point of comparison
The signal words for comparison: also, as, both,
equally, in similar fashion, in comparison, in the
same way, like, likewise, similarly, to compare. The
signal words for contrast: although, and yet, as
opposed to, but, conversely, counter to, despite, even
so, even though, in contrast, in spite of, in the
meantime, instead, however, nevertheless,
nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand,
otherwise, still, the fact remains, unlike, whereas,
6. Cause and Effect
▪ Explains WHY something happens
▪ Explores how a particular paragraph is to
explore how such effect came to be
▪ Begins with a particular cause then
explains the consequences of effects of
this cause
 ▪ Multiple causes with single effect, single Organized
cause with multiple effects Important Features of an Organized Text:
The signal words for causes are as, because (of the Focus
fact), being that, due to (the fact that), for, for the ▪ What do you really want to explore in
reason that, in that, in view of (the fact), in as much your writing?
as, one reason, owing to (the fact, seeing that, since. ▪ What is your central idea?
The signal words for effects are accordingly, as a Development
consequence, as a result (of this), because (of this),
▪ Main ide
consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence,
so, so much(so) that, so that, therefore, thus. ▪ Supporting details
7. Problem and Solution ▪ 5-7 sentences = 1 paragraphs
▪ In composition writing, problem-solution Unity
is a method for analyzing and writing ▪ Topic sentence
about a topic by identifying a problem ▪ Supporting details
and proposing one or more solutions. ▪ Clinching sentence
▪ Problem-solution paragraphs as the term Formula of an Organized Text/Essay
implies, presents and identifies a problem STTC
and proposes possible solution/s. Single idea
8. Persuasive Topic sentence
▪ A persuasive paragraph tries to convince Technique (appropriate)
the reader that a particular point of view Connectiveness
is worthy of consideration. It wants you Coherence and Cohesion
to consider both sides of an issue, but it a. Cohesion
reveals a bias in favor of one side over ▪ The act of forming a whole unit
another. ▪ A subset of coherence
▪ A persuasive paragraph intends to ▪ Focused on the grammatical aspect of
convince readers to do or believe in writing
something. ▪ Degree to which sentences are connected
▪ Knowing how to write a persuasive b. Coherence
paragraph allows you to express your ▪ Quality of being logical, consistent, and
personal conviction or opinion about an able to understood
issue or topic and make the readers agree ▪ Rhetorical aspects of which include
with or adopt your conviction or opinion. developing and supporting your
The signal words are: first, second etc., another, argument, synthesizing and integrating
next, last, finally, because, since, for and reading, organizing, and classifying
although when you want to give reasons. In ideas.
answering oppositions, the words such as of NOTE #1: A text will be COHESIVE if cohesive ties
course, nevertheless, on the other hand, some are used. However, it will ONLY be COHERENT if
may say may be used while therefore, hence, cohesive ties are used appropriately to create
consequently and thus are appropriate words meaning.
when you want to draw conclusions. NOTE #2: You can have cohesion without coherence,
Lesson 2: Properties of a Well-Written but you cannot have coherence without cohesion. The
picture does not make sense unless the correct pieces
Paragraph are placed in the correct order, even if certain pieces
Organized: it is presented in a way that is logical may be the same size and shape.
and aesthetically pleasing COHERENCE – Logic (Sense)
Coherent: ideas stick together. The flow of ideas COHESION – Helpful links (Glue)
from one another is logical and relevant. Overall Language
understandability of what is written and spoken. Use Concrete Language
Cohesive: the degree to which sentences are ▪ Concrete/specific words form sharp, clear
connected so that the flow of ideas is easy to meaning, and stand for what the reader
follow easily perceives.
Language: includes precise and accurate word ▪ Avoid abstract words because they have
choices and well-crafted sentences based on the GENERIC meaning
context ▪ Use concise sentences – short and simple
Mechanics: describes the technical aspects of
writing. It specifies the established conventions
for words that you use- spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, etc.
 Concrete and Specific Language - tangible images
with details the reader can visualize
Concise Language - straightforward and to-the-point
Familiar Language - easily recognized and
understood because they use it on a regular basis
Use Familiar Language
▪ Avoid highfalutin vocabulary (H-words)
▪ Use words that are almost in everyone’s
vocabulary
▪ In writing technical term (jargon), explain
it by using simpler definition and
examples
Use Precise Language
▪ Precise – exact, accurate
Use Constructive Language
▪ Constructive language phrases a
potentially negative message in a positive
way, whereas destructive language
directs blame and criticism toward the
reader, creating defensiveness.
▪ Readers are likely to become defensive
when the writer’s language expresses any
or all of the following:
o Superiority over the reader
o Indifference or apathy about an issue
of importance to the reader
o Negative evaluation or judgment of
the reader (as opposed to neutral
descriptions or observations)
o Command or control over the reader
o Skepticism or doubt about the
reader’s credibility or legitimacy of
their claims.
Formality of Language
▪ The formality of the language one uses
should match the formality of the
situation and the relationship between the
writer and reader.
Mechanics
(Technical aspects in writing)
Components of Mechanics
1. Spelling
▪ When you write, always make sure that
you are consistently using one standard
with regard to the spelling of your words.
Remember that there are slight
differences in American English spelling
and British English spelling.
2. Punctuation
▪ Punctuation is the act of using a system of
symbols such as the comma, period,
quotation marks, question marks, etc. that
are used to give structure to and organize
a text. The use of punctuation guides the
reader regarding how the text should be
read.
a. Comma
▪ Use to separate long clauses joined by
conjunctions.
▪ Use comma after introductory clauses.
▪ Use comma for appositive phrase (set
beside another noun or pronoun to
explain or identify it)
b. Semi-Colon
▪ Use semicolon when you link two
independent clauses with no connecting
words that are closely related in thought
▪ When a semicolon joins two or more
ideas in one sentence, those ideas are then
given equal rank.
▪ Use semicolon when you link two
independent clauses with one of the
following conjunctive adverbs: however,
moreover, therefore, consequently,
otherwise, nevertheless, thus
▪ Use colon to:
o Separate Bible Chapter and
Verses
o Separate volume from page in
bibliography/reference
o Salutatory greeting in formal
letters
o Introduce a list
Lesson 3: Claims
Claim – an idea that a speaker/writer asks an
audience to accept. It could also be an idea,
opinion or assertion.
Implicit Information Vs. Explicit Information
a. Implicit
▪ Implied
▪ Suggested
▪ Indirect
b. Explicit
▪ Directly stated
▪ Literally found in the text
NOTE #1: If you can point to it in the text, it is
EXPLICIT information.
NOTE #2: If you can use the explicit information
in the text to support an inference you make, it is
IMPLICIT information.
Explicit Claim
Claim is directly and clearly stated in the text. It
is when you can easily point out the information
in the passage
Implicit Claim
Claim is indirectly expressed in the text and
needs to look for clues or make inferences to
understand its meaning.
 Claim
▪ Central idea
▪ What the writer tries to prove in the text
by providing details, explanations and
other types of evidence.
▪ A sentence that summarizes the most
important thing that the writer wants to
say as a result of his/her thinking, reading
or writing.
Characteristics of a Good Claim
A claim should be:
▪ Argumentative and debatable
▪ Specific and focused
▪ Interesting and engaging
▪ Logical; results from reasonable
weighing of support provided.
Lesson 4: Types of Claims
1. Claim of Fact
▪ Refer to a condition that has:
o Existed (past)
o Exists (present)
o Will exist (future)
▪ Inferences made are based on data,
documents, scientific observation and
research
A claim that asserts some empirical truth
▪ Something that can be determined by
careful observation of past, present, or
future.
▪ These are those we think about rightly as
being true or false
▪ Argument usually turns on strength of
evidence presented as reason for arguer’s
belief in the claim
2. Claim of Value
▪ Require the use of STANDARDS of
evaluation, presentation of advantages or
moral standards used, use of example to
concretize abstraction, and use of credible
experts
▪ Based on likes – dislikes/good – bad
A claim that asserts a judgement of some sort
▪ Look for keywords that are a matter of
judgement rather than fact: good, well,
kind, useful, desirable etc.
▪ A claim is based on things we like or
dislike. Thus, it deals with goals, with
things we find attractive
▪ Speakers provide reasoning for their
judgement
3. Claim of Policy
▪ Are specific and measurable actions that
need to be done in order to address issues
or concerns presented in an argument or
proposition.
▪ Argue that certain conditions should exist
▪ Asserts that an action should be taken
▪ Be sensitive to calls that some action be
taken
▪ Decisions about where we should take an
action or not are the most complex of
arguments
▪ Arguments usually turn on whether the
reasons for taking the action outweigh the
possible costs of taking the action
Lesson 5: Intertextuality and Hypertext
Intertex - also known as “Intertextuality,” is one
method of text development that enables the
author to make a text based on another text. It
happens when some properties of an original text
are incorporated in the text that is created by
another author.
Intertextuality
a. Definition
▪ A process of text development that
merges two more processes such as
imitation and creation in doing a text.
b. Etymology
▪ Rooted from the work of Ferdinand de
Saussure while first used by Bulgarian-
French philosopher and psychoanalyst
Julia Kristeva in the 1960s.
c. Methodology
▪ It comprises of four pronounced methods
namely: retelling, pastiche, quotation,
and allusion.
What is Intertextuality?
Intertextuality is the shaping of text’s
meaning by another text. It is the
interconnection between similar or related
works of literature that reflect and influence an
audience’s interpretation of the text.
Types of Intertextualities
1. Allusion
▪ An implied or indirect reference to a
person, place, thing or event
▪ An allusion is when we hint at something
and expect the other person to understand
what we are referencing
▪ However, allusions are only effective to
the extent that they are recognized and
understood by the reader, and that they
are properly inferred and interpreted by
the reader. If an allusion is obscure or
misunderstood, it can lose effectiveness
by confusing the reader.
Examples:
a. His smile is like kryptonite to me.
(Superman’s weakness)
b. She felt like she had a golden ticket. (Charlie
and the Chocolate Factory
2. Parody
▪ Is a comical imitation of another work. It
stops at mocking or making fun of one
work
▪ A work that’s created by imitating an
existing original work in order to make
fun of or comment on an aspect of the
original
▪ Parody is important because it allows us
to criticize and question without being
aggressive or malicious. Rather, we use
comedy. Parody imitated, stresses, and
draws attention to certain features,
characters, or plot points which are weak,
silly, strange or subject to criticism of any
sort.
3. Pastiche
▪ A pastiche is a work of visual art,
literature, theatre, or music that imitates
the style or character of the work of one
or more other artists. Unlike parody,
pastiche celebrate, rather than mocks, the
work it imitates
▪ Pastiche literally means to combine, or
“paste” together, multiple elements
mixture of different styles. It intentionally
copies the style of someone else’ work as
a way of paying respect, or honor, to great
works of the past.
Linear Text
Linear text refers to traditional text that needs to
be read from beginning to the end. Here, the
reader makes sense of the text according to the
grammatical and syntactic arrangement of the
words. Ex: novels, letters, poems, textbooks
NOTE: Nonlinear text → Links → Hypertext
What is Hypertext?
Hypertext is writing on the web that
incorporates the use of hyperlinks. This is its
main feature and what makes it different from
regular writing. While we read most book text or
paper text from top to bottom, left to right, front
to back, we don’t necessarily read hypertext in
the same linear way.
Advantages of Hypertext
▪ Multiple paths of inquiry
▪ Individualized learning
▪ Reader/learner control
▪ Supports the connection of ideas
▪ Some text is suited to hypertext
▪ Critical thinking
▪ Creating new references
▪ Ease of navigation
▪ Asynchronous communication
Disadvantages of Hypertext
▪ Paper-based information is more
comfortable to read
▪ Computer/gadget is required
▪ Reader’s disorientation
▪ Cognitive overload
▪ Causes eye strain
▪ Too much control
Print Reading → Linear Reading (from
beginning to end)
Digital Reading → Nonlinear Reading
(Hypertext)
Hypertext – is a text displayed on a computer or
other electronic devices with references to other
text that the reader can immediately access.
Hypertext documents are interconnected by
hyperlinks.
Hypertextuality
a. Definition
▪ It is a non-linear way to present
information, usually accomplished using
“links” which help the readers navigate
further information about the topic being
discussed and may also lead to other links
that can direct the readers to various
options.
b. Etymology
▪ The term hypertext was coined by Ted
Nelson in 1963.
c. Methodology
▪ Hyperlink- use of text, document, link.
Hypermedia- use of audio, video, and
images
▪ Reader is free to navigate information by
exploring the connections provided.
▪ Different way of presenting information
than the usual linear form.
▪ Text no longer flows in a straight line
through a book. Instead, it is broken down
into many smaller units each addressing a
few issues.
▪ Acts as a bridge between two basics,
opposite, yet complementing elements