反物

彈理
班谷
1 底
Heat & Gases
熱與氣體
物理谷底反彈班
熱與氣體
Heat & Gases

作者 | Daniel Chan
出版 | Lab Edu Limited

版權為 Lab Edu Limited 所擁有

INTENSIVE COURSE - LESSON 1
Physics
LESSON FLOW 課堂流程
Temperature and Thermometers 溫度和溫度計

Heat and Internal Energy 熱與內能

Change of State 狀態變化

Transfer Processes 傳熱方式

Gases 氣體

LEARNING OBJECTIVE(S) 學習目標

「一定要識做」 及 「最好都識做埋」嘅題目

「一定要記」嘅同「應該都記」嘅公式及其主要運用方式

「需要理解」嘅概念

「只需記得」嘅 facts

After-class Learning 課後自學

理解本課公式嘅用法及限制

正確使用本課物理概念解釋現象

1
CONTENT
目錄

P.03-06
Temperature and Thermometers 溫度與溫度計

P.07-14
Heat and Internal Energy 熱與內能

P.15-18
Change of State 狀態變化

P.19-22
Transfer Processes 傳熱方式

P.23-32
Gases 氣體

P.33-38
After-class Learning 課後自學

2
熱與氣體
1. Temperature and Thermometers
溫度和溫度計
"Must-understand" concepts
" 必須理解 " 的概念
• Temperature* = measure the degree of hotness + a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles in an object
溫度 * = 測量熱度 + 測量物體中粒子的平均動能

• Temperature scaling & Calibration* – Upper fixed point = 100° C /Lower

fixed point = 0° C
溫度校準 * – 高定點 = 100° C/ 低定點 = 0° C

• Kelvin temperature = Celsius temperature + 273,

i.e. 0K & -273° C = absolute zero (lowest possible temperature)
絕對溫度 = 攝氏溫度 + 273，即 0 K 和 -273° C= 絕對零度（最低溫度）

• Thermometers – Thermometric property 溫度計 – 溫度特性 *

【= Physical property change with Temperature 物理特性隨溫度變化】

Examples 例子 : *
• Liquid-in-glass: Expansion of the liquid
玻璃液體：液體膨脹
• Rotary: Expansion of 2 different metals
旋轉式：擴展兩種不同的金屬
• Resistance: Temperature increase ⇒ resistance of metal increase
電阻：溫度增加⇒金屬的電阻增加
• Thermistor: Temperature increase ⇒ resistance of resistor decrease
熱敏電阻：溫度升高⇒電阻降低
• Liquid crystal: Change color according to temperature change
液晶：根據溫度變化而變色
• Infrared sensing: Temperature increase ⇒ increase the release of infrared
radiation
紅外感應：溫度升高⇒增加紅外輻射的釋放

3
Temperature and Thermometers 溫度和溫度計

"Should understand" concepts

" 應該理解 " 的概念

• Every matter is made up of atoms (and there are over 100 types of atoms,
each type is called an element)
每個物質都是由原子組成的（有一百多種原子，每種原子稱為元素）

• 2 or more atoms = molecules (e.g H2O)

兩個或更多原子 = 分子（例如 H2O)

• Physical property of Solid vs Liquid vs Gas (e.g shape / volume /

movement / P.E. difference)
固體 vs 液體 vs 氣體的物理性質（例如形狀 / 體積 / 運動 / 勢能）

"Must know" questions

" 必須知道 " 的問題

1. Describe how a liquid-in-glass thermometer can be calibrated. *

描述如何校準玻璃液體溫度計。 *

Ans 答案 :

【At standard atmospheric pressure 在標準大氣壓力下】

• Step 1 : Put the thermometer in pure melting ice and mark the liquid
level (lower fixed point) as 0° C.
第 1 步：將溫度計放在純融冰中，並將液位（下固定點）標記為 0° C。

• Step 2: Put the thermometer in pure boiling water and mark the liquid
level (upper fixed point) as 100° C.
第 2 步：將溫度計放在純沸水中，並將液位（上固定點）標記為 100° C。

• Step 3: Divide the interval between 2 marks into 100 equal divisions.
第 3 步：將 2 個標記之間的間隔劃分為 100 個相等的劃分。

4
Temperature and Thermometers 溫度和溫度計

"Good to know how to do" questions

" 可以嘗試 " 的問題

1. The advantages & disadvantages of using alcohol & mercury type of

liquid-in-glass thermometer.
使用酒精和水銀類型的玻璃液溫度計的優 / 缺點。

Ans 答案 :
• Alcohol: Non-toxic / Flammable
酒精：無毒 / 易燃

• Mercury: Faster response / Toxic

水銀：反應速度更快 / 有毒

2. Sensitivity of liquid-in-glass thermometer (able to detect small temp.

changes) *
玻璃液溫度計的靈敏度（能夠檢測微小的溫度變化）*

Ans 答案 :
• Increase the bulb size.
增加泡的尺寸。

• Use a narrow capillary tube.

使用狹窄的細管。

5
Temperature and Thermometers 溫度和溫度計

3. Responsiveness of liquid-in-glass thermometer (fast response to temp.

change) *
玻璃液溫度計的反應能力（快速反應溫度變化） *

Ans 答案 :
• Use mercury
使用水銀。

• Use thinner tube wall

使用較薄的管壁。

6
2. Heat and Internal Energy
熱與內能

"Must-understand" concepts
" 必須理解 " 的概念

• What is "Internal energy" of an object?

什麼是物體的 " 內能 " ？
- It is the total kinetic energy and potential energy in an object. *
" 內能 " 是物體的總動能 + 勢能。*

*Energy is measured in Joule (J).

* 能量以焦耳（J）為單位。

• The factors that can affect the level of Internal Energy of an object: *
可以影響物體內能的因素： *
- Temperature (KE): determine the average K.E of its particles.
溫度（動能）：其粒子的平均動能。
- States (PE): solid < liquid < gas state
狀態（勢能）：固態 < 液態 < 氣態
- Materials: Different materials can have different potential energy in
nature.
材料：不同的材料可以具有不同的勢能。
- Size: the larger the size of an object, the higher the sum of KE & PE.
大小：物體的體積越大，動能和勢能的總和越高。

• You can increase an object's internal energy by "heating" it or "doing

work" on it.
您可以通過 " 加熱 " 或 " 作功 " 來增加物體的內能。

• What is "Heat"?
什麼是 " 熱 " ？
⇒ It is not an energy that can be stored in an object.*
不是存儲在物體中的能量。*
⇒ Heat is an energy transfer process between objects because of their
temperature difference.
熱是因物體溫差，物體之間能量傳遞的過程。

7
Heat and Internal Engery 熱與內能

Therefore 因此，
- When two objects with different temperature contact, there will be
a net heat transfer from high temperature object to low temperature
object, until they reach the same temperature.
當兩個溫度不同的物體接觸時，高溫物體會向低溫物體傳遞熱，直到它們
達到相同的溫度。

- When two objects with same temperature contact, the net heat
transfer will be 0 (= Thermal Equilibrium). Therefore, they will remain
at the same temperature.
當兩個具有相同溫度的物體接觸時，它們之間仍然存在熱傳遞，但是淨
熱傳遞將為 0(= 熱平衡）。因此，它們將保持相同的溫度。

• The Law of Conservation of Energy – Energy can be transferred from a

body to another (or to another energy form), but it cannot be created or
destroyed.
能量守恆定律 – 能量可以從一個物體轉移到另一個物體（或其他能量形式），
但不能被創造或破壞。

*If assuming no heat lost to surroundings,

* 如果假設沒有熱損失到周圍環境，

⇒ Heat lost by hot object = Heat gain by cold object

高溫物體的熱量損失 = 低溫物體的熱量增加
⇒ mxcx( ∆ Tx) = mycy( ∆ Ty)

8
Heat and Internal Engery 熱與內能

• Power = Energy (J)/ time (s), it is measured as watt (W).

功率 = 能量（J）/ 時間（s），以瓦特（W）表示。
- 1 kWh( 千瓦時 ) = 1 * 1000 * 3600 J = 3.6 x 106 J

• Heat capacity (C, the energy required for a particular object to raise 1° C)
熱容量 (C, 特定物體升高 1° C 所需的能量 )
Q
C= , its unit is 其單位為 J ° C-1
∆T

• Specific heat capacity (c, the energy required for a 1kg of particular
object to raise 1° C)
比熱容 (c, 一公斤特定物體升高 1° C 所需的能量 )
Q
c= , its unit is 其單位為 J ° C-1kg-1
m∆T

C=m*c

• Energy efficiency of a device 裝置的效率：

- Efficiency = 【Useful energy output/ Total energy input】 x 100%
效率 = 【有用的能量輸出 / 能量輸入】 x 100％

9
Heat and Internal Engery 熱與內能

"Should understand" concepts

" 應該理解 " 的概念

• *Higher the temperature difference, the faster the heat transfer rate.
* 溫差越大，傳熱速率越快。

• Joulemeter & kilowatt-hour meter are used to measure the electrical

energy used by a device.
焦耳表和千瓦時表是用於測量裝置使用的電能。

• Water – with a high specific heat capacity 水 – 高比熱容 (4200 J ° C-1kg-1) *

⇒ Absorbing more energy per 1 kg
每 1 公斤吸收更多的能量
⇒ Absorbing same amount of energy with less mass required
以更少的質量吸收相同量的能量

Therefore, it can be… 因此，它可以 ...

- Machinery coolant
機械冷卻液
- Maintain our body temperature
保持體溫
- Regulate temperature: Sea can slow down the temperature
changes nearby
調節溫度：海洋可以減慢附近的溫度變化
⇒ coastal areas have colder summers and warmer winters than the
mainland.
沿海地區夏季比大陸涼爽，冬季暖和。

10
Heat and Internal Engery 熱與內能

"Must know" questions

" 必須知道 " 的問題

1. When 2 objects are at the same temperature,

當兩個物體處於相同溫度時，

• Do they have the same amount of total kinetic energy?

它們具有相同的動能嗎？
• Do they have the same amount of potential energy?
它們具有相同的勢能嗎？
• Do they have the same amount of internal energy?
它們具有相同的內能嗎？
• Do their particles move at the same average speed?
它們的粒子是否有相同的平均速度？

Ans 答案：No 否，No 否，No 否，No 否

2. When 2 objects with identical mass are having the same amount of
internal energy,
當兩個質量相同的物體具有相同的內能時，

• Do they have the same temperature?

它們是否具有相同的溫度？

Ans 答案：No 否

3. When 2 identical objects 【made by the same material, with identical

mass】, are having the same amount of internal energy,
當兩個相同的物體 【由相同的材料製成，相同的質量】具有相同的內能時，

• Do they have the same temperature?

它們是否具有相同的溫度？
• Do they have the same amount of potential energy & kinetic energy?
它們是否具有相同的動能及勢能？

Ans 答案：Yes 是，Yes 是

11
Heat and Internal Engery 熱與內能

4. When blocks X & Y are in contact with each other, the heat flows from X to Y.
當木塊 X 和 Y 彼此接觸時，熱量從 X 流動到 Y。

• Does X have a higher amount of initial total kinetic energy than Y?

X 是否具有比 Y 高的初始總動能？
• Does X have a higher amount of initial average kinetic energy of particles
than Y?
X 的粒子初始平均動能是否比 Y 高？
• Does X have a higher amount of initial internal energy than Y?
X 的初始內部能量是否比 Y 高？

Ans 答案： No 否， Yes 是，No 否

5. Given block X has a higher initial internal energy than Y, then blocks X & Y
are in contact with each other.
當木塊 X 的初始內部能量高於 Y，然後 X 和 Y 彼此接觸。

• The internal energy of block X must decrease after contact with Y?

與 Y 接觸後，X 的內能將會降低？

Ans 答案 : No 否

6. Given 5kg of object A and 3kg of object B are having the same heat
capacity,
假設 5kg 的物體 A 和 3kg 的物體 B 具有相同的熱容量，

• Do they increase their temperature at the same rate when being heated
by the same heater?
當用同一加熱器加熱時，它們是否以相同的速率升高溫度？
• Do they have the same specific heat capacity?
它們具有相同的比熱容嗎？

Ans 答案 : Yes 是，No 否

12
Heat and Internal Engery 熱與內能

7. Two blocks A and B of the same mass and of initial temperatures 50° C
and 40° C respectively are in contact. The heat capacity of A is smaller
than B. Assume no heat loss to surroundings. At steady state,

兩個質量相同的木塊 A 和 B，初始溫度分別為 50° C 和 40° C 進行接觸。

木塊 A 的比熱容小於木塊 B。假定沒有熱損失到周圍環境。在穩定狀態下，

• Do their final temperature become the same?

他們的最終溫度是否一樣？
• Do their final temperature become higher/lower/ equal to 45° C?
它們的最終溫度是否升高 / 降低 / 等於 45° C ？

Ans 答案： Yes. Lower than 45° C. 是。低於 45° C。

8. Temperature - time graph questions

溫度 - 時間圖問題
Slope comparing:
斜率比較：

• Compare specific heat capacity if 2 objects are in same mass

兩個物體質量相同，則比較比熱容
• Compare heat capacity of 2 objects are in different mass
兩個物體質量不同，則比較熱容量

13
Heat and Internal Engery 熱與內能

"Good to know how to do" questions

" 可以嘗試 " 的問題

1. *Experimental setup type questions – usually with information like

joulemeter, immersion heater, temperature-time graph, energy-time
graph, and ask you to
* 實驗設置類型的問題 – 通常帶有焦耳計，浸入式加熱器，溫度 - 時間圖，能量 -
時間圖等信息，並要求您

• Calculate mass/temperature/heat capacity or specific heat capacity of an

object
計算物體的質量 / 溫度 / 熱容或比熱容

• Calculate the power of the heater, the efficiency of the heater

計算加熱器的功率，加熱器的效率

• Your expectation to the result in reality (with heat loss to the

surroundings)
您對現實結果的期望（熱損失到周圍環境）

• Mistakes the experiment have made & Possible ways to improve the
experiment
實驗所犯的錯誤和改進實驗的可能方法

14
3. Change of State
熱與內能

"Must-understand" concepts
" 必須理解 " 的概念

• You should already know the meaning of "solid, liquid, gas", "melting
point", "boiling point".
您應該已經知道 " 固體，液體，氣體 "，" 熔點 "，" 沸點 " 的含義。

• Latent heat = the energy transferred to an object to change its state, with
no change in temperature.
潛熱 = 傳遞給物體以改變其態而沒有溫度變化的能量。

• Specific latent heat of vaporization

汽化比潛熱
Q
lv =
m

• *Specific latent heat of vaporization 汽化比潛熱 = 2.26 x 106 J kg-1

• Specific latent heat of fusion

熔解比潛熱
Q
lf =
m

• * Specific latent heat of fusion 熔解比潛熱 = 3.34 x 105 J kg-1

• Only P.E change during the change of state, not the temperature (= avg
K.E.) *
在物態變化過程中，只有勢能變化，而溫度（平均動能）則沒有變化 *

• P.E level: Gas > Liquid > Solid, for the constant mass of the same matter.
對於相同質量的相同物質，勢能：氣體 > 液體 > 固體。

15
Change of State 狀態變化

"Should understand" concepts

" 應該理解 " 的概念

• Condensation occurs when changing gas to liquid state, releasing latent

heat of vaporization.
當氣體變為液態時，會發生凝結，釋放出汽化比潛熱。

• Freezing occurs when changing liquid to solid state, releasing latent heat
of fusion.
凝固，發生在將液體變為固體時，釋放出熔解比潛熱。

• Condensation has a warming effect to you; Evaporation is a cooling effect

to you.
凝結會帶來變暖的作用；蒸發會帶來冷卻的作用。

"Must know" questions

" 必須知道 " 的問題

1. If 1 kg of water steam at 100° C is mixed with 1 kg of melting ice at 0° C in

a sealed container, assuming no heat lost to the surroundings, what is
the final weight of water steam, water and ice?
如果在密封的容器中將 1kg 100° C 的水蒸汽與 1kg 0° C 的融冰混合，並假設
沒有熱量散失到周圍，那麼水蒸汽，水和冰的最終重量是多少？

16
Change of State 狀態變化

2. Experimental setup questions – for finding the specific latent heat of

vaporization/fusion*
實驗設置問題 – 用於查找特定的汽化 / 融合潛熱 *

• Explain whether you should use stirrer/lid/thermometer

說明應否使用攪拌器 / 蓋子 / 溫度計
• How water steam condenses on beaker/spills out may affect the result
水蒸汽在燒杯上凝結 / 溢出如何影響結果
• Why we need a control without turning on the immersion heater
為什麼我們需要實驗控制組 , 例如：不打開浸入式加熱器

【 More in 更多內容：中五考試 Heat By Topics - MCQ 1.3 】

3. State the difference between "Evaporation" & "Boiling"

說明 " 蒸發 " 和 " 沸騰 " 之間的區別

Ans 答案：

Evaporation 蒸發
• is the process of vaporization of a liquid at room temperature.
是室溫下液體汽化的過程。
• takes place at any given temperature.
在任何給定溫度下發生。
• takes place mainly at the surface of the liquid.
主要發生在液體表面。
• When evaporation takes place, the temperature of the liquid body
decreases.
發生蒸發時，液體溫度降低。

17
Change of State 狀態變化

Boiling 沸騰
• is the process of evaporation of a liquid at the boiling point of the liquid.
是在液體沸點蒸發液體的過程。
• takes place only at the boiling point of the liquid,
僅在液體的沸點發生，
• takes place throughout the entire liquid.
發生在整個液體中。
• The temperature remains constant throughout the boiling process.
在整個沸騰過程中溫度保持恆定。

4. State the factors that affect the rate of evaporation of water:

說明影響水蒸發速率的因素：

Ans 答案：
• Temperature 溫度
• Surface area 表面積
• Humidity 濕度
• Air pressure 空氣壓力
• Wind 風

5. Explain evaporation in terms of molecular motion.

從分子運動的角度解釋蒸發。

Ans 答案：
• When the water molecules are moving randomly and colliding each other,
some water molecules near the surface may acquire high enough kinetic
energy to escape from the water surface. Since the water molecules with
higher kinetic energy are escaped, the average K.E of the remaining water
molecules will decrease and thus the temperature of water decreases.
當水分子隨機運動並相互碰撞時，表面附近的一些水分子可能會獲得足夠高
的動能以從水表面逸出。並且，由於具有較高動能的水分子被逸出，因此剩
餘水分子的平均動能將降低，因此水的溫度降低。

18
4. Transfer Processes
傳熱方式

"Must-understand" concepts
" 必須理解 " 的概念

The 3 ways of heat transfer 3 種傳熱方式 :

• Conduction = heat transfer from hot body to cold body

導熱 = 從較熱的物體到較冷的物體的熱傳遞

- Heat conductors vs Heat insulators

導熱體 vs 隔熱體
- Solid with packed molecules & Metals with free electrons can generally
conduct heat better.
分子堆積密的固體和有自由電子的金屬可以更好地傳導熱量。
- Vacuum, water and air are poor heat conductors
真空，水和空氣是不良的熱導體

• Convection = heat transfer by the movement of fluid

對流 = 流體運動的熱傳遞

- When the fluid (gas / liquid) is heated, it becomes less dense and rises.
當流體（氣體 / 液體）被加熱時，其密度減小並上升。
- The colder fluid with higher density will sink down to replace the
heated fluid.
具有較高密度的較冷流體將沉沒下來以代替加熱流體。

- E.g. Sea breezes – due to convection

例如：海風 – 由於對流

19
Transfer Processes 傳熱方式

• Radiation = heat transfer by radiation, which doesn't require any

medium.
輻射 = 輻射傳熱，不需要任何介質

- Every object is emitting infrared radiations, except the one in 0K

(absolute zero).
除了 0 K ( 絕對零度 ) 之外，每一個物件都在發射紅外輻射。
- Infrared radiation can transfer heat and make you feel warm.
紅外輻射可以傳遞熱量，使您感到溫暖。
- Dull black = good emitter and absorber of radiation
暗黑色 = 良好的輻射發射器和吸收器
- Shiny white (e.g. silver) = poor emitter and absorber of radiation
亮白色（例如：銀）= 較差的輻射 器和吸收器

"Should understand" concepts

" 應該理解 " 的概念

• The examples for illustrating Conduction, Convection, Radiation

用於說明導熱，對流，輻射的示例

- Good conductors: Metals, Oil ...

良好導熱體：金屬，油 ...
- Good insulators: Feathers, air, plastic, glass ...
良好隔熱體：羽毛，空氣，塑料，玻璃 ...
- Convection: Air-conditioner, heater ...
對流：空調，加熱器 ...
- Radiation emission: Spacecraft ...
輻射發射：航天器 ...
- Radiation absorption: Solar cells ...
輻射吸收：太陽能電池 ...

20
Transfer Processes 傳熱方式

"Must know" questions

" 必須知道 " 的問題

1. Describe the molecular motion during heat transfer by conduction.

描述在熱傳導過程中的分子運動。

Ans 答案：
Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through
collisions between neighboring atoms or molecules. Heat by conduction
causes molecules in the object to vibrate faster, making it hotter. These
vibrating molecules collide with their neighboring molecules, making them
also vibrate faster. As these molecules collide, thermal energy is transferred
via conduction to the rest of the whole object.

傳導是熱能通過相鄰原子或分子之間的碰撞傳遞的過程。傳導熱會使物體中的分
子振動得更快，從而使其變得更熱。這些振動分子與相鄰分子發生碰撞，從而使
其振動也更快。當這些分子碰撞時，熱能通過傳導傳遞到整個物體的其餘部分。

2. Explain sea breeze with convection.

用對流解釋海風。

Ans 答案：
During daytime, the sun warms the ground and the sea. The ground has a
lower specific heat capacity and so its temperature increases faster than the
temperature of the sea. The ground heats the air above it, the air expands
and rises, then cooler air from over the ocean flows toward to "fill in the
gap". This flow of cooler air from the ocean toward the shore creates what is
known as a sea breeze.

白天，陽光加熱地面和海洋。地面的比熱容較低，因此其溫度升高的速度比海洋
溫度高。地面加熱上方的空氣，空氣膨脹並上升，然後冷空氣從海洋流向地面以
" 填補空隙 "。從海洋流向海岸地面的冷空氣形成了所謂的海風。

21
Transfer Processes 傳熱方式

At night, the ground cools faster than the sea. The air over the sea is warmer
than the air over the shore, and the reverse takes place. The warmer ocean
air rises while a breeze flows from the shore to the sea.

到了晚上，地面降溫的速度比海洋要快。海洋的空氣要比岸上的空氣要熱，反之
亦然，一陣微風從岸邊流向大海，海洋溫暖的空氣升起。

3. How does a vacuum flask work?

保溫瓶如何運作？

Ans 答案：
A vacuum flask can reduce heat transfer by:
保溫瓶可以通過以下方式減少熱傳遞：

• The glass walls reduce heat entering or leaving the flask by conduction.
玻璃壁減少了通過傳導進入或離開燒瓶的熱量。
• The vacuum between the double walls prevents heat transfer by
convection.
雙壁之間的真空可防止對流傳熱。
• The silver coating on the inner walls reduces heat transfer by radiation.
內壁上的銀塗層減少了輻射的熱傳遞。

22
5. Gases
氣體

"Must-understand" concepts
" 必須理解 " 的概念

Introduction to the meaning of "Pressure" in Physics:

物理學中 " 壓力 " 的含義簡介：
• Pressure = Force (N) / Area (m2)
壓力 = 力 (N) / 面積 (m2)

Introduction to Gases's physical properties (Macroscopic: p-V-T-n):

氣體物理性質簡介 ( 宏觀 : p-V-T-n)：
• 1. Boyle's law 博伊爾定律 =
1
p∝
V

• 2. Pressure law 壓力定律 = p ∝ T

• 3. Charles law 查理定律 = V ∝ T

23
Gases 氣體

Combining these 3 relationships together, we get "General gas law":

將這三個定律結合在一起，我們得到 " 普適氣體定律 ":
pV
= constant
T

, given the amount of gas molecules in the system is fixed.

, 因為系統中的氣體分子數量是固定的。

*If the gas obeys general gas law, it is an ideal gas.

* 如果氣體符合普適氣體定律，則是理想氣體。

And, if we also consider how the amount of gas molecules can affect p-V-T,
We get "Ideal gas law":
而且，如果我們還考慮氣體分子的數量如何影響 p-V-T，我們得到 " 理想氣體定
律 ":
pV
= n*R (or pV = nRT)
T

, given R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1; n = number of moles 摩爾數量

*At high temperature and low pressure, a real gas behaves as an ideal gas.
* 在高溫和低壓下，真實氣體表現為理想氣體。

*Pressure unit = Pa; Volume unit = m3, Temperature unit = K.

* 壓力單位 = Pa; 體積單位 = m3, 溫度單位 = K.

24
Gases 氣體

Introduction to Kinetic Theory 介紹分子運動論

= Microscopic: c, K.E. of a gas molecule, rate of gas molecules collision to
wall; start to consider the fact that "gas consists of many tiny molecules".
= 微觀：c rms，氣體分子的 K.E.，氣體分子碰撞壁的速率 ; 開始考慮“氣體由許
多微小分子組成”。

＊ Brownian motion = showing a smoke particles path move in zigzag

when colliding by gas molecules ⇒ to convince us that a gas is made up
of many tiny molecules fast moving in random directions.
布朗運動 = 當煙霧分子與氣體分子碰撞時，煙氣路徑呈鋸齒狀移動 ⇒ 使我
們確信氣體是由許多沿隨機方向快速移動的小分子組成的。

Assumptions for kinetic theory to be applicable:

於分子運動論的假設：
*Since the kinetic theory only works for ideal gas, for a gas to be ideal, it
should be:

* 分子運動論僅對理想氣體成立，理想氣體應該是：
1. There are many gas molecules moving in random motion.
有許多氣體分子以隨機運動運動。

2. The size of each gas molecule is very small, and can be neglected.
每個氣體分子的大小很小，可以忽略不計。

3. There is no intermolecular force between molecules.

分子之間沒有分子間作用力。

4. The collisions between the gas molecules and the walls of the container
are elastic. 氣體分子與容器壁之間的碰撞是彈性的。

5. The time during each molecule colliding the wall of the container is
negligible when compared to the time between each collision.
與每次碰撞之間的時間相比，每個分子碰撞容器壁的時間可以忽略不計。

25
Gases 氣體

1
⇒
pV = Nmc2 【*****for monatomic gas molecule 用於單原子氣體分子】
3

*c = the mean of the speeds of all molecules in random directions

所有分子在隨機方向上的平均速度 ; 均方根速度
*m = mass of one gas molecule
一種氣體分子的質量
*N = number of total gas molecules
總氣體分子數

1
Given from F & M section, K.E = 2 mv
2
,

1
⇒ K.E of one gas molecule = 2 mv
2

3 R
= 2 kT (given k = NA )
*NA = 6.02 x 1023

Given for an ideal gas, its P.E is zero as there is no intermolecular force
between molecules.

Therefore,
the internal energy of an ideal gas = sum of K.E + P.E (zero)
= sum of K.E.

The internal energy of an ideal gas = total K.E in a gas

= number of total gas molecules * K.E of one gas molecules

3
= N* kT
2

3 3 3
= N kT = nRT = pV
2 2 2

26
Gases 氣體

Mole calculation 摩爾計算

- NA 分子 = number of 1 mole molecules 1 摩爾的分子數量 = 6.02 x 1023
- n = number of moles 摩爾數量
- N = number of molecules 分子的數量 = NA * n
- m = mass of 1 molecule 1 個氣體分子的質量
- M = molar mass 摩爾質量 = NA * m

"Should understand" concepts

" 應該理解 " 的概念

• *Density 密度 = m/V
= Mass 質量 (kg) / Volume 體積 (m3)

• Pressure can be measured by Bourdon gauge.

壓力可以通過波登管壓力表進行測量。

c=
√ √ √
3RT
M
=
3kT
m
=
3p
density

*M = mass of 6.02 x 1023 gas molecules // Molar mass of the gas molecules
*M = 6.02 x 1023 氣體分子的質量 //1 摩爾分子的質量
*m = mass of one gas molecule
*m = 一個氣體分子的質量

• The difference between ideal gas & real gas 理想氣體與真實氣體的區別

- Volume: The volume of real gas molecules is non-zero, but the volume
of ideal gas molecules is zero.
體積：真實氣體分子的體積不為零，但理想氣體分子的體積為零。

- Condensation: Real gas can condense; ideal gas doesn't.

冷凝：真實氣體會冷凝；理想氣體沒有。

- Intermolecular force: Exist in real gas, zero in ideal gas.

分子間力：存在於真實氣體中，在理想氣體中為零。

27
Gases 氣體

**At high temperature and low pressure, a real gas behaves as an ideal
gas.
** 在高溫和低壓下，真實氣體表現為理想氣體。

Also, they usually use

此外，他們通常使用 :

- "conical tube" (volume) " 錐形管 "（體積）,

- "bead" (gas molecules) " 珠子 "（氣體分子）,

- "piston/weight" (pressure) " 活塞 / 重量 "（壓力）,

- "vibrator" (temperature) " 振動器 "（溫度 )。

to illustrate gas behavior in molecular motion.

說明氣體在分子運動中的行為。

28
Gases 氣體

"Must know" questions

" 必須知道 " 的問題

1. The pressure of a fixed mass of an ideal gas at 25° C is 1.5 x 105 Nm-2. If
the volume of the gas is reduced to 50% of its original volume and its
temperature is increased to 50° C, what would be the final pressure?
固定質量的理想氣體在 25° C 的壓力為 1.5 x 105 Nm-2。如果氣體的體積減少
到原始體積的 50％，並且溫度升高到 50° C，最終壓力將是多少？

2. A gas in a container of fixed volume leaks gradually. Given the gas in

the container has increased its pressure by 50%, and the absolute
temperature has been doubled. What is the percentage of original gas
mass remaining in the container?
固定體積的容器中的氣體逐漸洩漏。由於容器中的氣體壓力增加了 50％，絕
對溫度 (in K) 增加了一倍。容器中剩餘的氣體質量是原氣體質量的多少百分
比？

3. If the relative atomic mass of helium is 4. What is the ratio of the average
speed of helium to hydrogen at the same temperature?
如果氦的相對原子質量為 4. 在相同溫度下，氦與氫的平均速度比是多少？

Ans 答案： 1/2

29
Gases 氣體

4. A container of volume 1 x 1012 cm3 contains 1.47 g of an ideal gas at a

pressure of 2 x 105 Pa. Find the r.m.s. velocity of the gas molecule.
容器的容量為 1 x 1012 cm3 包含 1.47 g 理想氣體，壓力為 2 x 105 Pa。求氣體
分子的均方根速度。

5. Graph-related questions 與圖相關的問題 *** p-v / v-t / p-t

30
Gases 氣體

"Good to know how to do" questions

" 可以嘗試 " 的問題

1. Explain why a pin can hurt you.

解釋為什麼針會傷害您。

2. Liquid holding in a narrow capillary tube.***

液體保持在狹窄的管中。 ***

3. How "p – V – T – n" affect the following factors:

"p – V – T – n" 如何影響以下因素：

- Average force exerted by the gas molecules on the piston

氣體分子在活塞上施加的平均力
- Average momentum of the gas molecules
氣體分子的平均動量
- Average separation of the gas molecules
氣體分子的平均距離
- Average number of collisions per second of the gas molecules on wall
氣體分子每秒平均碰撞壁的數量
- Average speed of the gas molecules
氣體分子的平均速度
- Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules
氣體分子的平均動能

31
Gases 氣體

e.g. 例如 :
If an ideal gas with a fixed mass in a cylinder with a 【free-to-move
piston】 is heated. Given the pressure is constant,
如果氣缸中質量固定的理想氣體加熱了【帶有自由移動的活塞】。給定壓力恆
定，

ideal gas
理想氣體

Ans 答案：
- Average force exerted by the gas molecules on the piston ⇒
unchanged
氣體分子在活塞上施加的平均力 ⇒ 不變

- Average momentum of the gas molecules ⇒ increase

氣體分子的平均動量 ⇒ 增

- Average separation of the gas molecules ⇒ increase

氣體分子的平均距離 ⇒ 增

- Average number of collisions per second of the gas molecules on wall

⇒ decrease
氣體分子每秒平均碰撞壁的數量 ⇒ 減

- Average speed of the gas molecules ⇒ increase

氣體分子的平均速度 ⇒ 增

- Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules ⇒ increase

氣體分子的平均動能 ⇒ 增

32
After-class learning
課後練習

1. Given 1 kg of water steam at 110 ºC is mixed with 3 kg of ice at -20 ºC in a

closed container. Assume no heat lost to the surroundings. What is the
final temperature of the mixture?
給定 1 kg, 110 ºC 的水蒸氣與 3 kg, -20 ºC 的冰混合在封閉容器中。假設不會
損失熱量。混合物的最終溫度是多少？

- Specific heat capacity of water. 水的比熱容 = 4200 J kg-1 ºC-1

- Specific heat capacity of ice 冰的比熱容 = 2100 J kg-1 ºC-1

- Specific heat capacity of steam 蒸汽的比熱容 = 2100 J kg-1 ºC-1

- Specific latent heat of vaporization. 汽化比潛熱 = 2.26 x 106 J kg-1

- Specific latent heat of fusion. 熔解比潛熱 = 3.34 x 105 J kg-1

2. Given a heater with rating "220V, 1000W" is supplied with 110 V electrical
supply, it is used to heat 10 kg of water from 10 ºC to 80 ºC. Assume no
heat lost to the surroundings. What is the time required if the efficiency
of heater is 80%?
給定加熱器的評級為 "220V，1000W"，並給它提供 110 V 電源，然後加熱了
10 公斤的水，從 10 ºC 至 80 ºC。假設不會損失熱量。如果加熱器的效率在任
何給定電壓下為 80%，需要的加熱時間為多少？

3. Someone said that "Sweat can help cooling our body mainly due to
water's high specific heat capacity." Comment on his claim.
有人說：" 汗水主要是由於水的高比熱容，因此可以幫助我們的身體降溫。"
評論他的主張。

4. Explain why in Japan, the school uniform is usually colored in white in

summer & colored in black in winter in terms of heat transfer processes?
以傳熱過程解釋為什麼在日本，夏天的校服是白色，冬天的是黑色？

33
After-class learning 課後練習

5. Given two solids A & B are separately heated by two identical heaters.
Which of the following statements is/ are correct?
給定兩個固體 A 和 B 由兩個相同的加熱器分別加熱。以下哪項陳述是正確的？

T / ºC
A

Time / s

(1) The specific latent heat of vaporization of A is larger than the specific
latent heat of vaporization of B?
A 的汽化比潛熱大於 B ？

(2) In solid state, the specific heat capacity of A is larger than the specific
heat capacity of B?
在固態時，A 的比熱容大於 B ？

(3) In gas state, the heat capacity of A is smaller than the heat capacity of B?
氣體狀態時，A 的熱容量小於 B ？

6. Let's say Aquaman's lung has an unusual capacity V = 2.0 x 105cm3. When
his lung is filled at maximum capacity, its pressure can reach to 5.0 x 104
kPa at 37 ºC.
比方說，水俠的肺容量 V = 2.0 x 105cm3 。當他的肺填充至最大容量，在 37ºC
時，其壓力可以達到 5.0 x 104 kPa。

If I can invite him to fill up balloons for my birthday party, each balloon
has a volume of 0.005 m3 in 100 kPa at 24 ºC, how many balloons can he
fill up in a row with his lung initially filled with air?
如果我可以邀請他為我的生日聚會準備氣球，每個氣球的體積在 24 ºC 及 100
kPa 時為 0.005 m3，當他的肺充滿空氣時，他一次可以充滿多少氣球？

34
After-class learning 課後練習

7. Use kinetic theory of an ideal gas to explain the increase of pressure

inside a football when air is pumped into it (Given V & T remain
unchanged).
以氣體動力論來解釋當空氣被泵入足球時，足球內部壓力的增加（給定 V&T
保持不變）

8. A vessel of volume 2 x 107 cm3 contains 1200 mg of an ideal gas at a

pressure of 2.5 x 105 Pa. What is the r.m.s. velocity of the gas molecule?
體積為 2 x 107 cm3 的容器在 2.5 x 105 Pa 的壓力下有 1200 mg 的理想氣體。
求氣體分子的均方根速度 c。

9. A vessel of temperature 26 ºC contains an ideal gas with molar mass = 18 g.

What is the r.m.s. velocity of the gas molecule?
溫度為 26 ºC 的容器含有摩爾質量 = 18 g 的理想氣體。求氣體分子的均方根速
度 c。

10. A vessel of temperature 45 ºC contains an ideal gas with the gas molecular
mass = 2.6 x 10-22g. What is the r.m.s. velocity of the gas molecule?
溫度為 45 ºC 的容器含有氣體分子的質量為 2.6 x 10-22g 的理想氣體。求氣體
分子的均方根速度 c。

35
Answer 答案

1. E = mcΔT
(3 x 20 x 2100) + (3 x 3.34 x 105) + (3 x 4200 x T) = (1 x 10 x 2100) +
(1 x 2.26 x 106) + (1 x 4200 x [100 – T])

T = 93.6ºC

2. The resistance of the heater: 加熱器的電阻：

v2
P=
R

1000 = (2202)/R
R = 48.4 Ω

With 110 V electrical supply 以 110V 的電壓，

P = (1102)/48.4 = 250 W.

The time required 所需時間：

P * t * 0.8 = (4200 x 10 x [80-10])
t = 11760 / 0.8
t = 14700 s

3. This claim is not true. Our sweat usually has a similar temperature
(small temperature difference) to our body, thus most of the heat taken
away from sweat is not due to water's high specific heat capacity. It is
mostly due to the evaporation of sweat, which can absorb latent heat of
vaporization from our body at any temperature.
此說法不正確。我們的汗液通常具有與人體相似的溫度（溫差很小），因此
從汗液中帶走的大部分熱量不是由於水的比熱容高。這主要歸因於汗液的蒸
發，汗液在任何溫度下都可以吸收人體中的蒸發潛熱。

36
Answer 答案

4. During summer, the school uniform colored in white can reduce heat gain
by radiation through reflecting more sunlight. This can keep the students
cooler.
在夏季，白色的校服可以通過反射更多的陽光來減少熱量的吸收。這樣可以
保持人涼爽。

During winter, the school uniform colored in black can increase heat gain
by radiation through absorbing more radiation from sun. This can keep
the students warmer.
在冬季，黑色的校服可以吸收更多的太陽輻射，從而增加輻射的熱量吸收。
這樣可以幫助人保暖。

5.
(1) Unknown, since the mass of A & B is not given.
未知，因為沒有給出 A 和 B 的質量。

(2) Unknown, since the mass of A & B is not given.

未知，因為沒有給出 A 和 B 的質量。

(3) Yes. 是的。

6. Assume no leakage of air, 假設沒有空氣洩漏，因此，氣球數量：

p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2
[(5 x 104 x 1000) (2.0 x 105 / 1003)] / (37 + 273)] = [(100 x 1000) (V)] / (24 + 273)]

V = 95.80645161 m3

Therefore, the number of balloons:

因此，氣球數量：

[95.80645161 / 0.005]
= 19161.29032
= 19161

37
Answer 答案

7. Given the volume and the temperature remain unchanged, the increase
in pressure is due to the increase of number of air molecules hitting the
inner surface of the football per unit time, in which the impact force on
inner surface by the air molecules increased due to the increased hits per
unit time.
給定體積和溫度不變，壓力的增加是由於每單位時間撞擊足球內表面的空氣
分子數量增加，使每單位時間空氣分子對內表面的力增加。

8.
1
pV = Nmc2
3

(2.5 x 105) (2 x 107 / 1003) = (1/3) (1200 x 10-3 x 10-3) c2

c = 111803.3989 ms-1

9.

√ 3RT

√
c=
M

3R(26+273)
c=
18
( )
1000

c = 643.6908067 ms-1

√
10.

3k(45+273)
c=
(2.6 x 10-22 /1000)

c = 225.0761048 ms-1

38