N\RKMG MYMG

ZRM@TC@\O EARO\GMXC TL@KAGAIC XLDCMMK KAK XTLRCG

EARO\GMXC DMK LUMG\MXC DRS XSR\Z MOAVCHCGGCK

DAXLK ZLKIMOZ\>
C I\XTC KI\RMF NLOOS MKTAK ZRMXLTCM, X.Emro., O.Xc., Mpt.

@LGAOZA@ 5
IAGAKIMK C
@MDL@ UMGLKTCKM RLKCTM DLYC (=9:6<<=:86)
C OMDL MRC ZMRYMTM (=9:6<<=:83)
KC Z\T\ DCTM RCMKTC KCGM DLYC (=9:6<<=:4:)
G\Z\ RCKM MKTMRCKC (=9:6<<=:4=)

KC Z\T\ RCOM ZMRMOCTM (=9:6<<=:42)

C OMDL XGMOLT Z\TRM ZRMXLTSM (=9:6<<=:48)
KC OMDL O\KCHM MRCMKTCKC (=9:6<<=:44)
@MRTC@MKCKIR\O (=3:6<<=:3<)

ZRAIRMO XT\DC EMROMXC

EM@\GTMX OMTLOMTC@M DMK CGO\ ZLKILTMF\MK MGMO
\KCULRXCTMX \DMSMKM

2:=3
C. ZRMEARO\GMXC
=.= Tcknmumk Emrom`agaic Bmfmk Abmt
=.=.= Moaxchcggck (Moa`scscgck)

m. Ckdc`msc
Moa`scscgck (Moaxchcggck) mdmgmf smgmf smtu nlkcs mktcbcatc`m ymki olocgc`c
spl`truo gums. Moaxchcgcck m`tce olgmwmk bm`tlrc irmo pasctce ymki tcdm`
olkifmscg`mk β-gm`tmomsl dmk m`tce olgmwmk bm`tlrc irmo klimtce `mrlkm ckc dmpmt
olklobus parc ‘ parc dmgmo olobrmk easeagcpcd gumr. Moaxchcggck bcmsmkym
dcckdc`msc`mk uktu` plkiabmtmk slplrtc ckel`sc pmdm smgurmk kmems, smgurmk
s mgurmk lopldu,
dmk smgurmk slkc slrtm blblrmpm plkym`ct ckel`sc gmck slplrtc iakarfl, imstralktlrcs,
olkckictcs dmk ckel`sc `mrlkm Xmgoaklggm sp. slplrtc dlomo tcpacd (Xcswmkdaka,
2:::)

b. Emrom`a`ckltc`
Moa`scscgck dcmbsarbsc dlkimk hlpmt dmk bmc` pmdm smgurmk plkhlrkmmk, tcdm`
tlrimktuki mdmym om`mkmk, Moa`scscgck tlrutmom dcl`srlsc`mk dmgmo blktu` tcdm`
blrubmf dc dmgmo urck. L`srlsc moa`scscgck dcfmobmt smmt ploblrcmk blrsmommk
dlkimk prablklrcd slfckiim oloplrpmknmki lel` tlrmpc. Moa`scscgck olocgc`c
spl`truo mktcbcatc` ymki slrupm dlkimk mopcscgck. Moa`scscgck dcbmkdcki`mk
dlkimk mopcscgck olocgc`c `lglbcfmk mbsarbsc abmt dmgmo smgurmk hlrkm glbcf
slopurkm, slfckiim `mdmr dmgmo dmrmf dmk smgurmk slkc glbcf tckiic slfckiim bmc`
dcblrc`mk slhmrm armg. Moa`scscgck olrupm`mk turukmk dmrc plkcscgck slocscktltc`

dmk stmbmcg dmgmo sumsmkm msmo gmobuki (Xcswmkdaka, 2:::).

h. Ol`mkcsol
Dckdcki slg bm`tlrcsmkimt ukc`, `mrlkm olkimkduki plptcdaigc`mk. Mdm
mktcbcatc` ymki olrusm` dckdcki slg oc`rabm dlkimk olkifmobmt scktlscs lkzco
mtmu ckm`tcvmsc lkzco, slfckiim olkylbmb`mk fcgmkikym vcmbcgctms dmk slrcki
olkylbmb`mk slg gcscs. Mktcbcatc` ckc olkifmobmt scktlscs dckdcki slg tlrutmom
dlkimk olkiimkiiu
olkiimkiiu scktlscs plptcdaigc`mk. Dckdcki slg bm`tlrc olklktu`mk blktu`
`mrm`tlrcstc` dmk blreukisc olgckdukic bmicmk dmgmo slg tlrfmdmp
plrubmfmk(Fmrdy,
plrubmfmk(Fmrdy, 2::2).
 d. @aktrmckdc`msc
Zmdm plkdlrctm ymki fcplrslksctce tlrfmdmp moa`scscgck dmk plkdlrctm
imkiiumk emmg fmtc ymki blrmt dmk imkiiumk icknmg ymki blrmt (Nukmldc, 2:=2).

l. Lel` Xmopcki
Xloum mglric dmpmt dctcobug`mk aglf sloum mktcbcatc` dlkimk olgcbmt`mk
scstlo couk tubuf faspls, tlrnmdckym tcdm` blrimktuki pmdm blsmrkym dascs abmt.
Moa`scscgck olkuknu`mk lel` smopcki slbmimc rlm`sc fcplrslksctcvctms slplrtc
urtc`mrcm, dlomo kylrc slkdc, dcmrc, sya` mkmecgm`scs, rumo lrctlomtasus, glu`cocm
gcoemtc` `rakc`, dmk crctmsc imstracktlstckmg. Xtudc emromhavcicgmkh
emromhavcicgmkhll dciukm`mk
uktu` olkda`uolktmsc`mk lel` smopcki abmt dmgmo prairmo YFA uktu`
Cktlrkmtcakmg Drui Oakctarcki(CDO) dmrc Nmkumrc smopmc nkc 2::<, dmtmbmsl
cicgmkhl Cktlrkmtcakmg Iraup (ICE) olkiuopug`mk 89,3:5 gmparm, ymki
Zfmromhavcicgmkhl
Zfmromhav

=:3< tlr`mct moa`scscgck. Zrlslktmsl rlm`sc lel` smopcki pmdm `ugct 62%,
imstracktlstckmg =8%, flpmtc` 4%, dmk flomtagaic 2% (Xcswmkdaka, 2:::)
e. Zlrckimtmk dmk Zlrfmtcmk
Moa`scscgck tlriagaki dmgmo iagakimk abmt `lrms. Abmt `lrms fmkym dmpmt
dcplraglf dlkimk rlslp da`tlr dc mpatl`, ruomf sm`ct, pus`lsoms, dmk bmgmc
plkiabmtmk.. Abmt `lrms tlromsu` dmgmo abmt dmetmr I (ilvlgcn`) ymctu blrbmfmym
plkiabmtmk
dlkimk tmkdm `fusus ymctu gcki`mrmk blrwmrkm olrmf dlkimk imrcs tlpc blrwmrkm
fctmo dlkimk furue @ ymki olkylktuf imrcs tlpc. Abmt `lrms wmncb olkhmktuo`mk
`mgcomt ‗fmrus dlkimk rlslp da`tlr‟ (Xymosukc, 2::5). Tcdm` dcmknur`mk

plkiiukmmk uktu` wmkctm fmocg dmk olkyusuc. Fmkym dciukm`mk uktu` ckel`sc
plkiiukmmk
ymki sudmf nlgms plkylbmbkym, `lhumgc bcgm mdm `louki`ckmk ckel`sc blrmt. Zlrgu
dcgm`u`mk plkimwmsmk tlrfmdmp `louki`ckmk tcobugkym suplrckel`sc dlkimk
bm`tlrc dmk
dmk nmour.
nmour. Fmtc-fmtc plkiiukmmk
plkiiukmmk pmdm
pmdm plkdlrctm
plkdlrctm imkiiumk
imkiiumk eukisc icknmg dmk
fmtc. Tcdm` uktu` plkhlimfmk ckel`sc, plkiabmtmk ckegulkzm, bmtu`, dmk pcgl`
(@lolk`ls RC, 2:=2).
i. Cktlrm`sc Abmt
Moa`scscgck dmgmo prasls l`srlsc dmpmt dcfmobmt smmt ploblrcmmk blrsmommk
dlkimk prablkscd slfckiim dmpmt oloplrpmknmki lel` tlrmpc (Xcswmdaka,
(Xcs wmdaka, 2:::).

f. Zlkycopmkmk
 Dmgmo wmdmf tlrtutup rmpmt, pmdm sufu rumki tlr`lkdmgc (@lolk`ls RC,
2:=4).
=.2 Tcknmumk Ecsc`a`cocm ^mt M`tce

=.2.= Moaxchcggck
m) Xtru`tur Moaxchcggck>

b) Kmom @cocm >(5R)-5-Pν-D-

(4Fydraxypflkyg)igyhygmocka_plkch
(4Fydraxypflkyg)igyhygmocka_plkchcggmkch
cggmkch mhcd
h) Blrmt Oagl`ug > 85<,4 i/oag
d) Ruous Oagl`ug > H=5F=3K8A<X

(Rlykagds, =362)

@mkdukimk> Moaxchcggck olkimkduki tcdm` `urmki dmrc 3:,:%

H=5F=3K8A<X, dcfctuki tlrfmdmp zmt mkfcdrmt. Olopukymc patlksc ymki
sltmrm dlkimk tcdm` `urmki dmrc 3:: ηi dmk tcdm` glbcf dmrc =:<: ηi plr
oi H=5F=3K8A<X, dcfctuki tlrfmdmp zmt mkfcdrmt.
Zlolrcmk> slrbu` fmbgur putcf0 prm`tcs tcdm` blrbmu.
@lgmrutmk> su`mr gmrut dmgmo mcr dmk oltmkag, tcdm` gmrut dmgmo blkzlkm,
dmgmo `mrbak tltrm`garcdm, dmk dmgmo `garaearo.
Bm`u plobmkdcki> Moaxchcgck BZEC0 tcdm` baglf dc`lrcki`mk slblguo
dciukm`mk.
(Dlp`ls RC, =33<).
Xtmbcgctms
Moaxchcggck ymki olrupm`mk dlrcvmt plkchcggck olkimgmoc fcdragcscs ymki
olkdlirmdmsc pradu`sc hckhck Ñ-gm`tmo (Gukd, =334).
-Tlrfmdmp hmfmym > tcdm` stmbcg tlrfmdmp pmpmrmk hmfmym
-Tlrfmdmp sufu > tlrurmc pmdm sufu 8:-8<:H
-Tlrfmdmp pF > 8,<- 5,:
 -Tctc` glbur >-
pF> mktmrm 8.< dmk 5.:, dcgm`u`mk
dcgm`u`mk plkltmpmk olkiiukm`mk
olkiiukm`mk gmrutmk 2 oi
plr oG.

=.8 Tcknmumk Ecsc`a`cocm ^mt Tmobmfmk

=.8.= Msmo Xctrmt (Hctrch Mhcd)
▮ Xtru`tur @cocm>

▮ Dleckcsc dmk @mkdukimk>

@mkdukimk> Msmo sctrmt blrblktu` mkfcdrmt
mkfcdrmt mtmu olkimkduki
olkimkduki
smtu oagl`ug mcr fcdrmt. Olkimkduki tcdm` `urmki dmrc 33,<% dmk tcdm`
glbcf dmrc =::,<% H5F6A9, dcfctuki tlrfmdmp zmt mkfcdrmt.
▮ Zlolrcmk> Fmbgur blkcki, tcdm` blrwmrkm mtmu slrbu` fmbgur irmkug smopmc
fmgus, putcf, tcdm` blrbmu mtmu prm`tcs tcdm` blrbmu, rmsm smkimt msmo.
Blktu` fcdrmt ol`mr dmgmo udmrm `lrcki.
▮ @lgmrutmk> Xmkimt oudmf gmrut dmgmo mcr, oudmf gmrut dmgmo ltmkag, su`mr
gmrut dmgmo ltlr.
▮ Ymdmf dmk Zlkycopmkmk> Dmgmo wmdmf tlrtutup rmpmt
(Dlp`ls RC, =33<).
▮ @liukmmk> Xlbmimc plkimsmo, mktca`scdmk, plkymkiim (bueelr), plkcki`mt
rmsm. Msmo sctrmt ymki bcsm dciukm`mk mdmgmf :,= -2 % slbmimc bueelr, dmk
:,8-2 % slbmimc plkic`mt rmsm.
▮ Xtmbcgctms> Msmo sctrmt oakafcdrmt `lfcgmkimk mcr smmt `rcstmgcsmsc pmdm udmrm
`lrcki mtmu smmt dcpmkmsc pmdm sufu 4: :H. Xldc`ct olkhmcr pmdm udmrm
globmb. Msmo sctrmt oakafcdrmt dcscopmk pmdm tlopmt slnu` dmk `lrcki.
▮ @ltcdm`tlrhmopurmk> Msmo sctrmt tcdm` blrhmopur dlkimk `mgcuo tmrtrmt,
mg`mgc dmk mg`mgc tmkmf, `mrbakmt, dmk bc`mrbakmt, msltmt, slrtm sugecdm. Msmo
sctrmt nuim tcdm` blrhmopur dlkimk a`scdmtar, bmsm, rldu`tar, dmk kctrmt.
Zatlkscmg dmpmt olgldm` bcgm dc`aobckmsc`mk dlkimk gaimo kctrmt. Zmdm
 plkycopmkmk,, su`rasm dmpmt olki`rcstmg dmrc scrup dlkimk `lblrmdmmk
plkycopmkmk
msmo sctrmt
(Rawl lt mg., 2::8).

=.8.2 Xadcuo Hctrmt (Kmtrcuo Xctrmt)

Kmtrcuo sctrmt blrblktu` mkfcdrmt mtmu olkimkduki
olkimkduki dum oagl`ug mcr
blrblktu` fcdrmt, olkimkduki tcdm` `urmki dmrc 33,:% dmk tcdm` glbcf
dmrc =::,<% H5F<Km8A9, dcfctuki tlrfmdmp zmt mkfcdrmt. Olocgc`c blrmt
oagl`ug slblsmr 2<6,:9ir/oag(mkfcdrmt).Zlolrcmk blrupm fmbgur tcdm`
blrwmrkm mtmu slrbu` fmbgur, putcf.@lgmrutmkkym dmgmo blktu` fcdrmt
oudmf gmrut dmgmo mcr0 smkimt oudmf gmrut dmgmo mcr olkdcdcf0 tcdm`
gmrut dmgmo ltmkag (Dlp`ls RC, =33<). @liukmmk slbmimc plknmim pF
(bueelr).

=.8.8 HOH-Km
@mrba`scg oltcg slgugasm kmtrcuo olrupm`mk imrmo kmtrcuo dmrc
pagc`mrba`scoltcg ltlr slgugasm, olkimkduki tcdm` `urmki dmrc 5,<% dmk
tcdm` glbcf dmrc 3,< % kmtrcuo (Km) dcfctuki tlrfmdmp zmt ymki tlgmf
dc`lrcki`mk.
▮ Zlolrcmk> Xlrbu` mtmu irmkug, putcf smopmc `rlk, fciras`apc`.
▮ @lgmrutmk> Oudmf tlrdcsplrsc dmgmo mcr oloblktu` gmrutmk `agacdmg,
tcdm` gmrut dmgmo ltmkag, dmgmo ltlr dmk dmgmo plgmrut arimkc` gmck.
▮ Ymdmf dmk plkycopmkmk> Dmgmo wmdmf tlrtutup rmpmt.
(Dlp`ls RC, =33<)
▮ @liukmmk> slbmimc bmfmk plksusplksc, plkcki`mt vcs`asctms, hamtcki
milkt0 stmbcgczcki milkt dmk plkylrmp mcr. Xlbmimc zmt tmobmfmk, HOH
Km dmpmt dciukm`mk bmc` pmdm sldcmmk armg omupuk tapc`mg. Xlbmimc
bmfmk plkic`mt, HOH Km dciukm`mk dmgmo `akslktrmsc =,:- 5,: %
(Rawl lt mg., 2::3).
=.8.4 Xu`rasm
 Xu`rasm mdmgmf iugm ymki dcpraglf dmrc Xmhhmfruo aeechckmruo Gckckkl
(Emocgcm Irmockmhlml). Bltm vugimrcs Gckckkl (Emocgcm Hflkapadcmhlml ).
Dmk suoblr-suoblr gmck. Tcdm` olkimkduki bmfmk tmobmfmk.

▮ Zlolrcmk> fmbgur putcf tcdm` blrwmrkm, omssm fmbgur mtmu blrblktu`

`ubus, mtmu slrbu` fmbgur putcf, tcdm` blrbmu, olocgc`c rmsm omkcs,
stmbcg dc udmrm dmk gmrutmkkym kltrmg tlrfmdmp gm`ous.
▮ @lgmrutmk> blrblktu` @lgmrutmkkym smkimt
smkimt oudmf gmrut dmgmo mcr, glbcf
oudmf gmrut dlkimk mcr olkdcdcf, su`mr gmrut dmgmo ltmkag, tcdm` gmrut
dmgmo `garaearo dmk ltlr.
▮ Ymdmf dmk Zlkycopmkmk> dmgmo wmdmf tlrtutup bmc`
(@lolk`ls RC, 2:=4).
▮ @liukmmk> Xu`rasm dciukm`mk slbmimc plomkcs uktu` olkutupc rmsm

abmt, dmgmo `mdmr glbcf tckiic dmrc 5:% dmpmt blreukisc slbmimc bmfmk
plkimwlt `mrlkm tl`mkmk
tl`mkmk asoascskym tckiic slolktmrm tl`mkmk
tl`mkmk umpkym
rlkdmf (Rawl lt mg., 2::3).
=.8.< Xukslt Slggaw EHE
▮ Zlolrcmk> Xlrbu` `ukcki `lolrmfmk
Rlddcsfylggawpawdlr.Mqulaussagutcaksmrl
Rlddcsfylggawpawdlr.Mqulaussagutcaksmrlbrcift
brcift armkil hagarld.
▮ @lgmrutmk> Gmrut dmgmo 86,< bmicmk msltak, 888 bmicmk ltmkag 9<%, <
bmicmk igcslrck, 4<,<
4<,< prapcglkigc`ag, < bmicm
bmicmk
k mcr
▮ Ymdmf dmk Zlkycopmkmk> -

▮ @liukmmk>> milk plwmrkm

@liukmmk
(Rawl lt mg., 2::3).
=.8.5 Butcg Fcdra`sctagulk (BTF)
Butcg Fcdra`sctagulk olkimkduki tcdm` `urmki dmrc 33,:% H =<F24A
dlkimk BO 22:,8<.
▮ Zlolrcmk> fmbgur pmdmt, putcf dmk bmu `fms.
▮ @lgmrutmk> @lgmrutmk ymctu tcdm` gmrut dmgmo mcr dmk dmgmo
prapcglkigc`ag, oudmf gmrut dmgmo ltmkag, dmgmo `garaearo dmk dmgmo
ltlr.

▮ Ymdmf dmk Zlkycopmkmk> wmdmf tlrtutup bmc`

 (@lolk`ls RC, 2:=4).
▮ @liukmmk> Butcg Fcdra`sctagulk dciukm`mk slbmimc mktca`scdmk
ymki omopu oloplrgmobmt mtmu olkhlimf prasls a`scdmsc (Rawl

lt mg., 2::3).

=.4 Xcrup @lrcki

Xcrup `lrcki mdmgmf sumtu hmopurmk pmdmt ymki dctmobmf`mk mcr pmdm smmt
m`mk dciukm`mk, sldcmmk tlrslbut dcbumt pmdm uouokym uktu` bmfmk abmt ymki
tcdm` stmbcg dmk tcdm` gmrut dmgmo plobmwm mcr, slplrtc mopcscgck dmk moa`scscgck
(Aeklr lt mg,=363). Mimr hmopurmk sltlgmf dctmobmf mcr oloblktu` dcsplrsc ymki
faoailk, om`m dmgmo earougmkym dciukm`mk bmfmk plksusplksc. @aopascsc
susplksc scrup `lrcki bcmsmkym tlrdcrc dmrc bmfmk plksusplksc, plobmsmf, plomkcs,

plkimwlt, plkmobmf rmsm/mraom,

rmsm/mraom, bueelr, dmk zmt wmrkm
wmrkm (Dlp`ls RC,=33
RC,=33<).
<).
Xcrup `lrcki mdmgmf sldcmmk ymki faoailk, dascs dmpmt dcubmf-ubmf dmgmo
plobumtmk, abmt glbcf oudmf dcmbsarbsc, olopukymc rmsm omkcs, oudmf dcblrc
bmu-bmumk dmk wmrkm slfckiim olkcobug`mk dmym tmrc` uktu` mkm`-mkm` dmk
olobmktu pmsclk ymki olkdmpmt `lsugctmk dmgmo olklgmk abmt. @lruicmk abmt
dmgmo sldcmmk scrup ymctu mdm abmt ymki tcdm` stmbcg dmgmo gmrutmk, vaguol
blktu` gmrutmk glbcf blsmr, mdm ymki su`mr dctutupc rmsm dmk bmukym dmgmo scrup
(Mkslg, 2::6).
Xlbmicmk blsmr `aopaklk scrup slgmck mcr dmk sloum abmt ymki mdm

olkimkduki `aopaklk slplrtc>

olkimkduki
m. Bmfmk plomkcs> Zlomkcs blreukisc uktu` oloplrbmc`c rmsm dmrc
sldcmmk. Dcgcfmt dmrc fmscg `mgarc ymki dcfmscg`mk dcbmic olknmdc dum
ymctu blr`mgarc tckiic dmk blr`mgarc rlkdmf. Mdmpuk plomkcs blr`mgarc
tckiic ocsmgkym sarbctag, sm`mrck, dmk su`rasm. Zlomkcs blr`mgarc
rlkdmf ocsmgkym gm`tasm (Mkslg, 2::6).
b. Bmfmk plkilktmg> Xlbmimc zmt plobmwm dmgmo sldcmmk hmcr dmk uktu`
oloblktu` sumtu hmcrmk dlkimk `l`lktmgmk ymki stmbcg dmk faoailk
(Mkslg, 2::6).
 h. Zloblrc rmsm> Fmopcr sloum scrup dcsldmp`mk dlkimk ploblrc rmsm
bumtmk mtmu bmfmk - bmfmk ymki blrmsmg dmrc mgmo, uktu` olobumt
scrup sldmprmsmkym. @mrlkm scrup mdmgmf sldcmmk hmcr, ploblrc rmsm
r msm ckc

fmrusolopukymc `lgmrutmk dmgmo mcr ymki hu`up (Mkslg, 2::6).

Moa`scscgck uktu` susplksc armg olkimkduki tcdm` `urmki dmrc3:,:%
dmk tcdm` glbcf dmrc =2:,:% H =5F=3K8A<X dmrc nuogmf ymki
tlrtlrm pmdm ltc`lt. Olkimkduki smtu mtmu glbcf dmpmr, plkimwlt,
plkstmbcg, plomkcs dmk
dmk plksusplksc ymki slsumc (Dlp`ls RC, =33<).
=33<).
=.< Blktu` Xldcmmk, Dascs, dmk Hmrm Zlom`mcmk
=.<.= Blktu` Xldcmmk
Blktu` sldcmmk blrupm scrup `lrcki. Xcrup `lrcki mdmgmf sldcmmk
blrblktu` susplksc ymki fmrus dcrl`akstctusc`mk tlrglbcf dmfugu dlkimk slnuogmf

mcr mtmu plgmrut gmck ymki slsumc slblguo dciukm`mk (Dlp`ls RC, =33<).Xcrup
olrupm`mk gmrutmk armg ymki olkimkduki sm`mrasm, `lhumgc dckymtm`mk gmck, `mdmr
sm`mrasm H=2F22A== tcdm` `urmki dmrc 54,:% dmk tcdm` glbcf dmrc 55,:% (Dlp`ls
RC, =393). @aopascsc susplksc scrup `lrcki bcmsmkym tlrdcrc dmrc bmfmk plksusplksc,
plobmsmf, plomkcs, plkimwlt, plkmobmf rmsm/mraom, bueelr, dmk zmt wmrkm
(Dlp`ls RC,=33<).
\ktu` iagakimk plkchcggck ymki tlromsu` dcdmgmokym moaxchcggck tcdm`
stmbcg dmgmo blktu` sldcmmk scrup. Xlkymwm iagakimk ckc olkimgmoc fcdragcscs aglf
mcr dlkimk olkdlirmdmsc hckhck bltm gm`tmo ymki dcpradu`sc. Xlfckiim uktu`

olkimtmsc omsmgmf ckc dcbumt sldcmk moaxchcggck dmgmo blktu` scrup `lrcki. Mdmpuk
mgmsmk plocgcfmk blktu` sldcmmk ckc mdmgmf stmbcgctms ymki dcocgc`c moaxchcggck
dmgmo mcr mdmgmf =4 fmrc, slfckiim dlkimk dcbumt dmgmo blktu` scrup `lrcki om`m
`louki`ckmk dlirmdmsc hckhck bltm gm`tmo ymki mdm dmpmt dcfckdmrc (Gmsy lt mg.,
2::4).
Blktu` sldcmmk> scrup `lrcki (tcmp < og olkimkduki moaxchcggck
trcfcdrmt ymki sltmrm dlkimk =2< oi moaxchcggck).
=.<.2 Dascs
Dascs plom`mcmk scrup `lrcki moaxchcggck, slbmimc blrc`ut >

=. Dascs uouo mkm`-mkm`

 :-= tmfuk > =:: oi x 8 (sltcmp 6 nmo)
=-8 tmfuk > =2< oi x 8 (sltcmp 6 nmo)
8-=: tmfuk > 2<: oi x 8 (sltcmp 6 nmo)

(Tnmy, d``.,
2::6)
2. Dascs `fusus uktu` ckel`sc tlrtlktu>
m. Ckel`sc Xmgurmk Zlrkmemsmk Mtms
• \ktu` ckel`sc sldmki>
✘ Dlwmsm dmk mkm` ‘ mkm` ≬ 4: `i> <:: oi sltc mp =2 nmo mtmu 2<:
oi tcmp 6 nmo.
✘ Mkm` ‘ mkm` ; 8 bugmk dmk 7 4: `i> 4< oi/@iBB/fmrc tlrbmic, tcmp
=2 nmo, mtmu 4: oi/@iBB/fmrc tlrbmic tcmp 6 nmo.

•
\ktu` ckel`sc blrmt>
✘ Dlwmsm dmk mkm` ‘ mkm` ≬ 4: `i> 69< oi tcmp =2 nmo, mtmu <:: oi

tcmp 6 nmo.
✘ Mkm` ‘ mkm` ; 8 bugmk dmk 7 4: `i> 4< oi/@iBB/fmrc tlrbmic, tcmp
=2 nmo, mtmu 4: oi/@iBB/fmrc tlrbmic tcmp 6 nmo.
(Kavm`, 2::4)
=.<.8 Durmsc Tlrmpc
Durmsc tlrmpc Moaxchcggck blrimktuki pmdm nlkcs dmk tcki`mt `lpmrmfmk
ckel`sc dmk slfmruskym dctlktu`mk olgmguc rlspak `gckc` dmk tls bm`tlrcagaic pmsclk.

Zmdm `lbmkym`mk ckel`sc `lhumgc iakarrflm, tlrmpc slfmruskym dcgmknut`mk pmgcki

sldc`ct 46-92 nmo sltlgmf ilnmgm-ilnmgm plkym`ct pmsclk olkifcgmki. Ckel`sc ymki
pmrmf ololrgu`mk
ololrgu`mk wm`tu blblrmpm
blblrmpm ockiiu uktu`
uktu` tlrmpc (OhLvay, 2::2).
2::2).
=.<.4 Hmrm Zloblrcmk
Hmrm plom`mcmk scrup `lrcki ymctu slblguo dciukm`mk plrgu dcgm`u`mk
rl`akstctusc tlrglbcf dmfugu dlkimk plkmobmfmk sldc`ct mcr `loudcmk dc`aha`
rckimk, `loudcmk dc blrc mcr `lobmgc fckiim tmkdm bmtms pmdm sldcmmk sltlgmf ctu
dcockuo slhmrm armg slsumc dascs ymki dctlktu`mk (Mkslg, 2::6).
CC. EARO\GMXC
2.= Earougm
m. Earougm C

Moaxchcggck ear Armg Xusplkscak (=2< oi/<og)

Tcmp < og scrup ymki dcrl`akstctusc olkimkduki >
Moaxyhcgck Trcfcdrmtl ymki sltmrm dlkimk Moaxyhcggck =2< oi.
Dmrc earougm ckc olkifmscg`mk 234: batag omscki-omscki 4: og.
R/ Moaxchcggck 8,6 `i
Hmrbaxyoltfyghlggugasl
Hmrbaxyoltfyghlggugasl Xadcuo =,= `i
Mlarascg 4<: i
Hagaur Tmrtrmzckl =2 i
Xadcuo Blkzamtlj 29: i

Xuimr Zfmro. Irmdl <4 `i

Armkil Egmvar Dry 5:: i
(@afgc dmk Xfmf, =336)
b. Earougm ymki dciukm`mk
\ktu` = Batag J5: og, =2< oi/ < oG)
R/ Moaxchcggck =,< i
Hmrbaxyoltfyghlggugasl
Hmrbaxyoltfyghlggugasl Xadcuo :,<5= i
Xadcuo Blkzamt :,=86 i
Gm`tasm 28,4= i

Xarbctag 4,=8= i
Msmo Xctrmt :,425 i
Zlrcsm strmwblrry q.s.

2.2 Zlromsmgmfmk dmgmo Earougmsc

=. @lstmbcgmk Moaxchcggck smkimt buru` dc dmgmo mcr
2. ZF moaxchcggck slgmom plkycopmkmk bcsm blrubmf
8. Moaxchcggck tcdm` stmbcg tlrfmdmp hmfmym omtmfmrc
4. Earougm olkimkduki iugm dmgmo nuogmf ymki hu`up blsmr slfckiim bcsm

olkcobug`mk hmpgah`cki.
 <. Bmfmk tmobmfmk HOH Km blrscemt fciras`apcs slfckiim `urmki stmbcg nc`m
dciukm`mk slbmimc scrup `lrcki.

2.8 Zlkimtmsmk omsmgmf dmgmo Earougmsc

=. Moaxchcggck olrupm`mk iagakimk plkchcggck ymki olocgc`c stmbcgctms ymki

buru` pmdm mcr. Xlkymwm iagakimk
iagakimk ckc olkimgmoc fcdragcscs aglf mcr dlkim
dlkimk
k
olkdlirmdmsc hckhck bltm gm`tmo ymki dcpradu`sc slfckiim plkimtmsmk
omsmgmf ckc ymctu dlkimk olobumt sldcmk moaxchcggck dmgmo blktu` scrup
`lrcki. Mdmpuk mgmsmk plocgcfmk blktu` sldcmmk ckc mdmgmf> stmbcgctms ymki
dcocgc`c moaxchcggck dmgmo mcr mdmgmf =4 fmrc, slfckiim dlkimk dcbumt dmgmo
blktu` scrup `lrcki om`m `louki`ckmk dlirmdmsc hckhck bltm gm`tmo ymki
mdm dmpmt dcfckdmrc (Gmsy lt mg., 2::4).

2. Xtmbcgctms pF moaxchcggck blr`csmr dmrc <,: smopmc 9,: (@afgc dmk Xfmf,
=336), slfckiim uktu` olkhlimf tlrnmdckym plrubmfmk pF ymki l`strco
slgmom prasls pradu`sc dmk plomsmrmk, om`m pmdm plobumtmk scrup `lrcki
dctmobmf`mk bueelr msmo sctrmt =% uktu` olknmim `lstmbcgmk pF.

8. Moaxchcggck dc`loms dmgmo wmdmf ilgmp dmk tlrgckduki dmrc hmfmym.

4. \ktu` olkifckdmrc tlrnmdckym hmpgah`cki `mrlkm mdmkym iugm dmgmo nuogmf
blsmr om`m plrgu
plrgu dctmobmf`mk mktchmpgah`cki
mktchmpgah`cki ymctu sarbctag.
<. Xltlgmf plkhmopurmk slguruf bmfmk, hmopurmk slrbu` dcavlk pmdm sufu ≤
:
<: H slgmom ½=< olkct uktu` olkifcgmki`mk `mkdukimk mcr dc dmgmo slrbu`
(@afgc dmk Xfmf, =336).
CCC. ZRAD\@XC
m. Zlrfctukimk Earougmsc dmk Zlkcobmkimk

=. Zlrfctukimk Earougmsc>

➢ Moaxchcggck trcfcdrmt>
Zmdm earougm ymki dciukm`mk dckymtm`mk bmfwm tcmp < og
olkimkduki moaxchcggck trcfcdrmt ymki sltmrm dlkimk =2< oi
moaxchcggck (= og ? 2< oi). Xldcmmk ymki dcbumt mdmgmf =:: og
slfckiim plkcobmkimk
plkcobmkimk uktu` = batag sldcmmk (5: og) mdmgmf> 2< oi x
5: og ? =<:: oi ? =,< i

=.=`i 894oi
➢ ?
HOH Km ? 234: batag batag

5:oG
?  894oi ? <5=oi
4:oG

? <5= oi/ btg x 2 btg

? =.=22oi
29: i 32oi
➢ Xadcuo Blkzamt ? ?
234: batag batag

5:oG
?  32oi ? =86oi
4:oG

? =86 oi/ btg x 2 btg

? 295oi
<4`i =6,85 i
➢ Gm`tasm ? ?
234:batag batag

5:oG
?  =6.85 i ? 29,<4 i
4:oG

? 29,<4 oi/ btg x 2 btg

? <<,:6i
 @mrlkm plkiiukmmk gm`tasm ; 8:%, om`m dciukm`mk sarbctag slbmimc
mktchmpgah`cki dlkimk `aopascsc slbmkym` =<%, `loudcmk dmgmo
plkhmopurmkkym,
plkhmopurmkkym, sarbctag (=<%) dchmopur dlkimk gm`tasm (6<%),

slfckiim plrfctukimk earougmsckym olknmdc>

Xarbctag ? 29,<4
29,<4 i x ? 4,=8=
4,=8= i
? 4.=8= i/ btg x 2 btg
? 6.252 oi
Gm`tasm ? 29,<4
29,<4 i x ? 28,4:3
28,4:3 i
? 28,4:3 oi/ btg x 2 btg
? 45.6=6 oi
➢ Zlkmobmfmk msmo sctrmt slbmkym` :,9=%. Om`m nuogmf msmo sctrmt
ymki dcbutuf`mk dmgmo sldcmmk scrup 5:oG mdmgmf >
:,9=
:,9=% b/v ? x 5: oG
=::

? :.425i

➢ Zlrcsm Xtrmwbblry
Zlrcsm nlru` dmgmo sldcmmk emromsc (om`scouo dciukm`mk :.:< %
b/v) (Mials, 2::6).
2::6). Zmdm sldcmmk ymki
ymki dcbumt dciukm`mk
dciukm`mk :,:=%
:.:= irmo
x =:: oG ? :,:= i
=:: oG

b. Hmrm @lrnm

=. Mgmt >

m). Mym`mk

b). Tcobmkimk

h). Oartcr dmk stmoplr

d). Avlk

l). Batag scrup

 e). @lomsmk dmk ltc`lt

2. Bmfmk >

m). Moaxchcggck Trcfydrmtl

b). Hmrbaxyoltfyghlggugasl
Hmrbaxyoltfyghlggugasl Xadcuo

h). Xadcuo Blkzamtl

d). Gm`tasm

l). Xarbctag

e). Msmo Xctrmt

f). Zlrmsm (Xtrmwbblry)

h. X`lom @lrnm

Batag dctmrm 6: oG

Moaxchcgck dcmym` pmdm olsf 6:, `loudcmk dctcobmki. Dmk dctcobmki

dct cobmki
bmfmk gmck nuim
nuim slsumc tmblg

Bmfmk ymki tlgmf dctcobmki dcbumt irmkug ymctu Msmo sctrmt + sadcuo
blkzamtl + moaxchcggck
moaxchcggck dchmopur dmgmo
dmgmo oartcr (hmopurmk C)

Dcbumt hmopurmk gm`tasm dmk sarbctag dmgmo oartcr tlrpcsmf, ilrus

fckiim faoailk

Dcomsu``mk hmopurmk CC `l dmgmo hmopurmk C, ilrus faoailk

 Dctmobmf`mk lsslkhl stmwbblry sldc`ct dloc sldc`ct, ilrus faoailk

Omssm irmkugmsc dc`lrcki`mk dlkimk avlk pmdm sufu dcbmwmf <:aH

slgmom ½2: olkct, `loudcmk dcmym` dlkimk olsf 6:

Dchmopur`mk dlkimk HOH, mdu` fckiim faoailk, `loudcmk

dcomsu``mk slhmrm plrgmfmk `l dmgmo batag ymki tlgmf dctmrm
sl
slb
blguok
guok m

Dcblrc ltc`lt, brasur, dmk dcomsu``mk `l dmgmo `lomsmk

CU. ZLKILOMXMK
4.= @lomsmk Zrcolr
4.2 @lomsmk sl`ukdlr

4.8 Ltc`lt
 4.4 Brasur

U. LUMG\MXC
<.= \nc Zlkdmfugumk

Xlrbu` irmkug dcmym` dlkimk mym`mk kaoar 6:

Dctcobmki tatmg babat irmkug ymki dcplraglf

<.2 \nc Dcstrcbusc \`urmk Zmrtc`lg

Xlbmkym` =: irmo irmkug dctcobmki

Mgmt mym`mk blrtcki`mt dcscmp`mk dmk dcpmsmki mym`mk dlkimk olsf

2:,4:,5:

Irmkug dcomsu``mk `ldmgmo mgmt dmk dcgm`u`mk plkimym`mk slgmom =<

olkct
 Babat dmrc omscki-omscki mym`mk dctcobmki

<.8 \nc Faoailkctms

Xldcmmk susplksl dc`akstctusc dcgmrut`mk dlkimk mcr md 5: oG

Dc`aha` plrgmfmk-gmfmk,
plrgmfmk-gmfmk, zmt tlrdcsplrsc fmgus dmk tcdm` hlpmt
olkilkdmp,
olkilkdmp, slrmt dc`aha` `lobmgc lkdmpmk slilrm tlrdcsplsc `lobmgc

<.4 \nc Uaguol Tlrpckdmf`mk

Dctumki`mk susplksc slhmrm plrgmfmk-gmfmk `l dmgmo ilgms u`ur

dlkimk `mpmsctms tcdm` glbcf dmrc dum sltlkimf `mgc vaguol ymki
dcu`ur

Dcdcmo`mk slgmom tcdm` glbcf dmrc 8: olkct fckiim tcdm` tlrdmpmt

ilglobuki udmrm

Dcu`ur vaguol tcmp hmopurmk ymki dcplraglf dmrc =: wmdmf dmk

dcfctuki vaguol rmtm-rmtmkym

Dcbmkdcki`mk rmtm-rmtm dmk vaguol omscki-omscki wmdmf

Uaguol rmtm-rmtm susplksc ymki dcplraglf dmrc =: wmdmf tcdm`

`urmki dmrc =::% dmk tcdm` smtu puk vaguol wmdmf ymki `urmki
dmrc 3<% dmrc vaguol ymki dckymtm`mk dmgmo ltc`lt

<.< \nc Zlkltmpmk Ym`tu Rl`aktctusc

Dcrl`akstctusc sldcmmk scrup `lrcki

Dcfctuki wm`tu ymki dcplrgu`mk smopmc sldcmmk tlrslbut

oloblktu` susplksl dlkimk slopurkm
<.5 Lvmgumsc Ucs`asctms

Dckymgm`mk mgmt Ucs`aoltlr Braa`eclgd dmk dcscmp`mk smoplg ymki

m`mk dcunc`mk slrtm dcpcgcf kaoar spckdgl ymki haha`

Dchmtmt fmscg plkiu`urmk vcs`asctms

Dcgcfmt s`mgm ymki tlrtlrm, dcfctuki vcs`asctmskym dmk dctlktu`mk gmnu

mgcr blrdmsmr`mk rflairmo

<.9 pF

Dc`mgcbrmsc pF oltlr dlkimk olkiiukm`mk gmrutmk bueelr pF 4,: dmk

pF 9,:

Xltlgmf dc`mgcbrmsc, dchlgup`mk pF oltlr `l dmgmo sldcmmk

s ldcmmk ymki
dchmopur dlkimk =: og mqumdlst

Dcmomtc dmk dchmtmt pF ymki tlrbmhm.

t lrbmhm. Rlktmki pF stmbcg sldcmmk
moaxchcggck ymctu 4,<-9,<

<.6 @mdmr Mcr

Dcomsu``mk = irmo irmkug `l dmgmo mgmt oacsturl bmgmkhl ymki

slblguokym tlgmf dctmrm

Dcu`ur `mdmr mcrkym dlkimk olkl`mk taobag Xtmrt gmgu dchmtmt

plrslktmsl plraglfmk
plraglfmk `mdmr mcrkym

@mdmr mcr dmgmo slrbu` `lrcki tcdm` baglf glbcf dmrc 8%

<.3 Gmnu Mgcr dmk Xudut Dcmo

2: irmo slrbu` irmkug dcomsu``mk `l dmgmo haraki mgmt unc egaw tlstlr
dmk dcrmtm`mk (dctutup bmicmk bmwmfkym)

Fctuki wm`tu ymki dcplrgu`mk irmkug uktu` olkimgcr blbms sltlgmf tutup
haraki dcbu`m

Xlrbu` irmkug ymki bmc` olocgc`c wm`tu mgcr tcdm` glbcf dmrc =: dltc`

Dcu`ur nmrc-nmrc dmk tckiic dmrc slrbu` irmkug dcmtms `lrtms ocgcoltlr bga`

Dcfctuki gmnu mgcr dlkimk ruous > tmk -= (tckiic slrbu`/nmrc-nmrc slrbu`)

<.=: Babat Nlkcs

Dctcobmki slbmkym` =2 irmo irmkug scrup `lrcki moaxchcggck

Dcomsu``mk `l dmgmo ilgms u`ur =:: oG dlkimk haraki

Dcmtur mgmt pmdm \XZ CC slbmkym` <:: `ltu`mk. Dcu`ur bmtms mtms dmk
bmtms bmwmf irmkug pmdm ilgms u`ur
u`ur

Dctl`mk taobag ‗Xtmrt‟ pmdm mgmt. Dcfctuki bmtms mtms dmk bmtms bmwmf
gmgu dcgm`u`mk plkiuncmk gmic slbmkym` <:: `ltu`mk

Dcfctuki bmtms mtms dmk bmtms bmwmf m`fcr

 DMETMR Z\XTM@M

Dlp`ls RC. =393. Emrom`apl Ckdaklsc. Ldcsc CCC. Nm`mrtm> Dlpmrtlolk @lslfmtmk

Rlpubgc` Ckdaklscm.
Dlp`ls RC. =33<. Emrom`apl Ckdaklscm. Ldcsc CU. Nm`mrtm>
N m`mrtm> Dlpmrtlolk @lslfmtmk
@lslfmtmk
Rlpubgc` Ckdaklscm.
Mkslg, F. H. 2::6. Zlkimktmr Blktu` Xldcmmk Emromsc. Ldcsc CU. Mgcf Bmfmsm
Cbrmfco, E. Nm`mrtm > \C Zrlss.
Fmrdy,Z. Xcoak. 2::2. Fuomk Ochrabcagaiy
Ochrabcagaiy. Gakdak.
@lolk`ls RC. 2:=2. Earougmrcuo Xplscmgcstc` Cgou Zlkym`ct Dmgmo. Nm`mrtm>
@lolktlrcmk @lslfmtmk Rlpubgc` Ckdaklscm.
@lolk`ls RC. 2:=4. Emrom`apl Ckdaklscm. Ldcsc U. Nm`mrtm> @lolktlrcmk

@lslfmtmk Rlpubgc` Ckdaklscm.

@lolk`ls RC. 2:=4. Emrom`apl Ckdaklscm Ldcsc CU. Nm`mrtm> @lolktrcmk
@lslfmtmk Rlpubgc` Ckdaklscm> Nm`mrtm.
@afgc, D. Z. X., dmk D. F. Xfmf. =336. Drui Earougmtcak Omkumg. Klw Dlgfc>
Lmstlk Zubgcsflrs.
Gmsy, H. E., G. G. Mostraki, O. Z. Iagdomk, G. G. Gmkhl. 2::4. Drui Ckearomtcak
Ckearomtcak
=2tf Ldctcak. Afca> Glxc Haop.
Fmkdbaa` =2
OhLvay mkd @. Ilrmgd. 2::2. MFEX Drui Baa` 4. \XM> Molrchmk Xahclty ae
Flmgtf Xystlo Zfmromhcst.

Kavm`, @. @. 2::4. Drui Emhts & Haopmrcsaks

Haopmrcsaks, <6ld. Hmkmdm> Emhts mkd
Haopmrcsaks.
Rlykagds, N.L.E. =362. Omrtckdmgl Tfl Lxtrm Zfmromhaplcm, 26 Ldctcak. Gakdak>
Tfl Zfmromhlutchmg Zrlss.
Rawl, R. H., Zmug N. X., mkd Zmug N. Y. 2::8. Fmkd Baa` ae Zfmromhlutchmg
Zfmromhlutchmg
Lxhcpclkts. \XM> Zfmromhlutchmg Zrlss mkd Molrchmk Zfmromhlutchmg
Mssahcmtcak.
Rawl, Rmyoakd H., Xfls`ly, Zmug N., dmk ]uckk, Omrcmk L. 2::3. Fmkdbaa`
ae Zfmromhlutchmg Lxhcpclkts, 5tf ld. Ymsfckitak DH mkd Gakdak >

Molrchmk Zfmromhcst Msschcmtcak mkd Zfmromhlutchmg Zrlss.

Xcswmkdaka. 2:::. @cocm Oldchckmg. Xurmbmym> Mcrgmkiim \kcvlrcsty Zrlss.
Xymosukc, F.M. 2::5. Cgou Rlslp.
Rlslp. Nm`mrtm> Bu`u @lda`tlrmk LIH.
Tnmy, T.F. dmk @. Rmfmrdnm. 2::6. Abmt-Abmt Zlktcki. Nm`mrtm> Lglx Oldcm

@aoputckda.