OVERVIEW OF THE TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

AN INDUSTRIAL INTERNSHIP REPORT

submitted by

AKSHAY MAHAJAN

(11BEC1019)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

June-July 2013

1
 DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I hereby declare that the in-plant training report entitled “OVERVIEW OF THE
TELEPHONE EXCHANGE” submitted by me to VIT University - Chennai Campus,
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
technology in ECE is a record of bonafide industrial training undertaken by me under
the supervision of Mr. Rajeev Mahajan. I further declare that the work reported in
this report has not been submitted and will not be submitted, either in part or in full,
for the award of any other degree or diploma in this institute or any other institute or
university.

Signature of the Candidate

Place: Chennai
Date: 24 September 2013

2
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the in-plant training report entitled “OVERVIEW OF THE
TELEPHONE EXCHANGE” submitted by Akshay Mahajan (11BEC1019) to VIT
University - Chennai Campus, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award
of the degree of Bachelor of technology in ECE is a record of bonafide in-plant
training undertaken by him/her under my supervision. The training fulfills the
requirements as per the regulations of this Institute and in my opinion meets the
necessary standards for submission. The contents of this report have not been
submitted and will not be submitted either in part or in full, for the award of any other
degree or diploma in this institute or any other institute or university.

Program Manager (B.tech ECE)

Place: Chennai

Date: 24 September 2013

3
4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Internship has an important role in a shaping up an engineering student for practical

knowledge how a keeping him update with latest technology. First of all, I would like
to express my gratitude towards Mr. Rajeev Mahajan (S.D.E Power plant and
project udaan) for his guidance throughout the training. With great pleasure I want to
take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to all the people who helped in
making this internship a grand success.

I am highly indebted to the dean of ECE Dr. Kanchana Bhaskaran for giving me the
permission to carry out this Internship.

Last but not the least, I express my sincere thanks to Mr. Ramesh Kumar (Telecom
technical assistant) for the experience of a field visit to TarnTaran (District, Asr).

I would like to thank the Other Teaching Staff of the BSNL, Amritsar for sharing their
knowledge with me.

Place: Chennai
(Akshay Mahajan)
(11BEC1019)
Date : 24 September 2013

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1. ABSTRACT 7

1.1 LIST OF FIGURES 8-9

1.2 LIST OF SYMBOLS 10

2. POWER PLANT 11

3. MDF 18

4. OCB-283 LOCAL EXCHANGE 22

5. EWSD TAX 27

6. OFC 35

5. GSM (MSC and BSC) 39

6. BROADBAND 51

6
 1. ABSTRACT

Telecommunication is the transmission of information over significant distances to communicate. In

earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals,
semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and optical heliographs, or audio messages such as coded
drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. In modern times, telecommunications involves the
use of electrical devices such as the telegraph, telephone, radio, and microwave communications.
Communication channels make use of fiber optics and their associated electronics, orbiting satellites
and the Internet. Modern telecommunications industry players produce communication equipment
and deliver a set of voice, data, and broadband services using wire line or wired infrastructure of
cables, networks, servers, computers, and satellites.

This industry is highly sensitive to the slightest change in regulatory, technological, and economic
factors and has its own share of challenges largely stemming from these factors. With wireless and
broadband providing the needed momentum to their growth, the industry players adopt unique
strategies to overcome these challenges and move forward to connect people to people and
organizations.

In today’s world the telephone, long-distance, cable/video, cellular, and telecommunications

equipment industries are increasingly intertwined. Major challenges of this industry are globalization
trends, competitive implications of new technologies, and the changing regulatory environment.

Telecommunications sector is growing at a fast rate. The dependence of people on the

Telecommunications has also increased very much. For building reliable telecommunication systems
a lot of engineering and designing is required. An optimized system can only be designed after
proper planning and consideration of each and every factor that can affect working of the system.
Telephony is a technology which allows voice and/or interactive communication between two points
through the usage of appropriate equipment. Analog sound signals are translated into electrical
signals after a communication request is initiated. These electrical signals are converted back to
analog sound signals once received at the destination.

7
 1.1 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1: Exchange Generator

Fig 2: Connections in power plant

Fig 3: DCDB (Distribution box)

Fig 4: HBL make 3000AH VRLA BATTERY.

Fig 5: Supply distribution

Fig 6: Battery bank

Fig 7: Batteries (48V 3000ah)

Fig 8: Basic structure of MDF

Fig 9: MDF

Fig 10: Line side

Fig 11: RSU

Fig 12: OCB architecture

Fig 13: Functional architecture

Fig 14: EWSD basic layout

Fig 15: EWSD Punjab

Fig 16: Distributed controls in EWSD

Fig 17: Internal structure of LTG

Fig 18: Switching network

Fig 19: OFC

Fig 20: Connections in STM

Fig 21: Configuration

Fig 22: 4G BTS

Fig 23: 3G BTS

Fig 24: Block diagram of GSM

8
Fig 25: Working of GSM

Fig 26: Systematic flowchart of Broadband

Fig 27: Siemens DSLAM

9
 1.2 LIST OF SYMBOLS

AuC – Authentication Centre

BS – Base Station
BSC- Base Station Controller
BSS – Base Station Subsystem
BTS – Base Transceiver Station
CCNC – Common Channel Signalling Network Controller
DIUD – Digital Interface Unit for DLU
DLU – Digital Line unit
DLUC – Digital Line Unit Control
DLUG – DLU type G
DSB – Digital Switchboard
EIR – Equipment Identity Register
GSM – Global System for Mobile communication
HLR – Home Location Register
IOC – Input/output Control
IOP – Input/output Processor
LTG – Line /Trunk Group
LTU – Line Trunk Unit

MS – Mobile Station
MSC – Mobile Switching Centre
PLMN – Public Land Mobile Network
RSU – Remote Switching Unit
SDC – Secondary Digital Carrier
SGC – Switch Group Control
SIM – Subscriber Identity Module
SLM – Subscriber Line Module
SN – Switching Network
SS7 – Signalling System No.7
SU – Signalling Unit
VLR – Visitor Location Register
VMSC – Voice Mail Service Centre

10
 2. POWER PLANT
Telecommunication services are to be provided uninterruptedly round the clock. For any
uninterrupted power supply system, many sources are required like

1. PSEB (Punjab State Electricity Board)

2. Generator
3. Power plant
4. Battery

The power plant is the plant from where the power is supplied to whole of exchange. It is must for
proper functioning of the exchange.

2.1 PSEB

The 3- phase A.C supply from PSEB needs to be converted into D.C as all the equipment in the
telephone exchange work on -48V D.C supply as well as other appliances which work on A.C.

2.2 GENERATOR

This produces 3-phase A.C supply in case of Power failure. In telecom exchanges 5KVA to 500KVA
generator sets are used as per load.

FIG 1: Exchange generator

11
In telecom exchanges, SMPS (switch mode power supply) type power plants are used which
converts 3 phase A.C to -54V D.C supply which is fed to the different systems installed in the
exchanges as well as charge the battery sets which works in parallel to the power plant.

FIG 2: Connections in power plant

12
 FIG 3: DCDB (DC distribution box)

13
2.3 BATTERY

In telephone exchanges VRLA (valve regulated lead acid) batteries are used to feed 48V D.C power
supply to the exchange whenever power failure.

FIG4: HBL make 3000AH VRLA BATTERY

14
2.4 FUNCTIONING OF THE POWER PLANT

STEP 1: The 3 phase electricity supply from PSEB (Punjab state electricity board) is fed to the step
down transformers which convert 11KVA supply to 440V A.C supply.

STEP 2: This is then passed through various departments and sections like exchange control section,
lift section, compound light, exchange light, basement light and some more.

FIG 5: Supply distribution

STEP 3: The equipment in the exchange work on -48V D.C supply so, the 440V A.C supply needs to
be converted into -48V D.C supply.

STEP 4: Now the power plant converts this 440V A.C into D.C supply and the D.C supply is fed to
all the equipment in the exchange. There are fuses that are embedded in the system so that at as soon

15
as the current through the load increases more than the threshold value, the fuse goes off thus saving

all the equipment.

STEP 5: Whenever the power goes off, the exchange loads shift on the battery bank. Meanwhile the
generator is started and the load shifts on the generator. This then charges the battery that goes down.

FIG 6: Battery bank

16
 FIG 7: Batteries (48V 3000ah)

POWER
PLANT MDF SWITCHING ROOM

17
 3. MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME (MDF)

FIG 8: Basic structure of MDF

OCB exchange terminates at the M.D.F. Local cable contact at MDF. All types of cables out to
the door contact connection at MDF .

The primary function of MDF is to remove fault. It is also known as Fault Remove Section. The
telephone numbers are also connected and disconnected in the MDF because of some specific
reason.

3.1 ORGANISATION OF THE MDF

• LINE side

• EXCHANGE side

3.2 LINE SIDE

In the line side of MDF, underground cables are terminated. Jumper is used to connect the line side
with the exchange side. Tap roll of 100 pairs of verticals are used in the line side for voltage
protection. High current /voltage protection modules are used in line side which protects the
exchange side equipment from outside potential. The tag jacks are provided in the line side. There is
a vertical tag block which is used to connect outer underground cables with the exchange side.

18
3.4 EXCHANGE SIDE

The telephone numbers are terminated at the exchange side. There are gas discharge tubes used to
protect the exchange side equipment from the outside foreign potential.

The exchange side is also known as NE side (number of equipment side). 0-15 of the equipments are
there in one port. There are 16 NE (0-15). It includes 128 NE and hence 100 pairs of verticals. There
is a set of 2 wires called a pair and a separate NE for each telephone number is provided in the
exchange.

JUMPER
LINE SIDE EXCHANGE SIDE
FIG 9: MDF

3.5 GENERAL TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH MDF

1. RACK - On the rack, the tags are situated. One rack is having eight tags. The counting is done
from up (0) to down (7).
2. TAGS - Each rack consists of eight tags.
1 tag = 4 core
1 core = 4 bunch
1 bunch = 2 line
3. N.E -Word NE stands for the ‘NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT’. It is used for testing number and to
refer if some problem in the connections.

4. WEDGE -Wedge is used as a device for checking the ring. Wedge is placed in jack strips, which
is connected to telephone for checking.

19
 FIG 10: Line side
3.6 MAJOR FAULTS IN MDF

The following types of faults may occur in MDF:

1. Contacts
2. Breaks
3. Earth
4. Foreign potential
5. Induction

3.6.1 CONTACTS

Sometimes when a telephone cable is connected pulsars, there is a huge bundle of other
telephone cables also and by chance these cables get connected to the other cables by rain water
or some other reason. This causes a major distortion in the connectivity of the telephone. This
type of fault is called CONTACT fault.

3.6.2 BREAK
20
Sometimes there is a joint in the transmission and by mistake, due to lose joints, if the joint is
broken, then the connection goes off and is cut. This causes telephone totally dead. This type of fault
is called BREAK fault.

3.6.3 EARTH

There are poles that support the wires and help in grounding the cables. Sometimes due to heavy
rains, the joints of the wire cover the poles and the ground voltage flows into the joints. Hence, the
distortion occurs in telephone communication due to earthing of required voltage. This type of fault
is called EARTH fault.

3.6.4 FOREIGN POTENTIAL

This type of fault occurs when cable of one NE is connected with cable of other NE which gives rise
to foreign potential. For rectification of this fault, the connections should be properly insulated so
that they do not connect with each other.

3.6.5 INDUCTION

The telephone cables sometimes passes nearby a high voltage carrying wires (11KVA or 3KVA). Due
to electromagnetic induction at high voltages, there are disturbances in communication. Thus this

type of fault is called INDUCTION.

FIG 11: RSU (Remote

switching unit)
These are the cards which
are connected to the
exchange side of MDF.
These cards provide the
tones like ringing tone,
busy tone etc for each
number.
The cards are selected on
the basis of rack no. -
Frame no. - card no. –port
no.
21
 4. OCB- LOCAL EXCHANGE
The new switching systems are based on Stored Program Control concept. The call processing
programmers are distributed over different control organs of the system and are stored in ROM/RAM
of the units Processor in the control units.

OCB is also known as Alcatel 1000 E10 -Digital switching system developed by Alcatel CIT.

4.1 Features:

1. It is a digital switching system.

2. It can handle a maximum of 8 lakh BHCA (Busy hour call attempts) and traffic of 25,000
erlangs.
3. A maximum of 2 lakh subscribers can be terminated.
4. It can work in different platforms such as local MSU with RSU, transit, TAX etc.
5. It has maximum of 35 types of cards.
6. It has double remote operating facility.
7. It works between 15-35 degree Celsius with humidity between 40%-60%.
8. It has various signaling methods like CAS (Channel Associated signaling), CCS7 (Common
Channel signaling) etc.

4.2 The OCB is made of 3 independent functional units:

 Subscriber access subsystem - This carries out connection of analog and digital subscriber
lines.

 Connection and control - This carries processing of calls.

 Operation and maintenance - This is responsible for all functions needed by network
operating authority.

4.3 SUBSCRIBER ACCESS SYSTEM

1. CSNL
2. CSED
3. CSND

All these 3 subscriber access system gives the information of the subscriber rack connected.

22
 4.4 CONNECTION AND CONTROL

4.4.1 SMC -Main control station

Following are the system blocks:

1. MR (Multi Register) -Responsible for the establishment and breaking off of

communications.
2. TR (Translator) -Contains subscriber and circuit databases. It is useful for routing analysis.
3. MQ (Marker) - It is also called Domain Changer.
4. TX (Charging unit) - This calculates amount to be charged for each communication, keeping
charge account of each subscriber served by switching centre as well as the billing
information.
5. GX (Matrix handler) - This is responsible for processing and for defense of connections like
connection and disconnection coming from MR.

4.4.2 SMA -Auxiliary equipment control station

Following are the system blocks:

1. PU/PE: CCS7 protocol handler which processes level 2 and 3 CCS7 signaling.
2. ETA: It supports tone generators (GT), the frequency receiving and generation (RGF)
devices, conference circuits (CCF), the exchange clock.
3. AN: Access network function which connects access networks on V5 protocols.

4.2.3 SMT -Trunk control station

The SMT (URM) provides the interface between external PCMs and the OCB 283. These PCM
come from either:

1. A remote subscriber digital access unit.

2. A from a remote electronic satellite concentrator CSED
3. From the digital recorded announcement equipment.
4. SMT 2G is latest version –1 SMT maximum 128 PCMS.

23
 4.2.4 SMX -Matrix control station
1. It is a single time stage, T, switch.
2. It is duplicated in full, called A plane or B plane.
3. A maximum of 2048 matrix links (LR) can be connected.
4. A matrix link LR is an internal PCM, with 16 bits per channel (32 channels).

4.2.5 STS -Synchronization and time base station

1. Time distribution is tripled.

2. Time generation can either autonomous or slaved to an external rhythm with a view to
synchronize the system with the network.

4.3 OPERATION AND MAINTAINANCE

4.3.1 SMM- Maintenance station

1. SMMS -2 SMMs viz, SMM A & SMM B
2. IO Devices -2 Hard Disks, 2 Magnetic Tape Drive, 1 Streamer Cartridge drive.
3. 32 Asynchronous Terminals (TTY/Printer) can be connected.
4. SMM consoles, 2 PCWAMs /2 Alarm Terminals or 2 OMPC can be connected.

4.3.2 SMM Functions

1. Operation of the telephone application and maintenance of the system.
2. Loading of software and of data for connection and command and for the subscriber digital
access units, temporary backup of detailed billing information, centralization alarm, and data coming
from connection and control stations, via alarm rings.

24
4.4 TYPES OF TONES PRODUCED BY OCB

1. Dial tone – when the subscriber picks up the phone, a ring is produces before we dial the
number. This is called dial tone.
2. Busy tone – when other party is busy, then it generates a busy tone or engaged tone.
3. NU tone – Number unreachable. This happens when a party cannot reach the other party
because of low signals.
4. Ringing tone – Before the other party picks up the phone, a ringing tone is produced.
5. Ringing current – Till the time other party doesn’t pick up the phone call, a ringing current
is produced. It works on 75V D.C supply.

25
4.5 OCB ARCHITECTURE

FIG 12: OCB Architecture

4.6 OCB FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE

26
 FIG 13: Functional Architecture

5. EWSD TAX

EWSD - Electronic Switching System Digital

TAX - Trunk auto exchange

5.1 BASIC LAYOUT OF ANY TAX

CIRCLE

SSA

SDCA

FIG 14: EWSD Basic layout

The tax and OCB works on PCM channels which are also called E-1.

Whenever a subscriber needs to talk to other person on the landline phone, then it takes place with
help of PCM channels.

27
The PCM has 31 channels starting from 0 till 31. Out of these channels 2 channels are used and rest
30 channels are used by the subscriber.

Channel 1: Used for SYNC

Channel 16: Used for signaling (This gives busy tone, ringing tone etc).

To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following processing steps are required:

1. Filtering
2. Sampling
3. Quantization
4. Encoding
5. Line Coding

5.2 Duplexing Methodology:

Duplexing is the technique by which the send and receive paths are separated over the medium, since
transmission entities (modulator, amplifiers, demodulators) are involved.

There are two types of Duplexing:

1. Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)

2. Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD): Different frequencies are used for send and receive
paths and hence there will be a forward band and reverse band. Duplexer is needed if simultaneous
transmission (send) and reception (receive) methodology is adopted. Frequency separation between
forward band and reverse band is constant.

Time Division Duplexing (TDD): TDD uses different time slots for transmission and
reception paths. Single radio frequency can be used in both the directions instead of two as in FDD.
No duplexer is required. Only a fast switching synthesizer, RF filter path and fast antenna switch are
needed. It increases the battery life of mobile phones.

Tax is used for calling from one circle to the other. Every circle has a single tax which is connected
to the tax of other circle as well as with the SDCA of other circle which has most of its costumers

28
 connected to that circle. E.g.- Punjab circle has a tax in Amritsar which is connected to the tax of
other circle like U.P circle and to the SDCA of Bihar as it caters most of the calls from Bihar.

There are 2 types of taxes: LEVEL 1 and LEVEL 2

LEVEL 1- This is the tax which is connected to the tax of the circle.

LEVEL 2- This is connected with the level 1 tax as well as with SSA tax of other circle.

Level 2 tax (Patti) Level 2 tax (Raiyyah)

Local exchange Local exchange

Local exchange
Local exchange

Level 1 tax (ASR)

Level 2 tax (Jandiala)

Level 2 tax (Ajnala) Local exchange

Local exchange

Local exchange Local exchange Level 2 tax (Tarntaran) Local exchange

Local exchange

Level 1 tax (Jalandhar)

Level 1 tax (Uttar pradesh)

FIG 15: EWSD TAX Punjab

interconnection

29
 5.3 EWSD SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE:

1. Digital line unit (DLU)

2. Line/Trunk Group (LTG)

3. Switching Network (SN)

4. Coordination Processor (CP)

5. Common Channel Signalling Network Control (CCNC) Unit or Signalling System Network
Control (SSNC)

Access
DLU LTG Switching
DLU GP Network
CC
LTG
GP
Common channel signalling/ Signalling
System Network Control
CCN
C/
Coordination SSN
SYP
SYC
E CP PC
MBMB
O SG
M CCCG
M C
T FIG 16: Distributed controls in EWSD
Distributed controls in
EWSD
30
 5.3.1 DLU
1. It is a functional unit on which subscriber lines are terminated.

2. DLUs are connected to EWSD sub-systems via a uniform interface.

3. One DLU is connected to two different LTGs for the reasons of security via two 4 Mbps
links.

4. Total 124 channels are available between a DLU out of which the two LTGs signalling
information is carried in TS16 of PDC0 and PDC2.

5. One DLU can carry traffic of 100 Erlangs.

6. DLU-controller always contains up-to-date subscriber’s data.

7. Stand Alone Service Controller card (SASCE) is provided in each R-DLU for switching calls
in emergency cases.

8. All DLUs are provided with a Test Unit (TU) for performing tests and measurements on
SLCAs (subscriber line circuit analog), subscriber’s lines and telephones.

5.3.2 LTG
1. The line/trunk groups (LTG) forms the interface between the digital environment of a EWSD
exchange and the switching network (SN).
2. Maximum traffic handling capacity per LTG is 100 Erlang.

5.3.2.1 PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF LTG

1. Call processing functions – Receiving and analyzing line and register signals.

2. Safeguarding functions – Detecting errors in the LTG and on transmission paths within
LTG.

3. Operation and maintenance functions – Acquiring traffic data, carrying out quality-to-
service measurements.
31
 LTU S
DIU:LD CR
DIU3
IB U
TOG
or CTC
0
LTU
COU SPH
COU
C
or
SPH
I
SIHI
O
(8Mbp LI SN
SN0
to/from
B SIH s)
LTU
O U SN1
(8Mbps

CR
Addr
ess G )

or
LTU
OCANEQ
signa
ls S
PHM
ATE:T
A
GP (PU, MU, SMX and GCG) SIL
C
FIG 17: Internal structure of LTG
Internal Structure
5.3.3 SN (SWITCHING NETWORK)
of LTG
1. Different peripheral units of EWSD, i.e., LTGs, CCNC, are connected to the Switching
Network (SN).
2. Through 8192 kbps highways called SDCs (Secondary Digital Carriers), which have 128
channels each.

3. It consists of several duplicated Time Stage Groups (TSG) and Space Stage Groups (SSG)
housed in separate racks.

4. Connection paths through the TSGs and SSGs are switched by the SGC.

5. Each TSG can accommodate 63 SDCs from LTGs and one SDC to MB.

6. Speech and message path switching.

32
 LTG
1
SDC:L
TG
TIME
STAGE
GROUP
SN
SPAC
SDC:S E
SG STAG
LTG SDC:L E
n TG SDC:S GROU
CCN SDC:CC SG P
C NC
SDC:T
SG
C M SDC:S
GC SGC
P B SDC:S
GC SGC
FIG 18: Switching network

Switching
Network
5.3.4 CO-ORDINATION PROCESSOR
1. Storage and administration of all programs, exchange and subscriber data.
2. Processing of received information for routing, path selection, zoning, charges.

3. Communication with operation and maintenance centres.

4. Supervision of all subsystems, receipt of error messages, alarm treatment, error messages.

5. Handling of the man-machine interface.

6. Path and route selection.

7. Safeguarding and administration of system data.

33
 5.3.5 COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALLING NETWORK CONTROL (CCNC)
1. Up to 32 signalling link terminal (SILT) groups, each with 8 signalling links.
2. One duplicated common channel signalling network processor (CCNP).
3. This provides physical, electrical and functional interface.
4. Error detection and control.
5. Traffic management.

5.3.5.1 FUNCTIONS OF CCNC

1. In the originating or destination exchange in associated signalling, it operates as signalling
end point (SEP).
2. In transit exchange in quasi-associated signalling, it operates as a signalling transfer point
(STP).

34
 6. OFC

6.1 FIBER OPTICS: The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-
fiber applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from
global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over
distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fiber designs in
one of several cable designs.

Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their nationwide
networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service between central office
switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or individual home (fiber to the
home [FTTH]).

Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms need secure
reliable systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings to the desktop terminals
or computers and to transfer data around the world. Cable television companies also use fiber for
delivery of digital video and data services. The high bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect
choice for transmitting broadband signals, such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts.
Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated
tollbooths, and changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.

Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic systems are
used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic images. Other
applications for optical fiber include space, military, automotive, and the industrial sector.

6.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS:

1. SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits.
2. BANDWIDTH: Large carrying capacity
3. DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or strengthened.
4. RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other nearby
cables.
5. MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

35
6.2 OFC Splicing

Splices are permanent connection between two fibers. The splicing involves cutting of the edges of
the two fibers to be spliced.

Splicing Methods

The following two types are widely used:

1. Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.

2. Fusion splicing

6.2.1 Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing

This is the oldest splicing technique used in fiber splicing. After fiber end preparation, it is axially
aligned in a precision V–groove. Cylindrical rods or another kind of reference surfaces are used for
alignment. During the alignment of fiber end, a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive
index as the core material is set between and around the fiber ends. A two component epoxy or an
UV curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent.

6.2.2 Fusion Splicing

The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice
losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame.

The process involves cutting of the fibers and fixing them in micro–petitioners on the fusion splicing
machine. The fibers are then aligned either manually or automatically core aligning (in case of S.M.
Fiber) process. Afterwards the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of the fibers to a
specified distance, preheating of the fiber ends through electric arc and bringing together of the fiber
ends in a position and splicing through high temperature fusion.

In BSNL, the electrical signal from the exchange needs to be converted into optical signals (Form of
light) to transmit signals to a different exchange. LASER travels within the optical fiber which is made
up of silicon following the rule of TIR. The silicon is fabricated with sand.

The OFC cables used in BSNL contain 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 288 fibers having diameter about 0.8nm.
There are STM’s (Synchronous transfer module) installed in the exchange according to the traffic of
the exchange. There are STM 1, STM 4, STM 16, and STM 64. The speed of the STM 1 is about 155.2
MBPS and 155.2 x 4 for STM 4, 155.2 x 16 for STM 16, 155.2 x 64 for STM 64.

36
 LOCAL OPTICAL FIBER LOCAL
EXCHANGE EXCHANGE

X A B Y

FIG 19: OFC

Suppose a costumer X (Costumer of exchange A) wants to talk to a costumer Y (Costumer of

exchange B), then the local exchange A is connected to local exchange B though an optical fiber.
And the costumer is connected to the exchange using electrical cables.

The optical fiber cables are rolled in drums which carry cables about 2KM long. Now the STM of the 2
exchanges are connected through optical fibers.

Optical fiber
STM 1 STM 1
Local exchange A Local exchange B
FIG 20: connections of STM

There are 2 optical fibers that connect the exchanges. One is for transmitting and other for receiving.

Suppose the distance between 2 exchanges is 19.50 km, so we need 10 drums of 2km each and 500m
OFC cable is left which is then divided among the 2 exchanges 250m each which is put in the spare
cable box. These then pass through termination box which divide into 6 pig tails. These are then
passed through a FDF (Fiber distribution frame) which has a connecting pin which connects through
the PATCH CORD via connector. This patch cord (receiver and transmitter) is then connected to
STM and which is divided into 63 PCM or E-1. This is then passed to DDF (Digital distribution
frame) which then converts optical signals to electrical signals and then passed to MDF through
OCB. Similarly STM 4 will have 63 x 4, STM 16 will have 63 x 16 and STM 64 will have 63 x 64
pcm’s.

37
 Pig tail

SPARE TERMINATION
BOX BOX FDF DDF

PATCH Connecting pin

CORDS

ELECTRIC
SIGNALS
DDF 63 STM 1 OCB
PCM

FIG 21: Configuration of the OFC cables

38
 7. GSM- GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION

7.1 Introduction
A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems: the network
subsystem, the radio subsystem, and the operation support subsystem. In order to ensure that network
operators will have several sources of cellular infrastructure equipment, GSM decided to specify not
only the air interface, but also the main interfaces that identify different parts. There are three
dominant interfaces, namely, an interface between MSC and the base Transceiver Station (BTS), and

an Um interface (Air interface) between the BTS and MS.

7.2 MOBILE STATION

The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in
order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or can be
portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data communication as well as
voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the GSM system over the air interface to
establish and continue connections through the system.
Different type of MSs can provide different type of data interfaces. To provide a common model for
describing these different MS configuration, ”reference configuration” for MS, similar to those
defined for ISDN land stations, has been defined.
Each MS is identified by an IMEI that is permanently stored in the mobile unit. Upon request, the
MS sends this number over the signaling channel to the MSC. The IMEI can be used to identify
mobile units that are reported stolen or operating incorrectly.

7.3 Functions of MS

The primary functions of MS are to transmit and receive voice and data over the air interface of the
GSM system. MS performs the signal processing function of digitizing, encoding, error protecting,
encrypting, and modulating the transmitted signals. It also performs the inverse functions on the
received signals from the BS.

39
In order to transmit voice and data signals, the mobile must be in synchronization with the system so
that the messages are the transmitted and received by the mobile at the correct instant. To achieve
this, the MS automatically tunes and synchronizes to the frequency and TDMA timeslot specified by
the BSC. This message is received over a dedicated timeslot several times within a multi-frame
period of 51 frames. The exact synchronization will also include adjusting the timing advance to
compensate for varying distance of the mobile from the BTS.

7.4 Power Levels

These are five different categories of mobile telephone units specified by the European GSM system:
20W, 8W, 5W, 2W, and 0.8W. These correspond to 43-dBm, 39-dBm, and 37-dBm, 33-dBm, and
29-dBm power levels. The 20-W and 8-W units (peak power) are either for vehicle-mounted or
portable station use.

The MS power is adjustable in 2-dB steps from its nominal value down to 20mW (13 dBm). This is
done automatically under remote control from the BTS, which monitors the received power and
adjusts the MS transmitter to the minimum power setting necessary for reliable transmission.

7.5 SIM Card

GSM subscribers are provided with a SIM card with its unique identification at the very beginning of
the service. By divorcing the subscriber ID from the equipment ID, the subscriber may never own the
GSM mobile equipment set. The subscriber is identified in the system when he inserts the SIM card
in the mobile equipment. This provides an enormous amount of flexibility to the subscribers since
they can now use any GSM-specified mobile equipment. Thus with a SIM card the idea of
“Personalize” the equipment currently in use and the respective information used by the network
(location information) needs to be updated. The smart card SIM is portable between Mobile
Equipment (ME) units. The user only needs to take his smart card on a trip. He can then rent a ME
unit at the destination, even in another country, and insert his own SIM. Any calls he makes will be
charged to his home GSM account. Also, the GSM system will be able to reach him at the ME unit
he is currently using.

7.6 International Mobile Subscriber Identity

An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile country code (MSC),
mobile network code (MNC), and a PLMN unique mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN).
The IMSI is not hardware-specific. Instead, it is maintained on a SC by an authorized subscriber and

40
is the only absolute identity that a subscriber has within the GSM system. The IMSI consists of the
MCC followed by the NMSI and shall not exceed 15 digits.

7.7 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity

A TMSI is a MSC-VLR specific alias that is designed to maintain user confidentiality. It is assigned
only after successful subscriber authentication. The correlation of a TMSI to an IMSI only occurs
during a mobile subscriber’s initial transaction with an MSC (for example, location updating). Under
certain condition (such as traffic system disruption and malfunctioning of the system), the MSC can
direct individual TMSIs to provide the MSC with their IMSI.

7.8 International Mobile Equipment Identity

The IMEI is the unique identity of the equipment used by a subscriber by each PLMN and is used to
determine authorized (white), unauthorized (black), and malfunctioning (gray) GSM hardware. In
conjunction with the IMSI, it is used to ensure that only authorized user a are granted access to the
system. An IMEI is never sent in cipher mode by MS.

7.9 Base station system

The BSS is a set of BS equipment (such as transceivers and controllers) that is in view by the MSC
through a single A interface as being the entity responsible for communicating with MSs in a certain
area. The radio equipment of a BSS may be composed of one or more cells. A BSS may consist of
one or more BS. The interface between BSC and BTS is designed as an A-bis interface. The BSS
includes two types of machines: the BTS in contact with the MSCs through the radio interface and
the BSC, the latter being in contact with the MSC. The function split is basically between
transmission equipment, the BTS, and managing equipment at the BSC. A BTS compares radio
transmission and reception devices, up to and including the antennas, and also all the signal
processing specific to the radio interface. A single transceiver within BTS supports eight basic radio
channels of the same TDM frame. A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that function for
control of one or more BTS. It is a functional entity that handles common control functions within a
BTS.
A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and is controlled by a BSC. BTS is typically able
to handle three to five radio carries, carrying between 24 and 40 simultaneous communication.
Reducing the BTS volume is important to keeping down the cost of the cell sites.

41
An important component of the BSS that is considered in the GSM architecture as a part of the BTS
is the Transcoder rate Adapter Unit (TRAU). The TRAU is the equipment in which coding and
decoding is carried out as well as rate adoption in case of data. Although the specifications consider
the TRAU as a subpart of the BTS, it can be sited away from the BTS (at MSC), and even between
the BSC and the MSC.
The interface between the MSC and the BSS is a standardized SS7 interface (A-interface) that, as
stated before, is fully defined in the GSM recommendations. This allows the system operator to
purchase switching equipment from one supplier and radio equipment and the controller from
another. The interface between the BSC and a remote BTS likewise is a standard the A-bis. In
splitting the BSS functions between BTS and BSC, the main principle was that only such functions
that had to reside close to the radio transmitters/receivers should be placed in BTS. This will also
help reduce the complexity of the BTS.

FIG 22: 4G BTS

42
 FIG 23: 3G BTS
7.10 Functions of BTS
As stated, the primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals from a
mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the signals are encoded,
encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at the cell site. Trans-coding
to bring 13-kbps speech to a standard data rate of 16 kbps and then combining four of these signals
to 64 kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though; it can be done at BSC or at MSC. The voice
communication can be either at a full or half rate over logical speech channel. In order to keep the
mobile synchronized, BTS transmits frequency and time synchronization signals over frequency
correction channel FCCH and BCCH logical channels. The received signal from the mobile is
decoded, decrypted, and equalized for channel impairments.
Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to BSC. The channel
subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is determined by BTS. BTS signals the
mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink radio channel measurement corresponding to the
downlink measurements made by MS has to be made by BTS.

43
7.11 BASIC COMMANDS USED TO CHECK FAULTS IN BTS

1. allip:acl= a1;
This is to check the overall failures in the BTS.
2. rxmsp:mo=rxotg-85, subord;
This id to check site status.
3. dtstp:dip=85rbl2;
To check the connectivity of the BTS.
4. dtqdp:dip=85rbl2;
To check for the quality of the BTS.
5. rxbli:mo=rxocf-110,force;
If the central function cf in DXU fails, then we need to reset. Used for blocking.
6. rxbli:mo=rxocf-110
Used for deblocking.

7.12 BSC
The BSC is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The BSC performs the
Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. It assigns and release frequencies
and timeslots for all MSs in its own area. The BSC performs the inter-cell handover for MSCs
moving between BTS in its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs in its area to meet
locally heavy demands during peak hours or on special events. The BSC controls the power
transmission of both BTS and MSCs in its area. The BSC provides the time and frequency
synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures the time delay of
received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is not centered in its
assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the timing
such that proper synchronization takes place.

44
7.13 MSC
The network and the switching subsystem together include the main switching functions of GSM as
well as the databases needed for subscriber data and mobility management (VLR). The main role of
the MSC is to manage the communications between the GSM users and other telecommunication
network users. The basic switching functions of performed by the MSC, whose main function is to
coordinate setting up calls to and from GSM users. The MSC has interface with the BSS on one side
(through which MSC VLR is in contact with GSM users) and the external networks on the other. The
main difference between a MSC and an exchange in a fixed network is that the MSC has to take into
account the impact of the allocation of RRs and the mobile nature of the subscribers and has to
perform, in addition, at least, activities required for the location registration and handover.

The MSC is a telephony switch that performs all the switching functions for MSs located in a
geographical area as the MSC area. The MSC must also handle different types of numbers and
identities related to the same MS and contained in different registers: IMSI, TMSI, ISDN number,
and MSRN. In general identities are used in the interface between the MSC and the MS, while
numbers are used in the fixed part of the network, such as, for routing.

FIG 24: Block diagram of GSM

45
7.13.1 Functions of MSC
As stated, the main function of the MSC is to coordinate the set up of calls between GSM mobile and
PLMN users. Specifically, it performs functions such as paging, resource allocation, location
registration, and encryption.
Specifically, the call-handling function of paging is controlled by MSC. MSC coordinates the set up
of call to and from all GSM subscribers operating in its areas. The dynamics allocation of access
resources is done in coordination with the BSS. More specifically, the MSC decides when and which
types of channels should be assigned to which MS. The channel identity and related radio parameters
are the responsibility of the BSS. The MSC provides the control of interworking with different
networks. It is transparent for the subscriber authentication procedure. The MSC supervises the
connection transfer between different BSCs for MSs, with an active call, moving from one call to
another. This is ensured if the two BSSs are connected to the same MSC but also when they are not.
In this latter case the procedure is more complex, since more than one MSC in involved. The MSC
performs billing on calls for all subscribers based in its areas. When the subscriber is roaming
elsewhere, the MSC obtains data for the call billing from the visited MSC. Encryption parameters
transfers from VLR to BSS to facilitate ciphering on the radio interface are done by MSC. The
exchange of signaling information on the various interface toward the other network elements and
the management of the interface themselves are all controlled by the MSC. Finally, the MSC serves
as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from Short Message Service Centers (SMSC) to the
subscribers and from the subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus acts as a message mailbox and delivery
system.

7.14 VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER (VLR)

The VLR is collocated with an MSC. A MS roaming in an MSC area is controlled by the VLR
responsible for that area. When a MS appears in an area, it starts a registration procedure. The MSC
for that area notices this registration and transfers to the VLR the identity of the mobile where the
MS is situated. A VLR may be in charge of one or several MSC. The VLR constitutes the databases
that support the MSC in the storage and retrieval of the data of subscribers present in its area. When
an MS enters the MSC area borders, it signals its arrival to the MSC that stores its identity in the
VLR. The information necessary to manage the MS is contained in the HLR and is transferred to the
VLR so that they can be easily retrieved if so required.
The data contained in the VLR and in the HLR are more or less the same. Nevertheless the data are
present in the VLR only as long as the MS is registered in the area related to that VLR.
46
7.15 HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR)
The HLR is a database that permanently stores data related to a given set of subscribers. The HLR is
the reference database for subscriber parameters. Various identification numbers and addresses as
well as authentication parameters, services subscribed, and special routing information are stored.
Current subscriber status including a subscriber’s temporary roaming number and associated VLR if
the mobile is roaming, are maintained.
The HLR provides data needed to route calls to all MS-SIMs homes based in its MSC area, even
when they are roaming out of area or in other GSM networks. The HLR provides the current location
data needed to support searching for and paging the MS-SIM for incoming calls, wherever the MS-
SIM may be. The HLR is responsible for storage and provision of SIM authentication and encryption
parameters needed by the MSC where the MS-SIM is operating. It obtains these parameters from the
AUC.
The HLR maintains record of which supplementary service each user has subscribed to and provides
permission control in granting services. The HLR stores the identification of SMS gateways that
have messages for the subscriber under the SMS until they can be transmitted to the subscriber and
receipt is knowledge.
Some data are mandatory, other data are optional. Both the HLR and the VLR can be implemented in
the same equipment in an MSC (collocated). A PLMN may contain one or several HLRs.

7.16 AUTHENTICATION CENTER

The AUC stores information that is necessary to protect communication through the air interface
against intrusions, to which the mobile is vulnerable. The legitimacy of the subscriber is established
through authentication and ciphering, which protects the user information against unwanted
disclosure. Authentication information and ciphering keys are stored in a database within the AUC,
which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure and access.
In the authentication procedure, the key Ki is never transmitted to the mobile over the air path, only a
random number is sent. In order to gain access to the system, the mobile must provide the correct
Signed Response (SRES) in answer to a random number (RAND) generated by AUC.
Also, Ki and the cipher key Kc are never transmitted across the air interface between the BTS and
the MS. Only the random challenge and the calculated response are transmitted. Thus, the value of
Ki and Kc are kept secure. The cipher key, on the other hand, is transmitted on the SS7 link between
the home HLR/AUC and the visited MSC, which is a point of potential vulnerability. On the other
hand, the random number and cipher key is supposed to change with each phone call, so finding
them on one call will not benefit using them on the next call.
47
The HLR is also responsible for the “authentication” of the subscriber each time he makes or
receives a call. The AUC, which actually performs this function, is a separate GSM entity that will
often be physically included with the HLR. Being separate, it will use separate processing equipment
for the AUC database functions.

7.17 EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER (EIR)

EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The IMEI uniquely
identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN. It interfaces to the various HLR
in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units in the PLMN. It maintains various lists of
message. The database stores the ME identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is
receiving or originating call. There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database, and each
group has different characteristics.
White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid MS’s. This is the
category of genuine equipment.
Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen.
Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty software, and wrong
make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with faults not important enough for barring.

7.18 WORKING OF THE GSM

FIG 25: Working of GSM

48
First of all the mobile with a Sim is contacted to a BTS through a UM interface. Through the BTS it
is sent to BSC through A-bis interface and then to MSC through A interface.

Now MSC is connected to the VLR (Visitor location register), HLR (Home location register), tax and
the authentication center. HLR is further connected to their (Equipment identification register).

HLR stores the permanent address of the person and VLR stores the current address of the person
(Tells if he is on roaming). HLR is updated by the VLR.

The call is made from the cell phone of a person. The VLR and HLR get updated as soon as a call is
made. The IMEI is checked by the EIR and the authentication register. It matches the cell phone
IMEI with its database and if found in the list, forwards the call through the MSC.

7.19 TYPES OF CHANNELS

1. Traffic channel
2. Broadcast channel
1. Broadcast control channel
2. Frequency correct channel
3. Sync channel
4. Cell broadcasting channel
These all are downlink channels from point to multi point.
3. Common control channel
1. Paging channel
2. AGCH- Access grant control channel
3. RACH- Random access control channel.

These are also from point to multipoint channels.

4. Dedicated control channel

1. SDCH- Stand alone dedicated control channel
2. FDCCH- Fast dedicated control channel
3. SACCH- Slow access control channel

49
7.20 HOW DOES THE AUC FUNCTION

The AUC generates IMSI, KI and RAND (Random number). RAND is 128 bit ssl secured number.
IMSI and KI are stored in the SIM. KI and RAND generate SRES and KC using A3 and A8
algorithm.

Now the SRES, RAND and KC are sent to MSC. It keeps the KC and SRES while forwards the
RAND. These are then passed through BSC to the BTS and then to the mobile using UM interface.
This RAND generates the SRES, KC and the data using A5 algorithm. The SRES is sent back to the
MSC where it confirms the existence of the authorized mobile identity. Now this call is forwarded to
the other party.
The MSC is connected to the GMSC (Gateway mobile services switching center). This is a gateway
required for calling from one circle to the other.

50
 8. BROADBAND
The term broad band refers to a telecommunications signal of greater bandwidth, in some sense, than
another standard or usual signal (and the broader the band, the greater the capacity for traffic).
Different criteria for "broad" have been applied in different contexts and at different times.
Broadband in telecommunications refers to a signaling method that includes or handles a relatively
wide range (or band) of frequencies, which may be divided into channels or frequency bins.
Broadband is always a relative term, understood according to its context. The wider (or broader) the
bandwidth of a channel, the greater the information-carrying capacity. In radio, for example, a very
narrow-band signal will carry Morse code; a broader band will carry speech; a still broader band is
required to carry music without losing the high audio frequencies required for realistic sound
reproduction. A television antenna described as "broadband" may be capable of receiving a wide
range of channels, while a single-frequency or Lo-VHF antenna is "narrow band" since it only
receives 1 to 5 channels. In data communications a digital modem will transmit a data rate of 56
kilobits per seconds (k bit/s) over a 4 kilohertz wide telephone line (narrowband or voice band).
However when that same line is converted to a non-loaded twisted-pair wire (no telephone filters), it
becomes hundreds of kilohertz wide (broadband) and can carry several megabits per second (ADSL).

8.1 MODEM
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode
digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information.
The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original
digital data. Modems can be used with any means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting
diodes to radio. The most familiar example is a voice band modem that turns the digital data of a
personal computer into modulated electrical signals in the voice frequency range of a telephone
channel. These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by another modem
at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

8.2 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE

Digital subscriber line is a family of technologies that provide digital data transmission over wires of
a local telephone network. DSL originally stood for digital subscriber loop. This is also called ADSL
(Asymmetric Digital subscriber line), and is most commonly installed variety of DSL. The DSL uses
higher frequency bands which are separated by filtering.

51
The data throughout consumer DSL ranges from 256Kb/s to 40Mbit/s downstream in direction of
costumer depending on DSL technology, line conditions. In ASDL, the data throughout the upstream
is lower. In SDSL (Symmetric digital subscriber line) service, the upstream and downstream data
rates are equal.

8.3 ASDL
Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a type of digital subscriber line (DSL) technology, a
data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines
than a conventional voice-band modem can provide. It does this by utilizing frequencies that are not
used by a voice telephone call. A splitter, or DSL filter, allows a single telephone connection to be
used for both ADSL service and voice calls at the same time. ADSL can generally only be distributed
over short distances from the telephone exchange to typically less than 4 kilometers but has been
known to exceed 8 kilometers if the originally laid wire gauge allows for further distribution.

At the telephone exchange the line generally terminates at a DSLAM (Digital subscriber line access
multiplexer) where another frequency splitter separates the voice band signal for the conventional
phone network. Data carried by the ADSL are typically routed over the telephone company's data
network and eventually reach a conventional Internet Protocol network.

Asymmetrical digital subscriber line (ADSL) is emerging as the optimal solution to high-speed
Internet access technology. ADSL matches the asymmetric pattern of Internet traffic with speeds of
up to 8 Mb/s downstream from the network to the end user, and up to 640 kb/s upstream from the
end user to the network. Because ADSL can transmit both voice and data simultaneously over an
existing, single copper pair up to 4 KM long, it is the perfect solution for service providers to meet
the increasing customer demand for faster Internet access. With its amazing speed and economical
use of the installed base of copper cable, ADSL keeps the service cost low for both service providers
and end users.

8.4 Advantages of DSL technology

1. DSL is more cost-effective because it eliminates the need for extensive and expensive
infrastructure upgrades.

2. Increased Bandwidth capacity in the existing infrastructure.

3. The speed is much higher than a regular voice band modem.

4. Voice and data can be transmitted at the same time.

5. Very Secure and reliable.

52
 FIG 26: Systematic flowchart

8.5 Brief Functions of DSL Components

DSL CPEs- This connects costumer premises to the telephone exchange. At the other end, it
connects to PC through Ethernet and Telephone through RJ-45 connector.

DSLAM- Also called as DSL Access Multiplexer, It has a built in splitter which splits voice and
data. While voice follows the normal conventional path through exchange, data is aggregated and up
linked through Ethernet Port.

FIG 27: Siemens DSLAM

53
LAN Switch- For aggregating multiple DSLAM and providing a common uplink.

BRAS- Also called as Broadband Remote Access Server. It terminates the customer session,
authenticates, a lot IP addresses and keeps track of user session for billing along with RADIUS.

SSSS- This is also called as Subscriber Service Selection System. When customer logs in he will be
welcome with this customized screen from where he can select various range of service. This
provides on demand service without manual intervention.

RADIUS- This in conjunction with BRAS authenticates customer, upload customer profile in the
SSSS and keeps track of billing.

LDAP- It stores customer database viz username, password and the default services that it can
subscribe to.

PROVISIONING- This is the most critical components for ensuring quick delivery of service. It
ensures end-to-end provisioning of service right from DSL CPEs to DSLAM to Switch to BRAS to
LDAP.

8.6 Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM)

A Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM), often pronounced dee-slam) allows
telephone lines to make faster connections to the Internet. It is a network device, located in the
telephone exchanges of the internet service providers, that connects multiple customer Digital
Subscriber Lines (DSLs) to a high-speed Internet backbone line using multiplexing techniques. By
placing additional remote DSLAMs at locations remote to the telephone exchange, telephone
companies provide DSL service to locations previously beyond effective range. A device
for DSL service. The DSLAM port where the subscriber local loop is connected converts analog
electrical signals to data traffic (upstream traffic for data upload) and data traffic to analog electrical
signals (downstream for data download).

54
8.7 Path taken by data to DSLAM

1. Customer premises: DSL modem terminating the ADSL circuit and providing LAN interface to
single computer or LAN segment

2. Local loop: The telephone company wires from a customer to the telephone company central
office or to a Serving area interface, often called the "last mile" (LM).

3. Central Office (CO): Main Distribution Frame (MDF): a wiring rack that connects outside
subscriber lines with internal lines. It is used to connect public or private lines coming into the
building to internal networks. At the telecom, the MDF is generally in proximity to the cable vault
and not far from the telephone switch. XDSL filters: DSL filters are used in the Central Office (CO)
to split voice from data signals. The voice signal can be routed to a POTS provider or left unused
whilst the data signal is routed to the ISP DSLAM via the HDF (see next entry).Handover
Distribution Frame (HDF): a distribution frame that connects the last mile provider with the service
provider's DSLAM

8.8 Internet Router

A router is a device that forwards data packets across computer networks. Routers perform the data
"traffic directing" functions on the Internet. A router is connected to two or more data lines from
different networks. When data comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address information
in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table, it
directs the packet to the next network on its journey or drops the packet. A data packet is typically
passed from router to router through the networks of the Internet until it gets to its destination
computer unless the source IP is on a private network.

The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass data, such as
web pages and email, between the home computers and the owner's cable or DSL modem, which
connects to the Internet (ISP).In enterprises, a core router may provide a "collapsed backbone"
interconnecting the distribution tier routers from multiple buildings of a campus, or large enterprise
locations. They tend to be optimized for high bandwidth.

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8.9 Wi-Fi

Wireless Technology is an alternative to wired Technology for connecting the devices in wireless
mode. Wi-Fi refers to the IEEE 802.11 communication standard for wireless LAN. Wi-Fi network
connect computers to each other to the internet and to the other wired networks. Wi-Fi networks use
Radio Technologies to transmit & receive date at high speeds.

8.10 Wi -MAX

Wi-MAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a telecommunications protocol that

provides fixed and mobile Internet access. The current Wi-MAX revision provides up to 40 M bit/s
with the IEEE 802.16m update expected to offer up to 1 G bit/s fixed speeds.

8.11 Comparison between Wi-Fi and Wi-MAX

Comparisons and confusion between Wi-MAX and Wi-Fi are frequent because both are related to
wireless connectivity and Internet access.

1. Wi-MAX is a long range system, covering many kilometers that uses licensed or unlicensed
spectrum to deliver connection to a network, in most cases the Internet whereas Wi-Fi uses
unlicensed spectrum to provide access to a local network.
2. Wi-Fi runs on the Media Access Control's CSMA/CA protocol, which is connectionless and
contention based, whereas Wi MAX runs a connection-oriented MAC.
3. Wi-MAX and Wi-Fi have quite different quality of service (QoS) mechanisms. Wi-MAX uses
a QoS mechanism based on connections between the base station and the user device. Each
connection is based on specific scheduling algorithms

8.12 Advantages of Broadband

Connection speed is up to 100 times faster than dialup connection. You can download pictures files,
software in seconds or minutes instead of hours. Online gaming is only possible using a broadband
internet access. It does not affect the phone line. For DSL internet access, you can use the same
phone line for both voice/fax and data transmission. For cable internet access, you are connected to
the internet via the cable network. In either case, your phone line is not occupied while you are
connected to the internet.

Broadband internet offers unlimited access and you won't be charged based on the connection
duration. Broadband internet not only gives you high speed internet access, it can also provide cheap
phone services via VoIP technology.
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8.13 Disadvantages of Broadband

1. High monthly fee compared to dialup internet access.

2. Higher security risk than dialup connection. A personal firewall is needed to protect your
computer.
3. Not all phone wires are equipped for DSL service.
4. Not all cable TV networks are equipped for cable internet access.
5. It is available within 6-7 km radius of DSLAM.

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