ATENCIANA, EIRONN GIUSEPPE P.

ARC-22101
WALL FINNISHES
1.Plastering
▪ Plaster means an internal or external application of solid material comprising sand,
lime and various additives, applied wet in one or more coats to produce a smooth,
hard surface finish.
▪ It is done as a weather proofing for brick wall which are subjected to adverse
climatic conditions
▪ Plaster is used to render, turn, an uneven surface into a smooth, level surface by
plastering a material over its surface.
▪ Mortar is the material to perform the plastering work.

Why plastering?
• To provide an even, smooth, regular, clean and durable finished surface.
• To preserve and protect this surfaces from atmospheric influences by acting as a
protective coating.
• To conceal the defective workmanship.
• To cover up the use of interior quality and porous material and the joints formed in
the masonry work.
• To provide a satisfactory base or ground for decorating the surface by applying
whitewashing, colour washing, painting or distempering
• In case of internal plastering, the basic object is to protect the surface against dust

Mortar for plastering

Mixture ratio 1:3 (cement sand)-Apply at the place which sustain load such as
factory = Thickness 25 mm
Mixture ratio 1:4 (cement: sand) - At hall and the park. Thickness 16 mm
Mixture ratio 1:5 (cement sand) - Plastering at home Thickness minimum 12 mm

Methods of plastering
Plastering can be done by apply it layer by layer. There are three layers:
1. First layer: render layer-thickness between 9 mm to 12 mm.
2. Second layer: floating layer surface is plastered and flatten with "pemaras kayu
panjang" and "pemaras keluli
3. Third layer: finish layer surface is smooth by meit cement and it is also can be
added with chalk to produce flat and smooth layer

2.Painting
▪ Painting is one of the easiest and least expensive way to change a dull, boring
room into a bright, clean room.
▪ Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, colour or other medium to a
surface (support base). In art, the term describes both the act and the result, which
is called a painting.
▪ Paintings may have for their support such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood,
glass, clay or concrete.
▪ Painting is a mode of expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing,
composition or abstraction and other aesthetics may serve conceptual intention of
the practitioner.

Desirable properties of paints

The various factors of importance are:
• Consistency - A paint too thick will drag or streak while too thin a paint will tear
• Spreading power - It is the covering capacity measured in terms of sqm that can
be covered by one litre of the paint material.
Rate of drying - Paint are to become dry in nine hours and hard dry in twenty four
hours.
• Durability - This quality is judged by the length of time during which the paint
coating maintains its decorative and protective values.
Types of paints (With properties)
 ▪ Anti-corrosive paints - It is used to protect metal structures. It consists of
oil, strong drier, a coloring mixed with very fine sand and linseed oil is used
as vehicle.
▪ Cellulose paints - It is prepared from nitrogen cotton, celluloid sheets,
photographic films, and amyl acetate substitutes. The paint gives very
smooth finish.
▪ Colloidal paints - It takes more time to settle and in this process it
penetrates through the surface.
▪ Cement-based paints - This paint is a type of water paint in which white
or colored cement forms the base. The paint is very much useful for
painting external surfaces since it is water proof.
▪ Emulsion paints - It contains vehicles such as polyvinyl lacerate, styrene,
alkyd resin and other synthetic resins. It has good workability and high
durability.
▪ Enamel paints - It contains 4 basic constituents- metallic oxide, oil,
petroleum spirit and resinous matter. The paint dries slowly, but on drying
it produces a hard, impervious, glossy, elastic smooth and durable film.
▪ Oil paints - Its 2 principal constituents are base and vehicle. It is used in
three coats: prime coat, under coat and finishing coat. They are cheap,
easy to apply and possess good capacity and low gloss.
▪ Synthetic rubber paints - These paints consist of synthetic resins
dissolved in appropriate solvents and mixer with suitable pigments. It dries
quickly and uniform color is maintained.
▪ Plastic paints - These paints contains plastic as the base. They have the
quality of quick drying, high covering power and decorative appearance.

3.Wall papers
• Wallpaper was recommended in the rooms of house, and especially in parlors.
• The dominant hue in the wallpaper determined the color of paint used on the ceiling
and woodwork.
• The designs included
• architectural papers,
• landscape papers,
• natural subjects like plants and animals, historical or biographical containing
figures or portraits,
• ashlar papers representing cut stone and papers imitating woven fabrics such as
damask.
• Another popular paper was called "fresco" which imitated panels, cornices, friezes,
moldings, columns and dadoes.

4.Cladding
• This done mainly for aesthetic and protect from weathering effect. It provided
strength to wall.
• It transforms a plane, uninspiring wall into a stunning feature wall, providing the
simple yet defined geometry of a traditional stacked wall.

Aluminum cladding
• Aluminium cladding is done for all kind of internal and as well as external
applications.
• Wall cladding
• Facades and rood edging
• Commercial internal decoration
• signs
• Tunnel linnings
• Display and exhibition stands and more

Tile cladding
Vitrified tiles
▪ Vitrified tile is a tile which has been processed in such a way that it has
very low porosity (water absorption) which make it stain resistant and very
strong. These are hard baked tiles in which colour and texture goes
 completely through. There is no surface glazing or designs on these tiles,
as they are made for extreme wear and chemical resistance. They are
usually used in commercial applications. Water permeation is usually less
than 0.5%, which makes it the most stain and spill resistant as well as being
suitable for both heavy traffic, internal and external use.
▪ Vitrified tiles are available in various colours:
▪ Off white, jaisalmer, light yellow, pink, green, nut brown, terracotta and
mottled.
▪ The vitrified tiles are best of the materials available which ensures extra
ordinary quality, high gloss, superior polished surface, desired functionality
and durability.
▪ Vitrified tiles are designed to withstand rough & tough conditions.
▪ Vitrified tiles are resistant to chemicals, abrasion, fire & staining,
▪ Easy to maintain and ensures hygienic surroundings.

Ceramic tiles

▪Ceramic tile is tile made of clay.

▪ceramic tiles, this includes mixture of clay, earthen elements, powders,
water, and other minerals. Obviously cement based tile include cements
and sands.
▪ After the formation of the tile body, ceramic tiles go through a firing process.
Cement tiles are not fired.
▪ Often ceramics are covered in decorative. Waterproof paint like substances
known as glazes
▪ Great care is taken in the proper mixture of these materials, as each one is
critical to the success, quality and characteristics of the product produced.
Wooden cladding
▪ Wall must be solid and dust free
▪ Divide the dispersion adhesive with a B2 toothed spatula (2.9mm teeth)
(only use the amount you will process in one hour)
▪ Apply the first wall board aligned and level and and firmly press down the
board with your hands
▪ Place the following boards in a butt joint bond
▪ coming out of adhesive, cut immediately if it does
▪ Turn the board around for cutting, carve with the cutter and break it(carve
through with cutter for holes)
▪ For edge formation heat the protrusion with a hot air gun and press firmly (
remove fissures in edges with heat and a wooden wedge)
▪ For a bricked appearance, straighten the joints with heat and a wooden
wedge.

Stone cladding
▪ Stone cladding gives a weather resistant and long-lasting effect.
▪ Most durable and commonly used.
▪ Mostly used in external walls.

OTHER TYPES OF WALLS FINNISHED

Cement plastered Finish

It is prepared in the form of mortar with cement, sand and water in proper
proportions and applied on masonry manually to achieve a smooth finish or sand faced
finish.

Cement Textured Finish

This is a decorative finish and its mortar is prepared in cement based material. It
is applied with sand faced plaster with a trowel and after that it is coloured with paint.
 Plaster of Paris Finish
Plaster of Paris or simply plaster is a type of building material based on calcium
sulphate hemihydrates. This is a smooth finish achieved by plaster of Paris generally
applied on internal walls.

Gypsum Plaster Finish

This just like plaster of Paris finish but gypsum based material is used to prepare
mortar. It is more durable and finer as compared to Plaster of Paris Finish.

Glass Mosaic Finish

Glass mosaic tiles are small 1”x1” on a cloth to get a workable size 12”x12” and
this tile is pasted with an adhesive on wall surfaces. It can also be pasted on curved
surfaces.

Designer Mirror Finish

Designer mirrors are obtained by small pieces on walls to create mural like design.

Laminate Finish
Laminate comes in various colours and designs. It comes in the form of sheet and
is pasted with fevicol on Plywood.

Marble Powder Finish

This is a very smooth finish. The finish looks like Marble flooring. This finish is
obtained by mortar of marble powder, white cement and water. It is applied manually.

CEILING FINNISHES
Wooden Ceiling Finish
They are commonly used as false ceiling materials in the form of plywood, blocks
or panels.

Advantages of Wooden Ceiling

Easy to install
Available in many colors and grain patterns
Durable
Sound absorbing
Disadvantages of Wooden Ceiling
Prone to water and termite damage
High maintenance
Not fire-resistant
Uses
Used in residential and commercial buildings for a rustic vibe.

Plaster of Paris as a Ceiling Finish

This type of ceiling is made by applying plaster of paris paste on wooden or metal
boards.

Advantages of POP as a Ceiling Finish

Smooth finish
Can be molded
Lightweight and durable
Fire resistant
Is a good thermal insulator
Disadvantages of POP as a Ceiling Finish
Not water resistant
Difficult application
Not easy to repair and is labor intensive
Uses
Used in highly decorative interiors
Glass
It is a transparent or translucent false ceiling material.

Advantages of Glass as a Ceiling Finish

Aesthetically pleasing
Available in many colors and finishes
Makes the room appear bigger
Disadvantages of Glass as a Ceiling Finish
Expensive
Dust collected is easily seen
Delicate material needs to be handled with care
Uses
Used in restaurants, libraries, jewelry shops

Fabric
This material is used in false ceilings purely for aesthetic purposes.

Advantages of Fabric as a Ceiling Finish

Cheap
Easy installation
Good for temporary structures
Disadvantages of Fabric as a Ceiling Finish
Low light transferring capacity
Stains easily
Uses
Used in exhibition halls, and restaurants for decoration

PVC
Polyvinyl chloride is a commonly used false ceiling material, to incorporate
functions like lighting and air vents.

Advantages of PVC as a Ceiling Finish

Cost-effective
Easy installation and maintenance
Durable and waterproof
Available in different colors and finishes
Disadvantages of PVC as a Ceiling Finish
Not heat resistant
Uses
The finishes do not look elegant
Used in bathrooms, toilets, and basements.

Gypsum
They are used in the form of prefabricated boards, panels or ceiling tiles

Advantages of Gypsum as a Ceiling Finish

Lightweight
Customizable color and texture
Fire resistant
Thermal and acoustic insulation
Disadvantages of Gypsum as a Ceiling
Not water resistant
Difficult to remove or repair
They are used in combinations with air conditioning systems.
 Metal
They are widely used for false ceiling due to their shiny appearance

Advantages of Metal as a Ceiling Finish

Easy to install and maintain
Lightweight
Fire resistant
Easy to remove and attach
Available in many textures
Disadvantages of Metal as a Ceiling Finish
Need to be protected from corrosion
Costly
Uses
They are used in homes, offices, industries, etc

LIGHT FIXTURES
Recessed Lighting
Recessed lighting is lighting built into the
ceiling that either does not protrude or barely
protrudes from the surface of the ceiling. It blends
comfortably with most interior designs without
drawing the eye up or occupying floor, table, or wall
space. Recessed lighting offers a wide range of
lighting effects by utilizing different beam angles and
spreads.

Track Lighting & Monorail

Track lighting and monorail are systems of
electrified track and attachable lighting elements.
Track boasts a flexible approach to accent and
display lighting since you have the ability to place
lighting elements wherever you choose. Better yet,
you can relocate, re-aim, or replace the fixtures on
the track at any time.

Linear LED
Linear LED lighting has become the industry
go-to for lighting hard-to-reach spaces. The low-
profile strips can be installed directly into ceiling
coves, cabinets, or built-in bookshelves for discreet
accent or task lighting. But don’t just think small –
they can also be installed in the ceiling or walls for
eye-catching lines of light.

Chandeliers
A chandelier is a hanging fixture that has
several luminous elements. They are often used as
a focal point in foyers and dining rooms, and help
establish a room’s tone and style. Since they are
often decorative, chandeliers are most effective
when paired with other fixtures to ensure sufficient
room lighting.
Pendants
A pendant is a hanging fixture with a single,
central luminous element. In general, pendants tend
to be smaller and less formal than chandeliers, and
multiple pendants are often hung side by side. As
well as being decorative, many pendants can also
provide task lighting. For that reason, they’re a
favorite for over kitchen islands.

Sconces
A sconce is a wall-mounted light fixture.
They can be used in nearly any space, but are often
found in hallways, living rooms, dining rooms, and
bathrooms. In bathrooms, sconces can provide
excellent task lighting when mount over or on either
side of a mirror.
Ceiling Lights
Ceiling lights can be very useful to provide
ambient light in lower-ceilinged rooms, and come in
flush and semi-flush varieties. Flush mount ceiling
lights attach directly to the ceiling, or are “flush”
against it. Semi-flush ceiling lights hang from the
ceiling but still stay closer to it than a pendant or
chandelier.

Floor & Table Lamps

Floor and table lamps are standalone,
portable light fixtures that provide localized task or
ambient lighting. Some lamps have shades to
diffuse light, others are designed to light a specific
small area. Lamps are available in integrated LED
and incandescent, and range from traditional to
ultra-modern.

Outdoor Lighting
Outdoor lighting provides a welcoming first
impression for visitors as well as practical
illumination for security and outdoor activities.
Nowadays, residential landscape lighting is typically
small-scale, low-voltage, and LED. Decorative
sconces, pendants, and post lights are typically line-
voltage and come in a variety of styles and sizes.
PAINT FINNISHES

High Gloss
The most durable and easy to clean of all paint sheens, high-gloss paint is hard,
ultra-shiny, and light-reflecting. Think appliance-paint tough.
High gloss is a good choice for areas that sticky fingers touch — cabinets, trim,
and doors. High-gloss, however, is too much shine for interior walls. And like a Spandex
dress, high gloss shows every bump and roll, so don’t skimp on prep work.

Practical application: kitchens, door, and window trim

Durability: very high

Semi-Gloss
Good for rooms where moisture, drips, and grease stains challenge walls. Also
great for trim work that takes a lot of abuse.

Practical application: kitchens, bathrooms, trim, chair rails

Durability: high

Satin
Has a yummy luster, which, despite the name, is often described as velvety. It’s
easy to clean, making it excellent for high-traffic areas. Its biggest flaw is it reveals
application flaws, such as roller or brush strokes. Touch-ups later can be tricky.

Practical application: family rooms, foyers, hallways, kids' bedrooms

Durability: high

Eggshell
Between satin and flat on the sheen (and durability) scale is eggshell, named
because of its essentially flat (no-shine) finish with little luster, like a chicken’s egg.
Eggshell covers wall imperfections well and is a great finish for gathering spaces that don’t
get a lot of bumps and scuffs.

Practical application: dining rooms, living rooms

Durability: medium

Flat or Matte
A friend to walls that have something to hide, flat/matte soaks up, rather than
reflects, light. It has the most pigment and will provide the most coverage, which translates
to time and money savings. However, it’s tough to clean without taking paint off with the
grime.

Practical application: adults' bedrooms and other interior rooms that won’t be
roughed up by kids
Durability: medium-low

DOOR MATERIALS
Fiberglass Doors
These types of doors are meant to last a long time and are scratch resistant. A fun
thing to know about fiberglass is that it comes in various colors and is easy to repaint if
needed. If you need something else to match your home décor with, you can even pair a
fiberglass door with wooden cladding. Wooden cladding is an extra layer of wood or timber
used to trap out heat, and is also soundproof. Using wood cladding is aesthetically
appealing and is ideal for a functioning home.

A low-maintenance type of door, fiberglass contains resin that helps it withstand

the cold during the winter and won’t expand as much when encountering bad weather. As
stated above, fiberglass can be painted over and won’t face any problems with the
weather.

Aluminum Doors
 Aluminum is a widely popular door to use. Not only is it affordable and as durable
as fiberglass, but it is impervious to insects. An aluminum door can last for years and can
hold a big piece of glass. Aluminum doors are viewed as modern and can be more
affordable than other materials like wood that would need to be replaced every few years.
If you are thinking about painting the door or walls, any color will go with aluminum.

Like fiberglass doors, aluminum is a weather-resistant material that can withstand

any conditions and can be used for years to come. Aluminum doors of today are more
energy-efficient and are a much more modern approach to use for entry.

Wooden Doors
This type of door would need replacing every 20 years or so, depending on the
conditions of the entry. Wooden doors are still popular, especially since they add character
to the home. There are many styles of wooden doors to choose from, especially ones that
have a particular glass style that piques your interest.

Wooden doors still need some upkeep, but that doesn’t mean that they aren’t
versatile. Nowadays, you can paint over a door, and even maintenance is much easier
than worrying about a wooden frame. A wooden door will need to be wiped to help avoid
any rot or decay from forming. Even when you are on the coast or in a warm climate, you
should be wiping off any wooden doors that might have been exposed to salty air. When
this happens, you will need to wipe it. If this does become much work, there is a better
alternative to the classic wooden door look, and that is wood-clad fiberglass. Wood-clad
fiberglass is a step up from traditional, and it’s better at keeping cold air out.

A Vinyl Door
Vinyl is the new wooden door. Vinyl doors are a more modern approach to effective
door materials that help keep elements out and improve energy consumption. You will
often find that vinyl doors are used for patios as swinging or sliding doors. Vinyl doors are
the next best thing if you are looking for increased versatility.

Vinyl is a durable material to use and will save you money on heat, and it won’t
interfere with your air conditioning. This type of material is excellent because any marks
or scratches won’t be visible to others since vinyl doors are all the same color. A vinyl door
is also recyclable and can be repurposed. Not only is it durable, but it’s also
environmentally friendly!

A Steel Door
Steel and aluminum are different types. While aluminum is a lovely aesthetic, steel
doors will provide you with the best kind of security for your home. However, like aluminum
and fiberglass doors, steel doors are inexpensive and more durable than other door
materials. However, the only downside is that any dents or scratches caused to the door
will be visible.

A Wrought Iron Door

A popular and modern type of door is wrought iron. Albeit common to see as patio
doors or front doors, they are a fantastic approach when looking for style and security.
Wrought iron doors can be custom-made and energy-efficient, as the windowpanes are
used to attract and allow a better flow of natural light to flood into a room.

A Solid Core Timber Door

Commonly seen in front entrances, this door is made from whole pieces of timber
constructed into big, heavy-duty doors. This type of door helps a lot with security,
insulation, and soundproofing. This type of door is customizable and comes in a variety of
different colors. A solid core timber door is also easy to install. Despite its size, a solid core
timber door is easy to carry.

A Glass Door
Glass doors are a difficult type of door to place since they are breakable. However,
given the increased durability of glass doors, they make excellent doors for side entrances,
your patio, or your balcony. Glass doors are energy efficient and suitable for the
environment. Even though they aren’t that great for security, they do allow light to shine
 through. Glass doors can also help with reducing sound and are very cost-effective. Glass
doors aren’t only glass; they can also come with small or big wooden frames that border
around the glass, and they can even come with fiber frames.

Composite Door

Composite doors are a combination of plastic, wood, and insulation materials. The
primary benefit of composite doors is their excellent thermal qualities. Moreover, most
composite doors can withstand extreme weather conditions, so the doors are ideal for all
climatic situations.
You can also paint composite doors to resemble wooden doors. Composite doors
are also available in a wide range of colors.
However, composite doors are often expensive. The high cost is due to complex
insulation foams that are part of the doors.

GLAZING
Purpose of glazing
Glazing helps insulate the interiors from the exterior. This results in lesser energy
consumption and ensures a constant temperature difference between indoors and outdoors.
Glazing allows heat retention during winters and the reflection of heat during summers. An
additional layer of glass in multi-pane windows helps reduce noise levels. This is another major
benefit of glazing. Multi-pane windows are tougher to break. Thus, it ensures safety and security
for the inhabitants of the house.

Types of glazing
Traditionally, single-glazed windows, comprising a single glass pane, have been
used in buildings. However, more varieties are available now.

Single glass glazing

Single glazed glass windows comprise a single layer of glass. Such windows allow
more heat loss and maximum transmission of natural light. The demand for energy-
efficient glazing systems has increased due to climate change, resulting in changing
temperatures and weather patterns.

Double glass glazing

Double glazing windows are designed with two glass panes, facilitating better
insulation and noise control. Additional insulation is achieved due to the gap between the
two layers of glass. These windows help maintain indoor conditions by retaining heat,
leading to energy efficiency. However, the ability to let in natural light is similar to that of
single glazed glass windows. Buildings with single-glazed windows can be retrofitted by
installing an additional glass pane.

Triple glass glazing

Triple glass glazing windows provide maximum energy efficiency as they comprise
three glass panes. The presence of additional panes helps in noise reduction. They work
better in providing insulation compared to single pane glass windows. Such windows are
preferred for constructing French windows or large-sized windows, ensuring improved
protection.

Based on their applications in architecture, glazings are classified into following categories:

Tempered or toughened glass

Tempered glass, also known as toughened glass, is a type of glass produced
through heat or chemical treatment, thus, gaining more strength than ordinary glass. When
this type of glass breaks, it results in tiny granular pieces rather than uneven shapes with
sharp edges.
 Applications: It is used widely in vehicle windows, aquariums, refrigerator trays,
bullet-resistant glass surfaces, cookware, bathroom shower doors, mobile phone screen
guards, etc.

Laminated glass
Laminated glass is produced from glass layers held together with polymer
interlayer, forming a permanent bond. When the glass breaks, the interlayers hold the
glass intact by forming a cracking pattern and prevent it from shattering into pieces. The
interlayers are created under heat and pressure, providing high strength to the material.

Applications: The material is popularly used in automobile windshields, skylight

glazing, display cabinets in jewellery stores, aquariums, glass staircases, floors and roofs.
It is also used in buildings prone to natural disasters like hurricanes.

Annealed glass or float glass

Float glass refers to a glass sheet manufactured from floating molten glass. It
comprises raw materials such as limestone, sand, dolomite, soda, and salt cake, melted
in a furnace and poured into a chamber having a bed of molten metal like tin. Annealed
glass is made to cool in a slow and controlled manner.

Applications: Float glass is used for designing modern windows and doors,
furniture, automobile glass, and mirrors. Float glass materials are further processed to
create specialised glass materials, including laminated safety glass, frosted glass,
toughened glass, and soundproof glass.

Clear or tinted glass

Glass can be clear or tinted. Tinted glass surfaces are coated with a translucent
film that helps reject sunlight, thus, helping to enhance energy efficiency.

Applications: Tinted glass is used to provide protection against UV radiation. It is

used for glass doors, shower screens, and in office spaces.

Low-emissivity (Low-E) glass

This type of glass has a coating done on one or more glass surfaces to lower its
emissivity to reflect more infra-red radiations rather than absorb them. Thus, it helps in
controlling the heat loss in cooler climates and reducing heat inside a building during the
hotter climatic conditions.

Applications: Low-e glasses are preferred where there is high demand for
energy-efficient glass. They help lower the heating and cooling costs in modern buildings.

Other forms of glass include textured, frosted, and stained glass mainly used for aesthetic
or safety purposes.

Energy-efficient glass options for windows

If you are looking for an energy-efficient glass for your home, it is essential to understand
the concept of low emissivity glass. A low emissivity glass has the potential to prevent sun’s rays
from escaping from the room or it can reflect the rays and stop the heat from entering. Low
emissivity glass is classified into:

Low e hard coat: A hard coating is applied when manufacturing the glass. While
the glass is very hot and flexible, it is sprayed with a coating and then chemically bonded
into the glass surface. It can be used as a single pane of glass within a building, known
as ‘single glaze, which is much more robust.
Low e soft coat: On the other hand, low e soft coat, cannot be used as a single
glaze window. Typically, it features within a double glaze configuration. A soft coating is
sprayed onto the glass after the production process and once the pane has cooled down.
It offers better energy efficiency, but it is not robust.

When selecting glass for better energy efficiency, it is essential to consider the climate you
live in. If you reside in a hotter climate, energy efficiency is mainly about allowing as much heat
into the house as possible. Double-glazed windows with low e glass is an ideal option. On the
other hand, single glazed windows with tint glass on the outside part of the window is a good
option. This configuration allows heat into your home before trapping the heat on the inside of the
house.

Noise-reducing glass for windows

Soundproof type of glass for windows, such as uPVC windows, help in preventing noise
from entering the house. Acoustic insulation windows come in a wide range of sizes and
thicknesses. They can be installed in aluminium or wooden windows.

Durability of different glass options for windows

There are different types of glasses such as toughened or tempered glass, laminated glass
and plate glass. Toughened glass is made by using controlled thermal or chemical treatment
processes, which increases the strength of the glass compared to traditional ‘plate’ glass. When
tempered, the outer surface tends to compress while the inner surface gets tension and makes it
resistant to breakage. The laminated glass holds together when it is shuttered and remains in the
frame. The interlayer made of polyvinyl butyric (PVB) keeps it together and prevents it from
crumbling into smaller particles. Plate glass, on the other hand, is known to be least durable and
most breakable type of glass.